1.
Writing system
–
A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
Writing system
–
Writing systems
Writing system
–
Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts
Writing system
–
Chinese characters (漢字) are morpho-syllabic. Each one represents a syllable with a distinct meaning, but some characters may have multiple meanings or pronunciations
Writing system
–
A Specimen of typefaces and styles, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia
2.
Swedish language
–
Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
Swedish language
–
The initial page of the first complete copy of
Västgötalagen, the
law code of
Västergötland, from c. 1280. It is one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the
Latin script.
Swedish language
–
Major Swedish-speaking areas
Swedish language
–
Front page of
Gustav Vasa 's Bible from 1541, using
Fraktur. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in
Uppsala. 1541".
Swedish language
–
August Strindberg, one of the most influential writers in modern Swedish literature.
3.
Alphabet
–
An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets
Alphabet
–
Edward Bernard 's "Orbis eruditi", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689.
Alphabet
–
Writing systems
Alphabet
–
A Specimen of
typeset fonts and
languages, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Alphabet
–
Codex Zographensis in the
Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval
Bulgaria
4.
Quisling
–
The word originates from the surname of the Norwegian war-time leader Vidkun Quisling, who headed a domestic Nazi collaborationist regime during the Second World War. Use of Quislings surname as a term predates the Second World War, Quisling was at this point in the process of establishing the Nasjonal Samling party, a fascist party modelled on the German Nazi Party. Further uses of the term were made by Aksel Sandemose, in an article in Dagbladet in 1934. In English, J. R. R. Tolkien used the term in On Fairy-Stories, the term was widely introduced to an English-speaking audience by the British newspaper The Times. It published an editorial on the 19th April 1940 titled Quislings everywhere, in which it was asserted that To writers, if they had been ordered to invent a new word for traitor. They could hardly have hit upon a brilliant combination of letters. Aurally it contrives to suggest something at once slippery and tortuous, the Daily Mail picked up the term four days after The Times editorial was published. In the article The War Illustrated potential Quislings among the Dutch during the German invasion of the Netherlands were mentioned, subsequently, the BBC brought the word into common use internationally. The then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill used the term during an address to the Allied Delegates at St and he used the term again in an address to both houses of Congress in the United States of America on 26 December 1941. And still more fiercely burn the fires of hatred and contempt for the filthy Quislings whom he has suborned, the term subsequently entered the language and became a target for political cartoonists. In the United States it was used often, also, in a 1966 Peanuts comic strip, Linus tries to hide in Snoopys doghouse only to have the beagle rat him out. Linus shouts at Snoopy as Linus sister Lucy drags him away, the word has also been applied to Communist figures who participated in the establishment of Communist regimes. As an illustration, the renegade socialist Zdeněk Fierlinger of Czechoslovakia was frequently derided as Quislinger for his collaboration with the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the back-formed verb to quisle also gave rise to a much less common version of the noun, quisler. Despite this, the noun has survived and is still in some use and it appeared in 2008 and 2009 in articles in The New York Times, Die Zeit and The Times. In contrast, the verb, to quisle, has largely disappeared from contemporary usage. In the film Edge of Darkness, about the Resistance in Norway, I dont think your victory is assured just yet. Despite all the quislings you can recruit, and I dont think therell be all that many, at the very end of Robert A. In E. E. Knights series, Vampire Earth, quislings are humans who work for the vampire overlords, helping them to maintain their police state
Quisling
–
Vidkun Quisling,
Heinrich Himmler,
Josef Terboven, and
Nikolaus von Falkenhorst seated in front of officers of the Waffen-SS, German Army and Air Force in 1941
5.
Quilting
–
Quilting is the process of sewing two or more layers of fabric together to make a thicker padded material, usually to create a quilt or quilted garment. Typically quilting is done with three layers, the top fabric or quilt top, batting or insulating material and backing material, the process of quilting uses a needle and thread to join two or more layers of material to make a quilt. The quilters hand or sewing machine passes the needle and thread through all layers, the process is repeated across the entire area where quilting is wanted. Rocking, straight or running stitches are used with these stitches being purely functional or decorative. Quilting is done to create bed spreads, art quilt wall hangings, clothing, Quilting can make a project thick, or with dense quilting, can raise one area so that another stands out. The whole process of creating a quilt or quilted garment also involves other steps such as designing, piecing, appliqué, a person who works at quilting is termed a quilter. Quilting can be done by hand, via a sewing machine, Quilt stores often sell fabric, thread, patterns and other goods that are used for quilting. They often have group sewing and quilting classes where one can learn how to sew or quilt, the word quilt comes from the Latin culcita meaning a stuffed sack but it came into the English language from the French word cuilte. The origins of quilting remain unknown but sewing techniques of piecing, appliqué, the earliest known quilted garment is depicted on the carved ivory figure of a Pharaoh dating from the ancient Egyptian First Dynasty. In 1924 archaeologists discovered a quilted floor covering in Mongolia and they estimated its date as between 100 BC to 200 AD. Chinese patchwork continues as an folk art, there are numerous references to quilts in literature and inventories of estates. Crusaders brought quilted objects from the Middle East to Europe in the late 11th century, quilted garments known as gambesons were popular in the European Middle Ages. Knights wore them under their armor for comfort and sometimes as a garment to protect the metal armor from the weather. The earliest known surviving European bed quilt is from late fourteenth century Sicily and it is made of linen and padded with wool. The blocks across the center are scenes from the legend of Tristan, the quilt is 122 by 106 and is in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Quilting has been part of the tradition in Europe from about the 5th century. Early objects contain Egyptian cotton, which may indicate that Egyptian and Mediterranean trade provided a conduit for the technique, quilted objects were relatively rare in Europe until approximately the twelfth century, when quilted bedding and other items appeared after the return of the Crusaders from the Middle East. The medieval quilted gambeson, aketon and arming doublet were garments worn under or instead of armor of maille or plate armor and these developed into the later quilted doublet worn as part of fashionable European male clothing from the fourteenth to seventeenth century
Quilting
–
Quilter in
Bazaar of
Nishapur
Quilting
–
Women of
Gee's Bend, Alabama quilting, 2005
Quilting
–
Quilted skirt (silk, wool and cotton - 1770-1790), Jacoba de Jonge-collection MoMu, Antwerp / Photo by Hugo Maertens, Bruges.
Quilting
–
This early American wholecloth quilt was made in the Colonial period, c. 1760-1800. The blue resist fabric includes bold, fanciful botanical motifs. Collection of Bill Volckening.
6.
Qatar
–
Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign country located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its surrounded by the Arabian Gulf. A strait in the Arabian Gulf separates Qatar from the island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar, Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be regarded as a constitutional or a monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was approved in a referendum. In early 2017, Qatars total population was 2.6 million,313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.3 million expatriates, Qatar is a high income economy, backed by the worlds third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world, Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, the map also referenced a town named Cadara to the east of the peninsula. The term Catara was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which Katara emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling, eventually, the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the countrys name. In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced, while in the local dialect it is, Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula, Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Daasa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain, among the findings were 3,000,000 crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, in 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf
Qatar
–
Dot carvings at
Jebel Jassassiyeh, dating to c. 4000 BC.
Qatar
–
Flag
Qatar
–
A map of East Arabia in 1794.
Qatar
–
A partially restored section of the ruined town of
Zubarah.
7.
Fraktur
–
Fraktur is a calligraphic hand of the Latin alphabet and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. From this, Fraktur is sometimes contrasted with the Latin alphabet in northern European texts, similarly, the term Fraktur or Gothic is sometimes applied to all of the blackletter typefaces. Besides the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Fraktur includes the ß, vowels with umlauts, and the ſ. Some Fraktur typefaces also include a variant form of the letter r known as the r rotunda, most older Fraktur typefaces make no distinction between the majuscules I and J, even though the minuscules i and j are differentiated. One difference between the Fraktur and other blackletter scripts is that in the lower case o, the part of the bow is broken. In Danish texts composed in Fraktur, the letter ø was already preferred to the German, Fraktur types for printing were established by the Augsburg publisher Johann Schönsperger at the issuance of a series of Maximilians works such as his Prayer Book or the illustrated Theuerdank poem. In the 18th century, the German Theuerdank Fraktur was further developed by the Leipzig typographer Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf to create the typeset Breitkopf Fraktur, while over the succeeding centuries, most Central Europeans switched to Antiqua, German-speakers remained a notable holdout. Some books at that time used related blackletter fonts such as Schwabacher, however, the predominant typeface was the Normalfraktur and this move was hotly debated in Germany, where it was known as the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute. The shift affected mostly scientific writing in Germany, whereas most belletristic literature, the press was scolded for its frequent use of Roman characters under Jewish influence and German émigrés were urged to use only German script. This radically changed on January 3,1941, when Martin Bormann issued a circular to all public offices which declared Fraktur to be Judenlettern, German historian Albert Kapr has speculated that the régime had realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II. Even with the abolition of Fraktur, some publications include elements of it in headlines, very occasionally, academic works still used Fraktur in the text itself. Notably, Joachim Jeremiass work Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus was published in 1963 using Fraktur, more often, some ligatures ch, ck from Fraktur were used in antiqua-typed editions. That continued mostly up to the offset type period, Fraktur saw a brief resurgence after the War, but quickly disappeared in a Germany keen on modernising its appearance. In this modern decorative use, the rules about the use of long s and short s. Individual Fraktur letters are used in mathematics, which often denotes associated or parallel concepts by the same letter in different fonts. For example, a Lie group is denoted by G. A ring ideal might be denoted by a while an element is a ∈ a, the Fraktur c is also used to denote the cardinality of the continuum, that is, the cardinality of the real line. In model theory, A is used to denote an arbitrary model, in Unicode, Fraktur is treated as a font of the Latin alphabet, and is not encoded separately
Fraktur
–
A
Czech example of Fraktur: Title page of Česká mariánská muzika by
Adam Václav Michna z Otradovic (1647) ("Cżeská maryánska muzyka" by
old orthography)
Fraktur
–
A modern
sans-serif and four blackletter typefaces (left to right):
Textur(a),
Rotunda,
Schwabacher and Fraktur.
Fraktur
–
Front page of
Gustav Vasa 's Bible from 1541, using
Fraktur. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / All the Holy Scriptures / in Swedish. Printed in
Uppsala. 1541". (Note the use of
long s and "th", akin to English; it would later change to "d".)
Fraktur
–
Usage map: A map presenting the contemporary
German view of the extent of scripts around 1900. In reality only German-speaking countries, Estonia and Latvia still used Fraktur as the majority script at this time. Denmark had shifted to antiqua during the mid 19th century, and in Norway the majority of printed texts used antiqua around 1900.
8.
Antiqua (typeface class)
–
Antiqua /ˈæntɪkwə/ is a style of text used to mimic the hand. Antiqua typefaces are those designed between about 1470 and 1600, specifically those by Nicolas Jenson and the Aldine roman commissioned by Aldus Manutius, Antiqua letterforms were modelled on a synthesis of Roman inscriptional capitals and Carolingian writing. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles, writing, he said, should be simple, clear and orthographically correct, boccaccio was a great admirer of Petrarch, from Boccaccios immediate circle this post-Petrarchan semi-gothic revised hand spread to literati in Florence, Lombardy and the Veneto. A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing, the generator of the new style was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century. Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggios transcription of Ciceros Epistles to Atticus, by the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the lettera antica. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de Niccoli, in the late fifteenth century this chancery script in the Antique manner was further developed by humanists in Rome. Calligraphic forms of this chancery italic were popularized by the famous Roman writing master Ludovico Arrighi in the sixteenth century. Roman type has helped establish the remarkable resistance to change of the modern Latin alphabet, the term Antiqua later came to sometimes be used for Roman type in general as opposed to blackletter, as in the Antiqua-Fraktur dispute in the German-speaking world. An American designer Hermann Zapf - Zapf Renaissance Antiqua, created many different fonts over the years. Paul Renner also created the typeface Futura, Vojtěch Preissig, a Czech designer who did significant work on book and type design - created Preissig Antiqua for Czechoslovakia type designs. Designers in Czechoslovakia felt that they should have a specific typeface that represented the Czech design culture, Preissig created Preissig Antiqua roughly around the early 20th Century that would influence the style of print and type designs not only in Czechoslovakia, but also all over Europe in general. Blackletter Antiquas Germanic opposite is blackletter, in which the forms are broken or fractured. In 19th- and 20th-century Germany there was a dispute over whether German should be written in Antiqua or the highly developed Fraktur blackletter, in 1911, the German Reichstag rejected an official switch by only three votes,85 to 82. Hitler advocated a switch in 1934 but took no action until 1941 when a decree by Martin Bormann outlawed the use of blackletter in Germany in favour of Antiqua, Preissig Antiqua Made by Vojtěch Preissig, a type designer and writer. Renner Antiqua Made by Paul Renner, Revived by Patrick Strietzel Crafted at D. Stempel AG Foundry, Zapf Renaissance Antiqua Made by Hermann Zapf, Typeface Designer. Script typeface Bembo History of western typography Record type Roman type Typography Old-style figures Nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering 1957, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20427-8, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number, 57-13116
Antiqua (typeface class)
–
Antiqua
9.
World Wide Web
–
The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
World Wide Web
–
The NeXT Computer used by
Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN.
World Wide Web
–
The CERN
data center in 2010 housing some WWW servers
10.
Svenska Akademiens ordlista
–
Svenska Akademiens ordlista, abbreviated SAOL, is a glossary published every few years by the Swedish Academy. It is a volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. Traditionally it carries the motto of the Swedish Academy, Snille och Smak, whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change back to older spellings. Jos – juice is probably the most well-known instance, in 2015, the fourteenth edition was published. The history of SAOL is the history of orthography of the Swedish language, the edition was revised in 1703, known as the Swedish Bible of Carolus XII. The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 with the task of caring for Swedish literature and language, spelling evolved slowly in the 18th century and was largely based on etymology. Because of its relationship to English heart and German Herz. The word for woman was spelled qvinna, similar to English queen, the question words hvad, hvar, hvilken had a silent H, like English what, where, which still have. In 1801 the Academy published an official orthography, a shorter version for schools was published by Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, Svensk Rättstafnings-Lära in 1829. Already in the 1750s, voices had been raised to adopt spelling to pronunciation, public schools were made mandatory in Sweden by law in 1842 and the influence of school teachers increased, as did the pressure to reform Swedish spelling. The most radical reformists wanted to do away with all silent letters, a similar reform movement for Danish, which at this time was the written language also in Norway, was led by Rasmus Rask and his follower Niels Matthias Petersen. In 1869 a pan-Scandinavian orthography congress gathered in Stockholm, secretary for the Swedish section was Artur Hazelius, who in 1871 published the proceedings of the conference. The Academy was not pleased, and as a countermeasure Johan Erik Rydqvist published the first edition of SAOL in 1874, a second edition followed in the same year and new ones in 1875,1880 and the 5th edition in 1883, without much change. To further reform, a Swedish orthographic society was formed on November 28,1885, chaired by linguist Adolf Noreen, and published a journal Nystavaren. There was continued opposition, not least from Academy member Esaias Tegnér Jr. However, many of the proposed changes, many words spelled with E were changed to Ä, and under Q it was stated that Q may at will be replaced with K. By a government resolution on November 16,1889, the used in this edition of SAOL was to be used for teaching in Swedish highschools. This was a blow against the societys own dictionary published in 1886
Svenska Akademiens ordlista
–
The first thirteen editions of Svenska Akademiens ordlista
11.
Umlaut (diacritic)
–
The diaeresis, also spelled diæresis or dieresis and also known as the tréma or the umlaut, is a diacritical mark that consists of two dots placed over a letter, usually a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle, the diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics marking two distinct phonological phenomena. The diaeresis represents the phenomenon known as diaeresis or hiatus in which a vowel letter is not pronounced as part of a digraph or diphthong. The umlaut, in contrast, indicates a sound shift and these two diacritics originated separately, the diaeresis is considerably older. Nevertheless, in computer systems using Unicode, the umlaut and diaeresis diacritics are identical. The same symbol is used as a diacritic in other cases. For example, in Albanian and Tagalog ë represents a schwa, the word diaeresis is from Greek diaíresis, meaning division, separation, or distinction. Umlaut is the German name of both the Germanic umlaut, a sound-law also known as i-mutation, and the corresponding diacritic. The diaeresis indicates that two adjoining letters that would form a digraph and be pronounced as one are instead to be read as separate vowels in two syllables. The diaeresis indicates that a vowel should be pronounced apart from the letter that precedes it, for example, in the spelling coöperate, the diaeresis reminds the reader that the word has four syllables co-op-er-ate, not three, *coop-er-ate. In British English this usage has been considered obsolete for many years, nevertheless, it is still used by the US magazine The New Yorker. In English language texts it is perhaps most familiar in the spellings naïve, Noël, and Chloë, languages such as Dutch, Catalan, French, Galician and Spanish make regular use of the diaeresis. However, it was used to indicate that a vowel formed its own syllable, as in ηϋ. In Modern Greek, αϊ and οϊ represent the diphthongs /ai̯/ and /oi̯/, and εϊ the disyllabic sequence /e. i/, whereas αι, οι, and ει transcribe the simple vowels /e/, /i/, and /i/. The diacritic can be the one on a vowel, as in ακαδημαϊκός akadēmaïkos academic, or in combination with an acute accent. The diaeresis was borrowed for this purpose in several languages of western and southern Europe, among them Occitan, Catalan, French, Dutch, Welsh, when a vowel in Greek was stressed, it did not assimilate to a preceding vowel but remained as a separate syllable. Such vowels were marked with an accent such as the acute, for example, the Portuguese words saia skirt and the imperfect saía I used to leave differ in that the sequence /ai/ forms a diphthong in the former, but is a hiatus in the latter. In Catalan, the digraphs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, to indicate exceptions to this rule, a diaeresis mark is placed on the second vowel, without this the words raïm and diürn would be read * and *, respectively
Umlaut (diacritic)
–
Letters with umlaut on a
German computer keyboard.
Umlaut (diacritic)
–
New and old forms of umlaut
12.
German orthography
–
German orthography is the orthography used in writing the German language, which is largely phonemic. However, it shows instances of spellings that are historic or analogous to other spellings rather than phonemic. The pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling once the rules are known. Today, German orthography is regulated by the Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung, the modern German alphabet consists of the twenty-six letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet, ^ In the spelling alphabet, for ⟨ch⟩, Charlotte is used. For the trigraph ⟨sch⟩, Schule is used, German uses letter-diacritic combinations using the umlaut and one ligature, but they do not constitute distinct letters in the alphabet. Capital ẞ exists, but has limited use. In most cases, SS is used instead, in the past, long s was used as well, as in English and many other European languages. Although the diacritic letters represent distinct sounds in German phonology, they are almost universally not considered to be part of the alphabet, almost all German speakers consider the alphabet to have the 26 cardinal letters above and will name only those when asked to say the alphabet. The diacritic letters ä, ö and ü are used to indicate the presence of umlauts, in German Kurrent writing, the superscripted e was simplified to two vertical dashes, which have further been reduced to dots in both handwriting and German typesetting. Although the two dots of umlaut look like those in the diaeresis, the two have different functions, however, such transcription should be avoided if possible, especially with names. Names often exist in different variants, such as Müller and Mueller, automatic back-transcribing is not only wrong for names. Consider, for example, das neue Buch and this should never be changed to das neü Buch, as the second e is completely separate from the u and does not even belong in the same syllable, neue is neu followed by an e, an inflection. The word neü does not exist in German, similar cases are Coesfeld and Bernkastel-Kues. To separate the au diphthong, as well as others, which are graphically composed of potentially umlaut-holding letters. Swiss typewriters and computer keyboards do not allow easy input of uppercase letters with umlauts because their positions are taken by the most frequent French diacritics, uppercase umlauts were dropped because they are less common than lowercase ones. Geographical names in particular are supposed to be written with A, O, U plus e except Österreich, the omission can cause some inconvenience since the first letter of every noun is capitalized in German. Unlike in Hungarian, the shape of the umlaut diacritics – especially when handwritten – is not important. They will be whether they look like dots, acute accents, vertical bars, a horizontal bar, a breve, a tiny N or e, a tilde
German orthography
–
The German sign "Delicacy red cabbage." Left cap is with old orthography, right with new.
German orthography
–
For the international agreement about spelling rules among most German-speaking countries, see
German orthography reform of 1996.
13.
Diaeresis (diacritic)
–
The diaeresis, also spelled diæresis or dieresis and also known as the tréma or the umlaut, is a diacritical mark that consists of two dots placed over a letter, usually a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle, the diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics marking two distinct phonological phenomena. The diaeresis represents the phenomenon known as diaeresis or hiatus in which a vowel letter is not pronounced as part of a digraph or diphthong. The umlaut, in contrast, indicates a sound shift and these two diacritics originated separately, the diaeresis is considerably older. Nevertheless, in computer systems using Unicode, the umlaut and diaeresis diacritics are identical. The same symbol is used as a diacritic in other cases. For example, in Albanian and Tagalog ë represents a schwa, the word diaeresis is from Greek diaíresis, meaning division, separation, or distinction. Umlaut is the German name of both the Germanic umlaut, a sound-law also known as i-mutation, and the corresponding diacritic. The diaeresis indicates that two adjoining letters that would form a digraph and be pronounced as one are instead to be read as separate vowels in two syllables. The diaeresis indicates that a vowel should be pronounced apart from the letter that precedes it, for example, in the spelling coöperate, the diaeresis reminds the reader that the word has four syllables co-op-er-ate, not three, *coop-er-ate. In British English this usage has been considered obsolete for many years, nevertheless, it is still used by the US magazine The New Yorker. In English language texts it is perhaps most familiar in the spellings naïve, Noël, and Chloë, languages such as Dutch, Catalan, French, Galician and Spanish make regular use of the diaeresis. However, it was used to indicate that a vowel formed its own syllable, as in ηϋ. In Modern Greek, αϊ and οϊ represent the diphthongs /ai̯/ and /oi̯/, and εϊ the disyllabic sequence /e. i/, whereas αι, οι, and ει transcribe the simple vowels /e/, /i/, and /i/. The diacritic can be the one on a vowel, as in ακαδημαϊκός akadēmaïkos academic, or in combination with an acute accent. The diaeresis was borrowed for this purpose in several languages of western and southern Europe, among them Occitan, Catalan, French, Dutch, Welsh, when a vowel in Greek was stressed, it did not assimilate to a preceding vowel but remained as a separate syllable. Such vowels were marked with an accent such as the acute, for example, the Portuguese words saia skirt and the imperfect saía I used to leave differ in that the sequence /ai/ forms a diphthong in the former, but is a hiatus in the latter. In Catalan, the digraphs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, to indicate exceptions to this rule, a diaeresis mark is placed on the second vowel, without this the words raïm and diürn would be read * and *, respectively
Diaeresis (diacritic)
–
Letters with umlaut on a
German computer keyboard.
14.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
15.
Diacritic
–
A diacritic – also diacritical mark, diacritical point, or diacritical sign – is a glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω, diacritic is primarily an adjective, though sometimes used as a noun, whereas diacritical is only ever an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute and grave, are often called accents, diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters. The main use of marks in the Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là versus la that are both pronounced /la/, in Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other alphabetic systems, diacritical marks may perform other functions, vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama and the Arabic sukūn mark the absence of a vowel, in the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new and this varies from language to language, and may vary from case to case within a language. ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels, not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, the tittle on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the minims of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, the j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling todays acute accent to a flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today, tanwīn symbols, Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, waṣla, Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk, ḥarakāt, fatḥa kasra ḍamma sukūn The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes, They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence, at the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, for verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods
Diacritic
–
Hunminjeongeum, the Korean alphabet
Diacritic
–
Blackboard used in class at
Harvard shows students' efforts at placing the
ü and
acute accent diacritic used in
Spanish orthography.
16.
Danish and Norwegian alphabet
–
The Danish and Norwegian alphabet, called the Dano-Norwegian alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and has consisted of the following 29 letters since 1917 and 1948. The letters c, q, w, x and z are not used in the spelling of indigenous words and they are rarely used in Norwegian, where loan words routinely have their orthography adapted to the native sound system. Conversely, Danish has a tendency to preserve the original spelling of loan words. In particular, a c that represents /s/ is almost never normalized to s in Danish, many words originally derived from Latin roots retain c in their Danish spelling, for example Norwegian sentrum vs Danish centrum. The foreign letters also sometimes appear in the spelling of otherwise-indigenous family names, for example, many of the Danish families that use the surname Skov spell it Schou. Standard Danish orthography has no diacritics, but allows the use of an acute accent for disambiguation. Most often, an accent on e marks a stressed syllable in one of a pair of homographs that have different stresses, for example en dreng versus én dreng or alle versus allé. Less often, any vowel including å may be accented to indicate stress on a word, either to clarify the meaning of the sentence, for example, jeg stód op, versus jeg stod óp, hunden gør, versus hunden gǿr. Most often, however, such distinctions are made using typographical emphasis or simply left to the reader to infer from the context, and the use of accents in such cases may appear dated. A common context in which the acute accent is preferred is to disambiguate en/et and én/ét in central places in official written materials, such as advertising. Norwegian also uses several letters with diacritic signs, é, è, ê, ó, ò, â, the diacritic signs are not compulsory, but can be added to clarify the meaning of words that would otherwise be identical. One example is ein gut versus éin gut, loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ü, á, à and é, following the conventions of the original language. The Norwegian vowels æ, ø and å never take diacritics, the diacritic signs in use include the acute accent, grave accent and the circumflex. Françoise provençalsk Curaçao The letter Å was introduced in Norwegian in 1917, the new letter came from the Swedish alphabet, where it has been in official use since the 18th century. Similarly, the letter Å was introduced in Danish in 1948, the initial proposal was to place it first, before A. Its place as the last letter of the alphabet, as in Norwegian, was decided in 1955, the former digraph Aa still occurs in personal names, and in Danish geographical names. In Norway, geographical names tend to follow the current orthography, family names may not follow modern orthography, and as such retain the digraph aa where å would be used today. Aa remains in use as a transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons, Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A, meaning that while a is the first letter of the alphabet, aa is the last
Danish and Norwegian alphabet
–
Swedish computer keyboard with white markings for Swedish characters, red for Norwegian (Ø, Æ), light green for Danish (Æ, Ø) and blue-green for
Estonian (Ü, Õ, §, ½).
17.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
The official chart of the IPA as of 2005. Click to enlarge. The proper symbols for upstep and downstep are not available in this font, and have been substituted.
International Phonetic Alphabet
–
X-ray photos show the sounds [i, u, a, ɑ]
18.
Voiced retroflex stop
–
The voiced retroflex stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɖ⟩, like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA symbol is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of a dee. Many Indian languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between plain and murmured, features of the voiced retroflex stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is retroflex, which means it is articulated subapical. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, african D Index of phonetics articles
Voiced retroflex stop
19.
Retroflex lateral approximant
–
The retroflex lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɭ⟩, the retroflex lateral approximant contrasts phonemically with its voiceless counterpart /ɭ̊/ in Iaai and Toda. In both of these languages it also contrasts with more anterior /l̥, l/, which are dental in Iaai and its place of articulation is retroflex, which prototypically means it is articulated subapical, but more generally, it means that it is postalveolar without being palatalized. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in the following transcriptions, diacritics may be used to distinguish between apical and laminal
Retroflex lateral approximant
20.
Retroflex nasal
–
The retroflex nasal is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɳ⟩, like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA symbol is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of an en. Features of the nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is retroflex, which means it is articulated subapical. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is a nasal consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose, either exclusively or in addition to through the mouth. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
Retroflex nasal
21.
Voiceless retroflex sibilant
–
The voiceless retroflex sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʂ⟩, like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA letter is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook to the bottom of the ess. A distinction can be made between laminal, apical, and sub-apical articulations, some scholars transcribe the laminal variant of this sound as /ʃ/, even though it is not palatalized. In such cases the voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant is transcribed /ʃʲ/ and its place of articulation is retroflex, which prototypically means it is articulated subapical, but more generally, it means that it is postalveolar without being palatalized. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in the following transcriptions, diacritics may be used to distinguish between apical and laminal
Voiceless retroflex sibilant
22.
Voiceless retroflex stop
–
The voiceless retroflex stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʈ⟩, like all the retroflex consonants, the IPA symbol is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of tee. In many fonts lowercase tee already has a hook. Features of the voiceless stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is retroflex, which means it is articulated subapical. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Index of phonetics articles Phonology of English, including dialectical variations
Voiceless retroflex stop
23.
Sj-sound
–
In Swedish phonology, the sj-sound is a voiceless fricative phoneme found in most dialects. It has a variety of realisations, whose precise phonetic characterisation is a matter of debate, the sound should not be confused with the Swedish tj sound, often spelled tj or k in Swedish. The sound is transcribed ⟨ɧ⟩ in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the International Phonetic Association describes as a simultaneous and, but this claim is disputed among phoneticians, including at least one former president of the IPA. The closest English phoneme is /ʃ/ ⟨sh⟩, however, the phone ⟨wh⟩ present in some English dialects is an approximation as well. Its place of articulation is disputed and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm and this sound has been reported in certain dialects of Swedish, where it is most often known as the sj-sound. Its place of articulation varies over Swedish regions and is not agreed upon and it has been variously found to be the following, velar and postalveolar, meaning it is articulated simultaneously with the tongue dorsum approximating the velum and just behind the teeth. However, doubly articulated fricatives are difficult to pronounce or to hear. Lindblad describes one of two variants of Swedish /ɧ/ as labiodental with simultaneous velarization and protrusion of the upper lip. He does not use the symbol ⟨ɧ⟩ for this allophone, lindblad describes the second common variant of Swedish /ɧ/ as velar. The difference between it and the standard IPA sound is not clear, but it may have less friction, or be further forward, a number of intermediate possibilities between these extremes. Other articulations have been described as well, with no obvious standard emerging, the acoustic difference between and the Kölsch is difficult to perceive but the articulation is clearly distinct. Whether or not there is a relation between the Swedish /ɧ/, and the Kölsch /ɧ/, is not known, while none seems to have been established, comments suggest that, the choice of ⟨ɧ⟩ might well have been based upon a misunderstanding. Doubtlessly, the Kölsch /ɧ/ is not doubly articulated and even contrasts with a slightly velarized /ʃ/, some phoneticians suggest contrasting /ʃ/ with /ɕ/, as is done in Polish, but this is not established practice, and may need further research. Index of phonetics articles Rheinische Dokumenta
Sj-sound
24.
Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative
–
The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some oral languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɕ⟩ and it is the sibilant equivalent of the voiceless palatal fricative. The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative does not occur in any dialect of English. However, it is the realization of /ʃ/ in the Ghanaian variety. Its place of articulation is alveolo-palatal and this means that, Its place of articulation is postalveolar, meaning that the tongue contacts the roof of the mouth in the area behind the alveolar ridge. Its tongue shape is laminal, meaning that it is the blade that contacts the roof of the mouth. It is heavily palatalized, meaning that the middle of the tongue is bowed and raised towards the hard palate and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, index of phonetics articles Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant
Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative
25.
Jalousie window
–
A jalousie window US /ˈdʒæləsiː/ or louvre window is a window composed of parallel glass, acrylic, or wooden louvres set in a frame. The louvres are joined onto a track so that they may be tilted open and shut in unison to control airflow, usually by turning a crank. A patent for a basic louvered window was applied for in the US by a Joseph W. Walker, of Malden, Massachusetts, in 1900 and issued November 26,1901, jalousie windows maximise natural ventilation by allowing airflow through the entire window area. Historically made only of wooden slats or glass panes, they are suited to mild-winter climates. With mass production became very common throughout homes in mid-20th-century Florida, Hawaii, southern California, the deep South. In cooler regions they were adopted to porches and sunrooms. They were also used in mobile homes during the 1950s and 1960s before most manufacturers began switching to sliding. An additional advantage of jalousie windows is the ability to them at least partway open in most heavy rains. On the downside, traditional style louvered windows offer poor overall resistance to water penetration and they also are difficult to positively secure, as their slats are easily and silently removed. Modern jalousie windows, however, may be high-performance architectural windows, jalousies with extremely wide louvered panels are sometimes called awning windows. Often confused in communication & conversation, the key difference between louvers & jalouises is that louvers are fixed position, jalousies are installed within a movable adjustable mechanism which positions all jalouises into any parallel position with respect to each other
Jalousie window
–
Glass jalousie windows and storm door, common on mid-20th-century homes in warm climates.
Jalousie window
–
Wooden jalousies were chosen in 1946 by
Ian Fleming for his Jamaica estate,
Goldeneye
26.
Front vowel
–
Front vowels are sometimes also called bright vowels because they are perceived as sounding brighter than the back vowels. Near-front vowels are essentially a type of front vowels, no language is known to contrast front and near-front vowels based on frontness alone, rounded front vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-front in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the right of unrounded front vowels in the IPA vowel chart, in articulation, front vowels contrast with raised vowels and retracted vowels. In this conception, front vowels are a broader category than those listed in the IPA chart, including, raised or retracted vowels may be fronted by certain consonants, such as palatals and in some languages pharyngeals. For example, /a/ may be fronted to next to /j/ or /ħ/ and this change can be allophonic variation, or it can have become phonemic. English follows the French pattern, but without as much regularity, however, for native or early borrowed words affected by palatalization, English has generally altered the spelling after the pronunciation Back vowel List of phonetics topics
Front vowel
–
Front vowels are one of three articulatory dimensions of vowel space
27.
Back vowel
–
A back vowel is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are also called dark vowels because they are perceived as sounding darker than the front vowels. Near-back vowels are essentially a type of vowels, no language is known to contrast back and near-back vowels based on backness alone. In their articulation, back vowels do not form a single category, unrounded back vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-back in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the left of rounded vowels in the IPA vowel chart. Front vowel List of phonetics topics Relative articulation
Back vowel
28.
Eurasian magpie
–
The Eurasian magpie or common magpie is a resident breeding bird throughout Europe, much of Asia and northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family designated magpies, in Europe, magpie is used by English speakers as a synonym for the European magpie, the only other magpie in Europe is the Iberian magpie, which is limited to the Iberian peninsula. The Eurasian magpie is one of the most intelligent birds, the expansion of its nidopallium is approximately the same in its relative size as the brain of chimpanzees, orangutans and humans. The magpie was described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium of 1555, in 1758 Linnaeus included the species in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Corvus pica. The magpie was moved to a separate genus Pica by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760, Pica is the Classical Latin word for this magpie. The Eurasian magpie is almost identical in appearance to the North American black-billed magpie, an analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences published in 2003 confirmed that the black-billed magpie and the yellow-billed magpie were closely related to each other. The study also found that magpies in Korea are as different from the subspecies as they are to the North America magpie species. These results imply that the species Pica pica is not monophyletic, Magpies were originally known as simply pies. This comes from a root meaning pointed, in reference to either the beak or the tail. Pie as a term for the dates to the thirteenth century. The adult male of the subspecies, P. p. pica, is 44–46 cm in length. The graduated tail is black, glossed green and reddish purple. The legs and bill are black, the iris is dark brown, the plumage of the sexes is similar but females are slightly smaller. The tail feathers of both sexes are quite long, about 12-28 cm long, males of the nominate subspecies weigh 210–272 g while females weigh 182–214 g. The young resemble the adults, but are at first without much of the gloss on the sooty plumage, the young have the malar region pink, and somewhat clear eyes. The tail is shorter than the adults. The subspecies differ in their size, the amount of white on their plumage and the colour of the gloss on their black feathers. The northwest African race P. p. mauritanica differs from the subspecies in having a patch of blue bare skin behind the eye, no white patch on the rump
Eurasian magpie
–
Eurasian magpie
Eurasian magpie
–
Maghreb magpie (P. p. mauritanica) showing the characteristic blue patch behind the eye
Eurasian magpie
–
In flight
Eurasian magpie
–
P. p. bactriana in
Ladakh
29.
Kristianstad
–
Kristianstad is a city and the seat of Kristianstad Municipality, Skåne County, Sweden with 35,711 inhabitants in 2010. During the last 15 years, it has gone from a town to a developed commercial city, today attracting visitors in the summertime mainly from Germany, Denmark. The purpose of the town was to safeguard the eastern half of the Danish province of Scania against any future raids from Sweden in the north, one of these raids had sacked the nearby town of Vä in 1612. Vä then lost its charter and the people were moved to the new, the king also founded the town of Christianopel in eastern Blekinge to serve a similar purpose. This meant that the church was considerably larger than there was initially use for. Also in Christianstad the town planning of the Renaissance could be laid down for the first time at the foundation of the town and this makes the Kristianstad town centre of today exceptionally well-kept and easy to get around in. Pylyp Orlyk was after 1709 chosen as a Hetman in exile by the cossacks, while in Bender Orlyk wrote one of the first state constitutions in Europe. This Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk was confirmed by Charles XII and it also names him as the protector of Ukraine, after 1714 Orlyk now together with several other cossacks followed the Swedish king Charles XII to Sweden. Orlyk with his family and about 40 other Cossacks arrived in Ystad, after some months in Ystad they lived in the city of Kristianstad for some years. Orlyk wrote numerous proclamations and essays about Ukraine including the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, the citys coat of arms depicts two lions holding the King Christian IVs crowned insignia, the monogram C4. The coat of arms was slightly modified after the Swedish takeover following the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde in which the eastern third of Denmark was ceded to Sweden. The coat of arms is similar to the coat of arms of the former town of Christianopel in eastern Blekinge. Since 1971, the coat of arms is used by Kristianstad Municipality, Kristianstads coat of arms is one of the few coat of arms in the world depicting a foreign kings or queens coat of arms. A reason for the Swedes to continue using the old coat of arms could be its colours – blue, the city served as capital of Kristianstad County between 1719 and 1997. It now houses the administration and the parliament of the Skåne Regional Council. For a long time Kristianstad also was an important garrison town, the A3 Wendes Artillery Regiment. Also the town housed for years the so-called Scanian Fortification Brigade. The Wendes Artillery Regiment served with distinction in the Napoleonic Wars, one of Swedens higher courts of appeal was located in Kristianstad before being moved to Malmö in 1917
Kristianstad
–
Kristianstad
Kristianstad
–
Trinity Church (Heliga Trefaldighetskyrkan)
Kristianstad
–
Short-lived Danish capture of Kristianstad during the
Scanian War (1676), painting by
Claus Møinichen.
30.
Swedish phonology
–
Swedish has a large vowel inventory, with nine vowels distinguished in quality and to some degree quantity, making 17 vowel phonemes in most dialects. Swedish pronunciation of most consonants is similar to that of other Germanic languages, another notable feature is the pitch accent, which is unusual for European languages. There are 18 consonant phonemes of which /ɧ/ and /r/ show considerable variation depending on social and dialectal context. Contrary to the situation with Danish or Finnish, there is not a uniform nationwide spoken Standard Swedish, instead there are several regional standard varieties, i. e. the most intelligible or prestigious forms of spoken Swedish, each within its area. The differences between the regional dialects may be compared with those of General American, Australian English. In Sweden, the Central Swedish varieties often go under the name of rikssvenska Swedish has 9 vowels that, as many other Germanic languages, come in long. The length covaries with the quality of the vowels, as shown in the table below, with variants being more centered. Traditionally, length has been viewed as the distinction, with quality being secondary. No short vowels appear in open stressed syllables, the front vowels appear in rounded-unrounded pairs. Central Standard Swedish /ʉː/ is near-close near-front, in other dialects it may be central. /a/ has been described as central and front. Rounded vowels have two types of rounding, /ɵ/, /ʉː/, /ʊ/ and /uː/ are compressed, and /ʏ/, /yː/, /œ/ and its allophone, /øː/ and its pre-/r/ allophone, /ɔ/ and /oː/ are protruded. Type of rounding is the way of distinguishing /ʉː/ from /yː/. /ɛː/, /ɛ/, /øː/, and /œ/ are lowered to, and, respectively and these speakers often also pronounce pre-rhotic /øː/ and /œ/ even lower, i. e. and. This is especially true for the long allophone, also, the allophone is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the long /ɑː/. Words like fördömande and fördummande are then often pronounced similarly, if not identically, in Central Standard Swedish, unstressed /ɛ/ is slightly retracted, but is still a front vowel rather central. However, the pronunciation is commonly found in Southern Swedish. Therefore, begå to commit is pronounced in Central Standard Swedish, before /r/, southerners may use a back vowel
Swedish phonology
–
The vowel phonemes of Central Standard Swedish. From Engstrand (1999:140)
31.
Danish orthography
–
Danish orthography is the system used to write the Danish language. The oldest preserved examples of written Danish are in the Runic alphabet, Danish currently uses a 29-letter variant of Latin alphabet, identical to the Norwegian alphabet. The Danish alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and has consisted of the following 29 letters since 1980 when W was separated from V, in monomorphematic words vowels are usually short before two or more consonants + e. Vowels are usually long before a single consonant + e, in two consecutive vowels the stressed vowel is always long and the unstressed is always short. The letters c, q, w, x and z are not used in the spelling of foreign words, therefore, the phonemic interpretation of letters in loanwords depends on the donating language. However, Danish tends to preserve the original spelling of loan words, in particular, a c that represents /s/ is almost never normalized to s in Danish, as would most often happen in Norwegian. Many words originally derived from Latin roots retain c in their Danish spelling, the foreign letters also sometimes appear in the spelling of otherwise-indigenous family names. For example, many of the Danish families that use the surname Skov spell it Schou, standard Danish orthography has no compulsory diacritics, but allows the use of an acute accent for disambiguation. Most often, an accent on e marks a stressed syllable in one of a pair of homographs that have different stresses and it can also be part of the official spelling such as in allé or idé. Less often, any vowel except å may be accented to indicate stress on a word, either to clarify the meaning of the sentence, for example, jeg stód op, versus jeg stod óp, hunden gør, versus hunden gǿr. Most often, however, such distinctions are made using typographical emphasis or simply left to the reader to infer from the context, and the use of accents in such cases may appear dated. A common context in which the acute accent is preferred is to disambiguate en/et and én/ét in central places in official written materials such as advertising. Danish formerly used both ø and ö, though it was suggested to use ø for IPA ø and ö for IPA œ, earlier instead of aa the letter å or a ligature of two a was also used. In 1948 the letter å was re-introduced or officially introduced in Danish, the letter then came from the Swedish alphabet, where it has been in official use since the 18th century. The initial proposal was to place Å first in the Danish alphabet and its place as the last letter of the alphabet, as in Norwegian, was decided in 1955. The former digraph Aa still occurs in names, and in Danish geographical names. Aa remains in use as a transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons, Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A, meaning that while a is the first letter of the alphabet, aa is the last. The difference between the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Swedish uses the variant Ä instead of Æ, also, the collating order for these three letters is different, Å, Ä, Ö
Danish orthography
–
Danish keyboard with keys for Æ, Ø, and Å.
32.
Finnish orthography
–
Finnish orthography is based on the Latin script, and uses an alphabet derived from the Swedish alphabet, officially comprising 29 letters. The following table describes how each letter in the Finnish alphabet is spelled and pronounced separately, if the name of a consonant begins with a vowel, it can be pronounced and spelled either as a monosyllabic or bisyllabic word. In practice, the names of the letters are rarely spelled, the pronunciation instructions enclosed in slashes are broad transcriptions based on the IPA system. In notes, more narrow transcriptions are enclosed in square brackets, in addition, w is sometimes listed separately and after v, although officially it is merely a variant of the latter and can be alphabetized as v. The Finnish keyboard layout doesnt include š or ž, thus, in practice, only highly formal sources such as official texts, the main peculiarities in the Finnish alphabet are the two extra vowel letters ä and ö. Another informal term is skandit or skandimerkit, which is short for skandinaaviset merkit Scandinavian characters. The glyphs for ä and ö are derived from the similar looking German umlauted letters, the Germanic umlaut or convention of considering digraph ae equivalent to ä, and oe equivalent to ö is inapplicable in Finnish. Moreover, in Finnish, both ae and oe are vowel sequences, not single letters, and they have independent meanings. In handwritten text, the form of the extra marking may vary from a pair of dots to a pair of short vertical bars, to a single horizontal bar. In practice, almost any diacritic situated above the base glyph would probably be interpreted as a carelessly written pair of dots, however, in computerized character sets, these alternatives are incorrect. The front-vowel counterpart of u using the glyph y rather than ü is carried over from Swedish, and additionally avoids confusion in cursive script with ii, which is common in Finnish. In the Finnish writing system, some basic Latin letters are considered redundant, the pronunciation of these letters varies quite a lot. The redundant letters are replaced with more common alternatives in Finnish. They include c, q, and x, in addition, the Swedish å is redundant from the Finnish point of view, as its pronunciation is more or less equivalent to the Finnish way of pronouncing o. It is officially included in the Finnish alphabet so that keyboards etc. g, the letters include b, f, and g. From a historical point of view, even d could be said to belong to this group, the letters w and z could be classified into both of the aforementioned groups. The sound is not regarded as a phoneme in Finnish, but historically w was used to mark, likewise, the z is not native to Finnish, but z was formerly used to denote. It is still pronounced, but its pronunciation varies greatly, some speakers may pronounce it
Finnish orthography
–
The sign at the bus station of the Finnish town
Mynämäki, illustrating a variation of the letter Ä.
Finnish orthography
–
Ålandsbanken 'Bank of
Åland ' uses a stylized letter Å in its logotype.
33.
Icelandic orthography
–
Icelandic orthography is the way in which Icelandic words are spelt and how their spelling corresponds with their pronunciation. Icelanders call the ten letters, especially thorn and eth, séríslenskur. Eth is also used in Faroese, and while thorn is no longer used in any living language, it was used in many historical languages. Icelandic words never start with ð, which means the capital version Ð is mainly just used when words are spelled using all capitals, sometimes the glyphs are simplified when handwritten, for example æ may be written as ae, which can make it easier to write cursively. The alphabet consists of the following 32 letters, deleted letter The letters a, á, e, é, i, í, o, ó, u, ú, y, ý, æ and ö are considered vowels, and the remainder are consonants. The letters C, Q and W are only used in Icelandic in words of foreign origin, otherwise, c, qu, and w are replaced by k/s/ts, hv, and v respectively. The letter Z was used until 1973, when it was abolished, however, one of the most important newspapers in Iceland, Morgunblaðið, still uses it sometimes, and a secondary school, Verzlunarskóli Íslands has it in its name. It is also found in proper names, and loanwords such as pizza. Older people, who were educated before the abolition of the z sometimes also use it. While the letters C, Q, W, and Z are found on the Icelandic keyboard, they are used in Icelandic, they are used in some proper names of Icelanders. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. It is ultimately based heavily on a standard created in the early 12th century by a document referred to as The First Grammatical Treatise. The standard was intended for the common North Germanic language, Old Norse and it did not have much influence, however, at the time. The most defining characteristics of the alphabet were established in the old treatise, Use of the acute accent, Use of þ, also used in the Old English alphabet as the letter thorn. The later Rasmus Rask standard was basically a re-enactment of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent North Germanic conventions. Various old features, like ð, had not seen much use in the later centuries. Later 20th century changes are most notably the adoption of é, which had previously written as je. This section lists Icelandic letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them using a narrow International Phonetic Alphabet transcription, Icelandic vowels may be either long or short, but this distinction is only relevant in stressed syllables, unstressed vowels are neutral in quantitative aspect
Icelandic orthography
–
A handwriting extract; the Icelandic letters
ð &
þ are visible
Icelandic orthography
–
Thorn
Icelandic orthography
–
Features
34.
Norwegian orthography
–
Norwegian orthography is the method of writing the Norwegian language, of which there are two written standards, Bokmål and Nynorsk. Both standards use a 29-letter variant of Latin alphabet, the Norwegian alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and is identical to the Danish alphabet. Since 1917 it has consisted of the following 29 letters, the letters c, q, w, x and z are not used in the spelling of indigenous Norwegian words. They are rarely used, loanwords routinely have their orthography adapted to the sound system. Norwegian also uses several letters with diacritic signs, é, è, ê, ó, ò, â, the diacritic signs are not compulsory, but can be added to clarify the meaning of words which otherwise would be identical. One example is ein gut versus éin gut, loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ü, á, à and é, following the conventions of the original language. The Norwegian vowels æ, ø and å never take diacritics, the diacritic signs in use include the acute accent, grave accent and the circumflex. A common example of how the change the meaning of a word, is for, for fór fòr fôr The letter Å was introduced in Norwegian in 1917. The new letter came from the Swedish alphabet, where it has been in use since the 18th century. The former digraph Aa still occurs in personal names, geographical names tend to follow the current orthography, meaning that the letter å will be used. Family names may not follow modern orthography, and as such retain the digraph aa where å would be used today, Aa remains in use as a transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons. Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A, meaning that while a is the first letter of the alphabet, aa is the last. This rule does not apply to non-Scandinavian names, so a modern atlas would list the German city of Aachen under A but list the Danish town of Aabenraa under Å. The difference between the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Swedish uses the variant Ä instead of Æ, also, the collating order for these three letters is different, Å, Ä, Ö
Norwegian orthography
–
Teaching the Norwegian letters
Æ Ø and
Å
Norwegian orthography
–
Swedish computer keyboard with white markings for common characters, red for Norwegian (Ø, Æ), light green for Danish (Æ, Ø) and blue-green for
Estonian (Ü, Õ, §, ½).
35.
Runes
–
The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark, the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc. Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic linguistics. The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD, the characters were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately 700 AD in central Europe and 1100 AD in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern Europe, until the early 20th century, runes were used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, and the Younger Futhark, the Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes, short-branch or Rök runes, and the stavlösa or Hälsinge runes. The Younger Futhark developed further into the Medieval runes, and the Dalecarlian runes, historically, the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some innovations. Which variant of the Old Italic family in particular gave rise to the runes is uncertain, suggestions include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, the process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany, not near Italy, a West Germanic hypothesis suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a Gothic hypothesis presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD, no distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark The term runes is used to distinguish these symbols from Latin and it is attested on a 6th-century Alamannic runestaff as runa and possibly as runo on the 4th-century Einang stone. The name comes from the Germanic root run-, meaning secret or whisper, in Old Irish Gaelic, the word rún means mystery, secret, intention or affectionate love. Similarly in Welsh and Old English, the word rhin and rūn respectively means mystery, secret, secret writing, or sometimes in the sense of the word. Ogham is a Celtic script, similarly carved in the Norse manner, the root run- can also be found in the Baltic languages, meaning speech. In Lithuanian, runoti means both to cut and to speak, according to another theory, the Germanic root comes from the Indoeuropean root *reuə- dig. The Finnish term for rune, riimukirjain, means scratched letter, the Finnish word runo means poem and comes from the same source as the English word rune, it is a very old loan of the Proto-Germanic *rūnō. The runes developed centuries after the Old Italic alphabets from which they are historically derived. The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, specifically, the Raetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet
Runes
–
Runic
Runes
–
An inscription using
cipher runes, the
Elder Futhark, and the
Younger Futhark, on the 9th-century
Rök Runestone in Sweden
Runes
–
A Younger Futhark inscription on the 12th-century
Vaksala Runestone in Sweden
Runes
–
Ring of Pietroassa (from between 250 to 400 AD) by Henri Trenk, 1875
36.
Swedish Academy
–
The Swedish Academy, founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. It is known for making the decision on who will be the laureate for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, modelled after the Académie française, it has 18 members. The motto of the Academy is Talent and Taste, the primary purpose of the Academy is to further the purity, strength, and sublimity of the Swedish language. To that end the Academy publishes two dictionaries, the first is a one-volume glossary called Svenska Akademiens ordlista. The second is a dictionary, edited on principles similar to those of the Oxford English Dictionary. The SAOL has reached its 14th edition while the first volume of the SAOB was published in 1898 and, as of 2014, the building now known as the Stockholm Stock Exchange Building was built for the bourgeoisie. The bottom floor was used as an exchange and the upper floor was used for balls, New Years Eve parties. When the academy was founded, the ballroom was the biggest room in Stockholm that could be heated and thus used in the winter, the academy has had its annual meeting there every year since, attended by members of the Swedish royal family. However, it was not until 1914 the academy gained the right to use the floor as their own for all eternity. It is here that the Academy meets and, amongst other business, the latter makes it arguably one of the most influential literary bodies in the world. Dag Hammarskjölds former farm at Backåkra, close to Ystad in southern Sweden, was bought in 1957 as a residence by Hammarskjöld. The south wing of the farm is reserved as a retreat for the 18 members of the Swedish Academy. Since 1901, the Academy has annually decided who will be the laureate for the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Swedish Academy annually awards nearly 50 different prizes and scholarships, most of them for domestic Swedish authors. Common to all is that they are awarded without competition and without application, the Dobloug Prize, the largest of these at $40,000, is a literature prize awarded for Swedish and Norwegian fiction. Swedish, Stora Priset, literally the Big Prize, was instituted by King Gustav III, the prize, which consists of a single gold medal, is the most prestigious award that can be awarded by the Swedish Academy. It has been awarded to, among others, Selma Lagerlöf, Herbert Tingsten, Astrid Lindgren, Evert Taube, the Academy awards around 50 prizes each year. A person does not have to apply nor compete for the prizes, full list of awards The current permanent secretary of the Academy is Sara Danius, who was preceded by Peter Englund
Swedish Academy
–
The Swedish Academy in
Stockholm
Swedish Academy
–
Swedish Academy
Swedish Academy
–
Dag Hammarskjöld 's farm in
Backåkra, used as a retreat for Academy members
37.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
38.
Dagens Nyheter
–
Dagens Nyheter, abbreviated DN, is a daily newspaper in Sweden. It is published in Stockholm and aspires to full national and international coverage, Dagens Nyheter was founded by Rudolf Wall in December 1864. The first issue was published on 23 December 1864, during its initial period the paper was published in the morning. In 1874 the paper became a joint stock company and its circulation in 1880 was 15,000 copies. In the 1890s, Wall left Dagens Nyheter and soon after, from 1946 to 1959 Herbert Tingsten was the executive editor. The newspaper is owned by the Bonnier Group, Dagens Nyheter operates from the so-called DN-skrapan in Sweden. This was completed in 1964 and was designed by the architect Paul Hedqvist and it is 84 metres tall and has 27 floors, none of which are underground. In 1996, the enterprise moved to its current location on Gjörwellsgatan. The newspaper Expressen, also owned by the Bonnier Group, is located in building as well. Opinion leaders often choose Dagens Nyheter as the venue for publishing major opinion editorials, the stated position of the editorial page is independently liberal. However, it left its alliance with the liberal establishment in the country in 1972. In the 1960s the circulation of Dagens Nyheter was much higher than that of other Swedish dailies, in 2001 its circulation was 361,000 copies. The 2004 circulation of the paper was 363,000 copies, the circulation of the paper was 363,100 copies in weekdays in 2005 and had dropped to 292,300 copies in 2010. In 2013, the print edition of Dagens Nyheter had a circulation of 282,800 copies, the web edition, dn. se, had on average roughly 1.5 million unique visitors per week during 2013. List of newspapers in Sweden Official website in Swedish
Dagens Nyheter
–
Dagens Nyheter on 17 April 1912: "The great catastrophe of the Ocean: The
Titanic sunk".
Dagens Nyheter
–
Dagens Nyheter front page, 10 June 2011
39.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
–
Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
–
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
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OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
–
OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
40.
Finland Swedish
–
Most Swedish-speaking Finns emphasize that Finland Swedish is not a language separate from the Swedish of Sweden. The Swedish dialects in Finland are considered varieties of Swedish, Swedish as spoken in Finland is regulated by the Swedish Department of the Institute for the Languages of Finland. An often repeated fact is that the municipality with the highest proportion of Swedish speakers in the world, korsnäs has also held this title and is often cited as such. However, as there are no statistics on the mother tongue of inhabitants of Sweden. In addition bilingualism is common for immigrants in Sweden, so the term Swedish-speaking may be diffuse in that sense. In the spoken vernacular, especially young people in Finnish-dominated areas. There are also words in Finland Swedish that would be considered slightly archaic in Sweden. Some government and public service terms that have created in recent centuries also differ. The same is true of other new words, notably loanwords from English. e. in normal, in 1809, when Finland was conquered by the Russian Empire and became an autonomous Grand Duchy, Swedish remained the only official language. Finland has since then been a country with a Swedish-speaking minority living mostly in the coastal areas of southern, south-western. During the 20th century, the following the Industrial Revolution has led to large majorities of Finnish speakers in all major cities. The capital Helsinki became predominantly Finnish-speaking as recently as around 1900, a large and important part of the Swedish-speaking population nevertheless lives in the capital. The autonomous island province of Åland is an exception, being monolingually Swedish-speaking according to international treaties and it is a matter of definition whether the Swedish dialects spoken on Åland are to be considered a kind of Finland Swedish or not. Most Swedish-speaking Finns and linguists consider them to be closer to some of the dialects spoken in parts of Sweden. Swedish is one of the two languages of the republic of Finland, the other being Finnish. These two languages have equal status in nearly all legislation. The other minority languages are regulated separately, Finland Swedish is regulated by the Institute for the Languages of Finland. Official Swedish is not supposed to be different from Swedish as found in Sweden
Finland Swedish
–
Unofficial flag of the Swedish-speakers in Finland
41.
Swedish dialects
–
Swedish dialects are the various forms of the Swedish language, particularly those that differ considerably from Standard Swedish. Many of the rural dialects have very distinct phonetic and grammatical features. These dialects can be near-incomprehensible to a majority of Swedes, the different dialects are often so localized that they are limited to individual parishes and are referred to by Swedish linguists as sockenmål. They are generally separated into the six traditional dialect groups, with characteristics of prosody, grammar. The color represents the area and the samples are from Svenska Dagbladets dialect project. The areas with mixed colors as stripes are transitional areas, the parts in yellow with coloured dots represent various distinct dialect areas which are not easily defined as belonging to any of the six major groups above. The areas west of the core for Norrland dialects, west of Svealand dialects and north of Götaland dialects are related to each of these, respectively, samples from these areas, Jämtland, Föllinge socken, Dalarna, Älvdalens socken and Värmland, Nordmarks härad, Töcksmarks socken. The dialects of this category have in common that all show more or less strong Norwegian influences, especially the dialects in Härjedalen, Northwestern Jämtland. The grey area does not have any independently developed Swedish dialect, below we have a summary of some of the most important differences between the major groups. Note that this table does not hold for the distinct or transitional areas, Götaland dialects is mostly used in Västergötland, Dalsland, northern Halland, northern Småland and Östergötland although it is also heard in Bohuslän and Värmland and Öland. Examples of Götaland dialect features are vowel reduction, vowel shortening in front of endings, in addition, connect adjacent areas, mainly Dalsland, northern Småland and Östergötland southwest. Värmland can also be counted here, although its dialects in many ways is a special case and this feature is also found in East Norwegian, North Swedish and in some dialects of Scottish Gaelic
Swedish dialects
–
Map showing the Swedish dialects traditionally spoken. (Note that even the northernmost part of Sweden is Swedish speaking today and that the dialects in Estonia are almost extinct.)
42.
Norrland dialects
–
Norrland dialects is one of the six major dialect groupings of the Swedish language. It comprises the dialects in most of Norrland, except those of Gästrikland and southern Hälsingland, the old northern border of the Swedish language in coastal Norrbotten largely followed the eastern and northern borders of Lower and Upper Kalix parishes in modern Kalix Municipality. Norrland dialects arose from the influence of the Old West Norse spoken in Trøndelag to the west. The westerly influences were strong in the centuries leading up to the Viking Era. The shift to East Norse progressed through the Middle Ages, as Norrland gradually came to be more and more under Central Swedish influence in the Modern Era, many of the older West Norse characteristics disappeared. The strong West Norse influences can still be today in the toponymy of Norrland in placenames ending in -ånger. Parish names such Skön and Indal have West Nordic origins, the dialect of Norrbotten displays less West Nordic influence than other more westerly dialects. The greatest West Nordic/Norwegian—or, perhaps, least East Nordic/Swedish—influence is found in Jamtlandic, as with other regiolects, it is difficult to clearly define a unique set of characteristics for the Norrland dialects. The distribution of different features of the dialect have differing boundaries, vowel balance Words that were long-spelled in Old Swedish developed weakened or dropped end-vowels. Examples of words with weakened end-vowels are kastä and backä, in dialects such as those of Jämtland and Västerbotten, where the end-vowels are dropped, these words become kaast and baack. Words that were short-spelled have, however, conserved the original end-vowel length, vowel balance is also an important distinctive feature in the East Norwegian dialects. End-vowel development in words has been dependent on the length since the time of Old Swedish. This characteristic is known as vowel balance, the dialect of Medelpad is the southernmost of the coastal dialects which has vowel balance. In the Hälsing dialect, the endings are as in Standard Swedish, kasta, vowel balance is particularly evident in the definite plural of nouns, Standard Swedish hästarna is in certain northern dialects hästa, while dagarna is dagana. All of the Sami languages, particularly East Sami, have had similar systems of vowel balance since long before any Nordic languages were spoken in north Scandinavia, smoothing Words that were originally short-spelled have often undergone a process of assimilation of the stem-vowel and ending. Examples include färä and vuku, firi and skyri and this phenomenon, known as smoothing, is found predominantly in the dialects from upper Dalarna and Trøndelag northward. A and thick L The Old Swedish a before the consonant cluster rð has been preserved, while rð itself became a retroflex flap and this is sometimes represented as a capital L, to differentiate it from the Standard Swedish rd cluster. Examples of this thick L include svaL and aL and this phenomenon is shared with the Dalecarlian dialects and Norwegian, as well as the Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia
Norrland dialects
–
Norrland dialects
43.
Jamtlandic dialects
–
Jamtlandic or Jamtish is a group of dialects spoken in the Swedish province of Jämtland. Jamtlandic shares many characteristics with both Trøndersk—the dialect spoken in Trøndelag, Norway—and with the dialects spoken along the coast of Norrland, Sweden. Due to this position, there has been a debate since the early 20th century whether Jamtlandic belongs to the West Norse or the East Norse language group. Jamtlandic cannot be uniquely defined belonging to either of these groups, prior to, and around, the time of the dissolution of the Swedish–Norwegian union, Jamtlandic was undisputedly considered a dialect of Norwegian. See, e. g. p.112 in part one of Adolf Noreens Vårt språk, The Westnorthern Swedish, originally Norwegian dialects in Särna and Idre, Härjedalen, the local name for the dialects is jamska, which translates to English as Jamtlandic. However, since there is no established name for the dialects in English. Jamska as such is a form, the original form is rarely used, besides as a verb. Since the early 20th century, whether Jamtlandic is a dialect or a language has been hotly debated, proponents of Jamtlandic as a language point to the differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. A great percentage of the Jamtish speakers recognise Jamtish as a rather than a Swedish dialect. There have been efforts to make the Swedish government recognise it as a minority language just as Yiddish, one of the more prominent people that have been active in the effort to make Jamtish a recognised language is Bo Oscarsson. Oscarsson has written books about the Jamtish language/dialect and even compiled dictionaries, according to the sagas, the region called Jämtland was originally settled by fugitives from Trøndelag after Harald Fairhair united Norway in the 9th century. It became part of Norway during the reign of Haakon I in the 10th century, at that point it became part of Sweden. The history of the accounts for many of the dialects features. There have been attempts to standardize the orthography of Jamtlandic, the attempt that has been the most popular is Vägledning för stavning av jamska which is the work of the committee Akademien för jamska consisting of Bodil Bergner, Berta Magnusson and Bo Oscarsson. The most prominent application of this orthography has been to prepare translations of parts of the Bible into Jamtlandic resulting in the book Nagur Bibelteksta på jamska, an excerpt, Genesis 1, 26–27, 26Å Gud saa, ’Lätt oss gjära når mänish, nager som e lik oss. Te kær å kviin skapa n dom and it should be emphasized that the book does not fully follow Vägledning för stavning av jamska. For example, using Vägledning för stavning av jamska one would spell gjæra v. do, make, not gjära. Another spelling convention in Nagur Bibelteksta på jamska is the use of the digraph sh, in e. g. mänish n. human being and fishn n. the fish, with the same pronunciation as English sh in shoe
Jamtlandic dialects
–
Jämtland in northern Sweden
44.
Westrobothnian
–
Like all Scandinavian, the different varieties of Westrobothnian originate in Proto-Norse and dialects of Old Norse, spoken by immigrating Germanic settlers during the Viking Age. Westrobothnian has three genders in most dialects, two plural forms of indefinite nouns, and broad usage of definite nouns. Nouns are also inflected differently in the dative and accusative case, some adjectives can be serially joined with nouns and some have two plural forms. A pleonastic article is used before names when referring to someone. In the vocative, a name may instead be declined similarly to how words for near kin decline in the vocative, a small population of Nordic tribes inhabited the area as early as the bronze age, evidence of this is supported by recent archeological findings in Backen and Jävre. Westrobothnian dialects, in their different forms, have historically been the native tongues in Umeå and Skellefteå, in Kalix and Luleå, they co-existed with Kven language before gradually becoming the majority language of the region. These two cities are now part of Norrbotten county but before 1810 they belonged to Westrobothnia and therefore their dialects are included in the Westrobothnian dialect continuum. The different dialects of Westrobothnian are also present in southern and mid Lapland where it was introduced in the late 17th century as the colonization of traditional Sami lands begun. The cities soon became majority Swedish speaking while the native tongues still maintained a stance in rural areas. The native tongues were gradually weakened as an urbanization process went on and TV and radio broadcasts were exclusively in standard Swedish, most of the coast seems to have been uninhabited during the Viking age but some settlements of unknown origin existed during the iron age. There are no Sami loan words in the Westrobothnian coastal dialects, except for in the dialects spoken in the much later settlements in Lapland, such as Malå, the highest density of villages ending with -mark is found between Umeå and Skellefteå. The Germanic settlers spoke a north dialectal development of proto-Norse, related to, Old Norse is rather well preserved in runestones and later also in a Bible translation. The citizens of the area around Umeå and Skellefteå were initially referred to as speakers of the Old Norse dialect Helsingemål during the early Viking age, during the 14th century, the Hanseatic League started dominating trade in the Baltic sea, mostly speaking Middle Low German. After the Consolidation of Sweden, this uprising power started to control of trade along the coast. Christianity also came to the relatively non-organized and free Germanic settlers, colonisation escalated under the Swedish Empire, and while Österland received independence in the Treaty of Fredrikshamn 1809, Swedish colonialism still remains in terminology like Norrland. The Swedish school came to Westrobothnia in the 1850s, with the goal of teaching everyone to read, write, speak, similar laws existed in Scotland were speakers of Scottish Gaelic were forbidden to use their language in schools as a result of the 1872 Education Act. The nickname bondska is derived from the word bonde, meaning peasant, state language policies caused the language to be seen as even more rural and backward, thus starting a downward spiral. The language has more speakers around and in the cities of Piteå and Skellefteå, especially in the former
Westrobothnian
–
Old Norse ca 900 AD.
45.
Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia
–
Ostrobothnian Swedish is a variety of Finland-Swedish, spoken in Finland. Outside the autonomous province of Åland, which is officially monolingually Swedish. Ostrobothnian Swedish-speakers are traditionally farmers, and as such, isolation of the communities produces strong dialectal variations, one famous Swedish dialect in Ostrobothnia is the Närpes dialect, whose mutual intelligibility with other forms of Swedish is questionable. Finland-Swedes have difficulties with understanding the Närpes dialect, and it is almost unintelligible to anyone else, so speakers of the Närpes dialect have to learn standard Swedish, some of the most archaic Nordic dialects in Mainland Scandinavia are found in Ostrobothnia, especially regarding pronunciation. The abovementioned Närpes dialect is in syntax, grammar and vocabulary fairly close to Icelandic and they also share many common features with the Westrobothnian dialects spoken on the other side of Kvarken, in parts of Westrobothnia and Norrbotten
Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia
–
Ostrobothnia on a map of
Finland
46.
Scanian dialect
–
Scanian is a closely related group of South Swedish dialects spoken in the province of Scania in southern Sweden. Scanian was originally classified as a language in ISO 639-3. A request for reinstatement was submitted during the 2009 annual review process, many of the genuine rural dialects have been in decline subsequent to the industrial revolution and urbanization in Sweden. The population of Skåne County consists of around 13% of the population in Sweden. Swedish and Danish are considered to have been the same dialect, Old East Norse, however, some scholars speculate that there might have been certain dialect differences within the Nordic language area as early as the Proto-Nordic period. Two Scanian fragments dated to around 1325 were initially claimed to be Old Swedish, but further research in modern times has claimed that the language was not Swedish, like the Scanian Law, one of the fragments, a six-leaf fragment, is written in the runic alphabet. The place of writing, according to Frederiksen, has been identified as the Cistercian monastery at Herrevad Abbey in Scania. The fragment contains a translation of Marys lament at the cross, after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the former Danish provinces of Blekinge, Halland and Scania became a Swedish dominion, but they were allowed to keep their old privileges, laws and customs. However, from the 1680s, a process of Swedification was introduced, including a switch of languages used in churches and restrictions imposed on cross border travel and trade. The situation in Scania was unique from a point of view. As pointed out by the Norwegian scholar Lars S. Bornholm was once part of Skåneland, the Scanian dialect of Bornholm remained in use as a functioning transitional stage, but Standard Danish soon became dominant in official contexts and the dialect is thought to be disappearing. The gradual transition to Swedish has resulted in the introduction of many new Swedish characteristics into Scanian since the 18th century, especially when it comes to vocabulary and grammar. In spite of the shift, Scanian dialects have maintained a non-Swedish prosody, as well as details of grammar and vocabulary that in some aspects differ from Standard Swedish. The prosody, pronunciation of vowels and consonants in such qualities as length, stress and intonation, has more in common with Danish, German and Dutch than with Swedish. If so, are the formal semantic analytic tools that have been developed mainly for English, however, linguists reject this explanation for the sound change, at present, there are no universally-accepted theories for why sound changes occur. Scanian once possessed many unique words which do not exist in either Swedish or Danish, in attempts to preserve the unique aspects of Scanian, these words have been recorded and documented by the Institute for Dialectology, Onomastics and Folklore Research in Sweden. Preservation is also accomplished through comparative studies such as the Scanian-Swedish-Danish dictionary project and this project is led by Helmer Lång and involves a group of scholars from different fields, including Birger Bergh, linguistics, Inger Elkjær and Inge Lise Pedersen, researcher of Danish dialects. Several Scanian dictionaries have been published through the years, including one by Sten Bertil Vide and this publication and a variety of other Scanian dictionaries are available through the Department of Dialectology and Onomastics in Lund
Scanian dialect
–
Anders Sunesøn 's 13th century version of the
Scanian Law and Church Law, containing a comment in the margin called the "Skaaningestrof": " Hauí that skanunga ærliki mææn toco vithar oræt aldrigh æn." (Let it be known that Scanians are honorable men who have never tolerated injustice.)
47.
History of Swedish
–
In the 9th century, Old Norse began to diverge into Old West Norse and Old East Norse. In the 12th century, the dialects of Denmark and Sweden began to diverge, becoming Old Danish, all were heavily influenced by Middle Low German during the medieval period. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, Old East Norse is in Sweden called Runic Swedish and in Denmark Runic Danish, but until the 12th century, the dialect was the same in the two countries. The dialects are called runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, a change that separated Old East Norse from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong e, as in stæin to sten. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into ø as in døðr. This change is shown in inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr. Moreover, the øy diphthong changed into ø as well, as in the Old Norse word for island, from 1100 onwards, the dialect of Denmark began to diverge from that of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark which created a series of minor dialectal boundaries, isoglosses, Old Swedish is the term used for the medieval Swedish language, starting in 1225. Among the most important documents of the written in Latin script is the oldest of the provincial law codes, Västgötalagen. The main influences during this time came with the establishment of the Catholic Church and various monastic orders, introducing many Greek. With the rise of Hanseatic power in the late 13th and early 14th century, the Hanseatic league provided Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of German speaking immigrants. Many became quite influential members of Swedish medieval society, and brought terms from their mother tongue into the vocabulary, besides a great number of loan words for areas like warfare, trade and administration, general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions where imported. Almost all of the terms were also borrowed from Dutch. Early medieval Swedish was markedly different from the language in that it had a more complex case structure and had not yet experienced a reduction of the gender system. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals were inflected in four cases, besides the modern nominative and genitive there were also dative and accusative, the gender system resembled that of modern German, having the genders masculine, feminine and neuter. Most of the masculine and feminine nouns were later grouped together into a common gender, the verb system was also more complex, it included subjunctive and imperative moods and verbs were conjugated according to person as well as number
History of Swedish
–
A copy of
Äldre Västgötalagen – a
law code of
Västergötland from the 1280s, one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the
Latin alphabet.
History of Swedish
–
Old West Norse dialect
History of Swedish
–
Front page of the Gustav Vasa Bible of 1541. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in
Uppsala. 1541".
History of Swedish
–
August Strindberg, often considered to be the founder of modern Swedish literature.
48.
Proto-Norse language
–
Proto-Norse, was an Indo-European language spoken in Scandinavia that is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of Proto-Germanic over the first centuries CE. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically North Germanic language, and it evolved into the dialects of the Old Norse language, at the beginning of the Viking Age about AD800, which later themselves evolved into modern North Germanic languages. Proto-Norse phonology probably did not differ substantially from that of Proto-Germanic, although the phonetic realisation of several phonemes had probably changed over time, the overall system of phonemes and their distribution remained largely unchanged. /n/ assimilated to a velar consonant. It was before a velar, and probably before a labial-velar consonant. Unlike its Proto-Germanic ancestor /x/, the phoneme /h/ was probably no longer a fricative and it eventually disappeared except word-initially. and were allophones of /b/, /d/ and /ɡ/, and occurred in most word-medial positions. Plosives appeared when the consonants were lengthened, and also after a nasal consonant, word-finally, and were devoiced and merged with /p/, /t/, /k/. The exact realisation of the phoneme /z/, traditionally written as ʀ in transcriptions of runic Norse, is unclear, while it was a simple alveolar sibilant in Proto-Germanic, it eventually underwent rhotacization and merged with /r/ towards the end of the runic period. It may have been pronounced as or, tending towards a trill in the later period, the sound was still written with its own letter in runic Old East Norse around the end of the millennium. The system of vowels differed somewhat more from that of Proto-Germanic than the consonants, earlier /ɛː/ had been lowered to /ɑː/, and unstressed /ai/ and /au/ had developed into /eː/ and /ɔː/. Shortening of word-final vowels had eliminated the Proto-Germanic overlong vowels, /o/ had developed from /u/ through a-mutation. It also occurred word-finally as a result of the shortening of Proto-Germanic /ɔː/, the long nasal vowels /ɑ̃ː/, /ĩː/ and /ũː/ occurred only before /h/. Their presence was noted in the 12th century First Grammatical Treatise, all other nasal vowels occurred only word-finally, although it is unclear whether they had retained their nasality in Proto-Norse or had already merged with the oral vowels. The vowels /o/ and /ɔ̃/ were contrastive, however, as the former eventually developed into /u/ while the latter was lowered to /ɑ/, towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, stressed /e/ underwent breaking, becoming a rising diphthong /ja/. Also towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, u-mutation began to take effect, at least the following diphthongs were present, /æi/, /ɑu/, /eu/, /iu/. /ɑu/ was later rounded to /ɒu/ due to u-mutation, /eu/ eventually underwent breaking to become the triphthong /jɒu/. This was preserved in Old Gutnish, but simplified to a long rising /joː/ or /juː/ in other areas, as /iu/ occurred exclusively in environments with i-mutation, its realisation was probably fronted. This then developed further into, which then became /yː/, Old Norse had a stress accent which fell on the first syllable
Proto-Norse language
–
Composite photograph of the
Einang stone inscription (ca. AD 400)
49.
Old Norse
–
Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
Old Norse
–
The
Rök Runestone in
Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.
Old Norse
–
Old West Norse dialect
