1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Bradfield Highway (Sydney)
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The Bradfield Highway is a highway in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. At 2.5 kilometres long it is one of the shortest highways in Australia, the highway was opened on 19 March 1932 and was named in honour of Dr John Bradfield. Amid some controversy, Bradfield was also considered to be the co-designer of the arch design, along with Dorman Long. Prior to the construction of the Warringah Freeway in 1968, all traffic at the terminus of the Bradfield Highway was directed to or from the Pacific Highway. The Bradfield Highway currently carries six lanes of traffic across the eight lane Sydney Harbour Bridge, the other two traffic lanes on the Sydney Harbour Bridge are used for the Cahill Expressway, which run only southbound on the bridge. During peak periods three out of the six lanes are reversed, giving a 2 ×4,3 ×3 or 5 ×1 flow, the default is 4 ×2, being four north lanes and two south lanes. The direction of the lanes is indicated by electronic signage above each lane, the lanes are numbered one to six from west to east. In 2001,159,587 vehicles a day used the highway, in August 1992 the Sydney Harbour Tunnel opened which helped to relieve congestion on the Bradfield Highway. The Bradfield Highway is a stock route. A road toll is levied on all vehicles travelling across the Sydney Harbour Bridge, a toll also applies for vehicles travelling in the same direction using the Sydney Harbour Tunnel. Australian Roads portal De Berquelle, Raymond, the recently completed Bradfield Highway, North Sydney, New South Wales
3.
North Shore railway line
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The North Shore Line is a railway line serving the North Shore in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Most services on the line are part of the T1 North Shore, Northern & Western Line, the North Shore Line was opened on 1 January 1890 as a single track between Hornsby and St Leonards. The line was extended to the Sydney Harbour foreshore at Milsons Point on 1 May 1893, transport between this original Milsons Point station and central Sydney was by ferry boat. Most of the North Shore line was duplicated between 1900 and 1909, in 1927 the line was converted to electric operation using a 1500 volt DC, overhead supply. The construction works for the Sydney Harbour Bridge necessitated truncation of the terminus from Milsons Point to Lavender Bay. The result is that the two ends of the North Shore Line link to the Sydney railway system at Central and Hornsby. After 1932 the original Lavender Bay station became a depot for electric trains. This line joins the current North Shore line at Waverton station, in 2009, a second connection to the Main Northern line was added with the opening to the Epping to Chatswood railway line. The North Shore Line is now a commuter artery between the North Shore and central Sydney. In early years, Old Milsons Point, Bay Road, St Leonards, Chatswood, Lindfield, Gordon, Pymble, Turramurra, Wahroonga and Hornsby stations had goods yards. All but St Leonards, Chatswood and Hornsby yards had disappeared by mid-twentieth century, and the latter three did not survive into the late twentieth century
4.
Footbridge
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A footbridge is a bridge designed for pedestrians and in some cases cyclists, animal traffic, and horse riders, instead of vehicular traffic. Footbridges complement the landscape and can be used decoratively to visually link two distinct areas or to signal a transaction, in many developed countries, footbridges are both functional and can be beautiful works of art and sculpture. Simple suspension bridge designs have developed to be sustainable and easily constructible in such rural areas using only local materials. An enclosed footbridge between two buildings is known as a skyway. Bridges providing for both pedestrians and cyclists are often referred to as greenbridges and form an important part of sustainable transport movement towards more sustainable cities. Footbridges are often situated to allow pedestrians to cross water or railways in areas where there are no roads to necessitate a road bridge. They are also located across roads to let pedestrians cross safely without slowing down the traffic, the latter is a type of pedestrian separation structure, examples of which are particularly found near schools, to help prevent children running in front of moving cars. Small footbridges can also be used for an effect in ornamental gardens. Complicated engineering is not needed and the footbridges are built with readily available materials, most footbridges are equipped with guard rails to reduce the risk of pedestrians falling. Where they pass over busy roads or railways, they may include a fence or other such barrier to prevent pedestrians from jumping. Much rural travel takes place on local paths, tracks and village roads and these provide essential access to water, firewood, farm plots and the classified road network. Communities and/or local government are responsible for this infrastructure. Pedestrian overpasses over highways or railroads are expensive, especially when elevators or long ramps for users are required. Without elevators or ramps, people with mobility handicaps will not be able to use the structure, often, people will prefer to walk across a busy road at grade rather than expend the effort to climb up the bridge and go over it. Overpasses should only be used where the number of users justify the costs, narrow, enclosed structures can result in perceptions of low personal security among users. Wider structures and good lighting can reduce this. Footbridges are small, but important, because they are presented in townscape. The appearance of footbridges, and indeed of any other bridges, people have to live with these structures, usually seeing them every day
5.
Cycling infrastructure
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Cycling infrastructure refers to all infrastructure which may be used by cyclists. The manner in which the road network is designed, built. The cycling network may be able to provide the users with direct, convenient routes minimizing unnecessary delay, settlements with a dense road network of interconnected streets tend to be viable utility cycling environments. A bikeway is a lane, route, way or path which in some manner is specifically designed, bike lanes demarcated by a painted marking are quite common in many cities. Cycle tracks demarcated by barriers, bollards or boulevards are quite common in some European countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark and they are also increasingly common in other major cities such as New York City, Melbourne, Ottawa, Vancouver and San Francisco. Montreal and Davis, California, which have had segregated cycling facilities with barriers for several decades, are among the earliest examples in North American cities, some share the roadway with motor vehicles—bicycle boulevard, sharrow, advisory bike lane—or shared with pedestrians—greenway, shared use path. The term bikeway is largely used in North America to describe all routes that have designed or updated to encourage more cycling or make cycling safer. There is no usage of segregation, in some cases it can mean the exclusion of motor vehicles. Thus, it includes bike lanes with solid painted lines but not lanes with dotted lines and it includes cycle tracks as physically distinct from the roadway and sidewalk. And it includes bike paths in their own right of way exclusive to cycling, there have been a lot of studies on the safety of all types of bikeways. Proponents say that segregation of cyclists from fast or frequent motorized traffic is necessary to provide a safe, opponents point out the increased risk from various types of infrastructure including shared use paths. Different countries have different ways to define and enforce bikeways. Controversies have surrounded bikeways, particularly in North America and the United Kingdom, proponents argue that dedicated bike lanes have been implemented in many cities and are both popular and safe. Jurisdictions have guidelines around the selection of the right bikeway treatments in order make routes more comfortable, a buffered bike lane is typically a lane with a wide painted buffer to demarcate a larger gap between the cycle lane and other traffic. A physically marked and separated lane dedicated for cycling that is on or directly adjacent to the roadway, bike paths are paths with their own right of way dedicated to cycling, though in many cases shared with pedestrians and other non-motorized traffic. A greenway is a long, narrow piece of land, often used for recreation and pedestrian and bicycle user traffic, a shared use path supports multiple modes, such as walking, bicycling, inline skating and people in wheelchairs. A bicycle boulevard is a low speed street which has been optimized for bicycle traffic, bicycle boulevards discourage cut-through motor vehicle traffic but allow local motor vehicle traffic. They are designed to give priority to cyclists as through-going traffic, an advisory bike lane is a bike lane which motorists may legally encroach
6.
Port Jackson
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Port Jackson, consisting of the waters of Sydney Harbour, Middle Harbour, North Harbour and the Lane Cove and Parramatta Rivers, is the ria or natural harbour of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The harbour is an inlet of the Tasman Sea and it is the location of the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge. The location of the first European settlement in Australia, Port Jackson has continued to play a key role in the history and development of Sydney. Many recreational events are based on or around the harbour itself particularly the Sydney New Years Eve celebrations, the waterways of Port Jackson are managed by the Roads & Maritime Services. Sydney Harbour National Park protects a number of islands and foreshore areas, swimming spots, bushwalking tracks, the land around Port Jackson was occupied at the time of the European arrival and colonisation by the Eora clans, including the Gadigal, Cammeraygal, and Wangal. The Gadigal occupied the land stretching along the side of Port Jackson from what is now South Head. The Cammeragal lived on the side of the harbour. The area along the banks of the Parramatta River to Rose Hill belonged to the Wangal. The Eora occupied Port Jackson, south to the Georges River, the first recorded European discovery of Sydney Harbour, was by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770 - Cook named the inlet after Sir George Jackson. His ships log notation states at noon we were. about 2 or 3 miles from the land, eighteen years later, on 21 January 1788, after arriving at Botany Bay, Governor Arthur Phillip took a longboat and two cutters up the coast to examine Cooks Port Jackson. Phillip first stayed over night at Camp Cove, then moved down the harbour, landing at Sydney Cove, Phillip returned to Sydney Cove in HM Armed Tender Supply on 26 January 1788, where he established the first colony in Australia, later to become the city of Sydney. From 1938, seaplanes landed in Sydney Harbour on Rose Bay, in 1942, to protect Sydney Harbour from a submarine attack, the Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net was constructed. It spanned the harbour from Green Point, Watsons Bay to the battery at Georges Head, on the night of 31 May 1942, three Japanese midget submarines entered the harbour, one of which became entangled in the western end of the boom nets central section. Unable to free their submarine, the crew detonated charges, killing themselves in the process, a second midget submarine came to grief in Taylors Bay, the two crew committing suicide. The third submarine fired two torpedoes at USS Chicago before leaving the harbour, in November 2006, this submarine was found off Sydneys Northern Beaches. The anti-submarine boom net was demolished soon after World War II, and all that remains are the foundations of the old boom net winch house, today, the Australian War Memorial has on display a composite of the two midget submarines salvaged from Sydney Harbour. The conning tower of one of the submarines is on display at the RAN Heritage Centre, Garden Island. Fort Denison is a former site and defensive facility occupying a small island located north-east of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney Harbour
7.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
8.
Government of New South Wales
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The Government of New South Wales, also referred to as the New South Wales Government or NSW Government, is the Australian state democratic administrative authority of New South Wales, in Australia. The Government of New South Wales, a constitutional monarchy, was formed in 1856 as prescribed in its Constitution. Since the Federation of Australia in 1901, New South Wales has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, under the Australian Constitution, New South Wales ceded legislative and judicial supremacy to the Commonwealth, but retained powers in all matters not in conflict with the Commonwealth. Section 109 of the Australian Constitution provides that, where a State law is inconsistent with a federal law, initially the Australian states retained significant independence. Over time, however, that independence has been eroded by both the proliferation of Commonwealth Law, and the increasing financial domination of the Commonwealth. New South Wales is governed according to the principles of the Westminster system, Executive power rests formally with the Executive Council, which consists of the Governor and senior ministers. The Governor, as representative of the Crown, is the repository of power, which is exercised by him or her on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales. The Premier and Ministers are appointed by the Governor, and hold office by virtue of their ability to command the support of a majority of members of the Legislative Assembly. In 2006, the Sesquicentenary of Responsible Government in New South Wales, the Act was assented to by the Queen on 3 April 2006. The following individuals serve as government ministers, at the pleasure of the Queen, the government ministers are listed in order of seniority, while their opposition counterparts are listed to correspond with the government ministers. All Opposition counterparts are members of the Parliament of New South Wales
9.
Roads and Maritime Services
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The Agency was created on 1 November 2011 from a merger of the Roads & Traffic Authority and NSW Maritime. Planning responsibilities were transferred to Transport for New South Wales, which was created on the same day, Roads and Maritime Services is responsible for the registration of vehicles and the issuing of Drivers licences in New South Wales, including testing and administering of licences. Within NSW, the Transport Management Centre is responsible for managing events and unplanned incidents. It is the point for identifying and directing the response to incidents such as crashes, breakdowns. It passes on information to the public through the media, the RMS call centre, Traffic Commanders exercise command and control of RMS resources at the outer perimeter with regard to traffic management such as the coordination of Traffic Emergency Patrols. Traffic Emergency Patrols vans patrol major road routes and respond to unplanned incidents with the aim of returning the road to normal operating conditions as soon as possible. Both Traffic Commanders and TEP units carry an array of traffic management devices such as traffic cones, barrier boards. Both also are permitted to use and display red and blue lighting and are designated as emergency vehicles. Accept responsibility for traffic management from the incident inner perimeter or event perimeter into the rest of the road network, clear the road and make it safe. Communicate traffic management arrangements to the media, assist in the timely provision of heavy lift and other towing/salvage services to clear the road. Provide close support to the Site Controller for traffic control within an incident outer perimeter, develop and deploy Traffic Emergency Patrol teams for specific routes. Develop a joint framework and lead in the development of management plans. Coordinate the response of specialised resources to support traffic management, at the request of Police or a Combat Agency, display warnings and alerts on the Variable Message Signs in accordance with approved guidelines. This may include warnings associated with bushfires and floods, assist in the conduct of Green Light Corridors As part of its duty to provide major road infrastructure, RMS is responsible for the provision of several car ferries. Previously Roads and Maritime Services maintained separate offices, which were the most widespread offices of the New South Wales Government in the state and these have almost universally been replaced by Service NSW offices. While the new offices perform most of the functions of Roads and Maritime Services, they also handle other New South Wales Government services, such as Births Death, many functions that required attendance can now be performed online, e. g. vehicle registration renewal
10.
Gladesville Bridge
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Gladesville Bridge is an arch bridge near Gladesville that spans the Parramatta River, west of central Sydney, Australia. It links the suburbs of Huntleys Point and Drummoyne and it is a few kilometres upstream of the more famous Sydney Harbour Bridge and is part of Victoria Road. When it was completed in 1964, Gladesville Bridge was the longest single concrete arch ever constructed. Gladesville Bridge is the largest of a complex of three bridges, including Fig Tree Bridge and Tarban Creek Bridge, designed to carry traffic as part of the North Western Expressway. The bridge was the first phase of this project that was to connect traffic from the Newcastle via Wahroonga/Lane Cove. Due to community action the freeway project was abandoned by the Wran government in 1977, the current bridge replaced the original Gladesville Bridge, which was opened on 1 February 1881. The old Gladesville Bridge was constructed as part of a series of bridges built during the 1880s, which saw the construction of the Fig Tree Bridge. It was the crossing of the Parramatta River east of Parramatta at the time of construction, with punts. The closest crossing to the bridge was the Bedlam Punt, which operated from 1829 through to 1881 between Punt Road in the present-day Gladesville and the Great North Road in present-day Abbotsford. This bridge was also constructed per agitation by the community on providing a service from Ryde to the City. The 1881 Gladesville Bridge was about 300 metres to the west of the modern bridge and this original bridge only carried one lane of traffic in each direction as well as a tramway. It featured a section on the southern end of the bridge that could be opened to permit sailing ships. Colliers from Newcastle would require the bridge to be opened to access to the Australian Gas Light Company gasworks site at Mortlake. The bridge stood on iron cylinders with a pier at each end of the bridge. The sandstone piers are all that remain today of the bridge, with the northern pier adjacent to the Huntleys Point ferry wharf. The 1964 bridge was planned and commenced as traffic demands rose steadily during the 1950s, construction on the new bridge started in December 1959, and took five years to complete. It was officially opened by Princess Marina on 2 October 1964, the bridge was originally opened with six traffic lanes, but the extra-wide outer lanes enabled a later reconfiguration to take place. The bridge now has three lanes and four southbound lanes, separated by a concrete median
11.
Through arch bridge
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Cables or beams in tension suspend the central part of the deck from the arch. For a specific method, especially for masonry arches, the proportions of the arch remain similar no matter what the size. For a semi-circular arch, the height is half of the span, bridges across deep, narrow gorges can have their arch placed entirely beneath a flat roadway, but bridges in flatter country rise above their road approaches. A wide bridge may require an arch so tall as to become a significant obstacle, small bridges can be hump-backed, but larger bridges such as the Old Bridge, Pontypridd may become so steep as to require steps, making their use for wheeled traffic difficult. Railways also find arched bridges difficult as they are less tolerant of inclines. Where simple arched bridges are used for railways on flat terrain the cost of building long approach embankments may be considerable, further issues are the foundations for the bridge. Arch bridges generate large side thrusts on their footings and so may require a solid bedrock foundation, flattening the arch shape to avoid the humpback problem, such as for Brunels Maidenhead bridge, increases this side thrust. It is often impossible to achieve a flat arch, simply owing to the limitations of the foundations - particularly in flat country. Historically, such bridges often became viaducts of multiple small arches, with the availability of iron or concrete as structural materials, it became possible to construct a through arch bridge, a bridge where the deck does not have to be carried over the top of the arch. This requires a structure that can support the deck from the arch by tension rods, chains or cables and allow a gap in the arch. The first of these in particular cannot be achieved with masonry construction, the arch may also reach downwards at its sides, to either reach strong foundations or to place the roadway at a convenient height for spanning a deep valley from a plateau above. The Tyne Bridge demonstrates both of these advantages, a well-known example of this type is the Sydney Harbour Bridge in Australia, which is based on the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City. Wylam Railway Bridge is an early through arch bridge upstream of the Tyne Bridge, the through arch bridge usually consists of two ribs, although there are examples like the Hulme Arch Bridge of through arches with a single rib. When the two arches are built in parallel planes, the structure is a parallel rib arch bridge, when the two arch ribs lean together and shorten the distance between the arches near the top, the span is a basket handle arch bridge. Many tied-arch bridges are also through-arch bridges, as well as tying the side-loads of the arch, the tension member is also at a convenient height to form the bridge deck, as for a through-arch. The converse is not true, through-arch bridges do not imply that they are tied-arch bridges, although visually similar, tied- and untied- through-arch bridges are quite distinct structurally and are unrelated in how they distribute their loads. In particular, cast iron bridges such as the Stanley Ferry Aqueduct may resemble tied-arch bridges, in some locations it is not practical to support the arch from beneath during construction. In modern construction, temporary towers are erected and supported by cables anchored in the ground, temporary cables fly from each side to support arch segments as they are constructed
12.
Lane
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In the context of traffic control, a lane is part of a roadway that is designated for use by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic conflicts. Most public roads have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction, separated by lane markings, on multilane roadways and busier two-lane roads, lanes are designated with road surface markings. Major highways often have two multi-lane roadways separated by a median, some roads and bridges that carry very low volumes of traffic are less than 15 feet wide, and are only a single lane wide. Vehicles travelling in opposite directions must slow or stop to each other. In rural areas, these are often called country lanes, in urban areas, alleys are often only one lane wide. Urban and suburban one lane roads are designated for one-way traffic. A traffic lane or travel lane is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, a through lane or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead, an express lane of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. In other areas, an express lane may refer to a HOV lane, a reversible lane is a lane where the direction of traffic can be changed to match the peak flow. They are used to accommodate periods of traffic flow, especially rush hour where the flow is predominantly in one direction, on roads that cannot be easily widened such as over bridges. One or more lanes are removed from the flow and added to the peak flow. An auxiliary lane is an other than a through lane. An acceleration lane or merge lane allows traffic entering a highway to accelerate to the speed of traffic before merging with it. A turn lane is set aside for slowing down and making a turn, by removing turning traffic from the through lanes, motorist safety is improved and delay is removed, but crossing distances for pedestrians are lengthened, increasing their exposure to collisions. A two-way center turn lane is a lane in the center of a roadway to allow drivers traveling in either direction to pause before turning across oncoming traffic while waiting for a gap in traffic. A passing lane is provided on busy two-lane roads to allow drivers to pass slower vehicles without having to cross the center line. A climbing lane, truck lane, or crawler lane is provided on steep mountain grades. The lane is marked only on the stretch and usually a short distance afterward
13.
Track (rail transport)
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The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties and ballast, plus the underlying subgrade. It enables trains to move by providing a surface for their wheels to roll upon. For clarity it is referred to as railway track or railroad track. Tracks where electric trains or electric trams run are equipped with a system such as an overhead electrical power line or an additional electrified rail. The term permanent way also refers to the track in addition to structures such as fences etc. Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers attached via baseplates that spread the load, a plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tieplate where concrete sleepers are used. The rail is held down to the sleeper with resilient fastenings. For much of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber sleepers and jointed rails, jointed rails were used at first because contemporary technology did not offer any alternative. The joints also needed to be lubricated, and wear at the mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads, timber sleepers are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications, the track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the sleepers and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage. A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the demand for maintenance, particularly surfacing and lining to restore the desired track geometry. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also lead to maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using ballastless track, in its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete with the rails supported directly on its upper surface. There are a number of systems, and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab. Many permutations of design have been put forward, however, ballastless track has a high initial cost, and in the case of existing railroads the upgrade to such requires closure of the route for a long period. Its whole-life cost can be lower because of the reduction in maintenance, some rubber-tyred metros use ballastless tracks
14.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
15.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
16.
Railway electrification system
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A railway electrification system supplies electric power to railway trains and trams without an on-board prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure, selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas, some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation, Electric railways use electric locomotives to haul passengers or freight in separate cars or electric multiple units, passenger cars with their own motors. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network, some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own lines, switches and transformers. Power is supplied to moving trains with a continuous conductor running along the track usually takes one of two forms. The first is a line or catenary wire suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings. Locomotives or multiple units pick up power from the wire with pantographs on their roofs that press a conductive strip against it with a spring or air pressure. Examples are described later in this article, the second is a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding pickup shoe. Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the rails as the return conductor. In comparison to the alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions. Electric locomotives are usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and they have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service, the limited clearances available under catenaries may preclude efficient double-stack container service. Possible lethal electric current due to risk of contact with high-voltage contact wires, overhead wires are safer than third rails, but they are often considered unsightly. These are independent of the system used, so that. The permissible range of voltages allowed for the voltages is as stated in standards BS EN50163. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation, railways must operate at variable speeds. Until the mid 1980s this was only practical with the brush-type DC motor, since such conversion was not well developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century, most early electrified railways used DC and many still do, particularly rapid transit and trams
17.
Overhead line
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An overhead line or overhead wire is used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses, or trains. Overhead line is designed on the principle of one or more overhead wires situated over rail tracks, the feeder stations are usually fed from a high-voltage electrical grid. Electric trains that collect their current from overhead lines use a device such as a pantograph and it presses against the underside of the lowest overhead wire, the contact wire. Current collectors are electrically conductive and allow current to flow through to the train or tram, non-electric locomotives may pass along these tracks without affecting the overhead line, although there may be difficulties with overhead clearance. Alternative electrical power transmission schemes for trains include third rail, ground-level power supply, batteries and this article does not cover regenerative braking, where the traction motors act as generators to retard movement and return power to the overhead. To achieve good high-speed current collection, it is necessary to keep the wire geometry within defined limits. This is usually achieved by supporting the wire from a second wire known as the messenger wire or catenary. This wire approximates the path of a wire strung between two points, a catenary curve, thus the use of catenary to describe this wire or sometimes the whole system. This wire is attached to the wire at regular intervals by vertical wires known as droppers or drop wires. It is supported regularly at structures, by a pulley, link, the whole system is then subjected to a mechanical tension. As the contact wire makes contact with the pantograph, the insert on top of the pantograph is worn down. The straight wire between supports will cause the wire to cross over the whole surface of the pantograph as the train travels around the curve, causing uniform wear. On straight track, the wire is zigzagged slightly to the left. The movement of the wire across the head of the pantograph is called the sweep. The zigzagging of the line is not required for trolley poles. Depot areas tend to have only a wire and are known as simple equipment or trolley wire. When overhead line systems were first conceived, good current collection was only at low speeds. Compound equipment - uses a second wire, known as the auxiliary
18.
Dorman Long
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Originally based in Middlesbrough, North East England, the company was a major steel producer later diversifying into bridge building. Dorman Long was once listed on the London Stock Exchange, the company was founded by Arthur Dorman and Albert de Lande Long when they acquired West Marsh Iron Works in 1875. In the 1920s Dorman Long took over the concerns of Bell Brothers and Bolckow and Vaughan, in 1938 Ellis Hunter took over as Managing Director and he continued to lead the business until 1961. In 1967 Dorman Long was nationalised, along with 13 other British steel-making firms, in 1982 Redpath Dorman Long, the engineering part of the business, was acquired by Trafalgar House who in 1990 merged it into Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company in Darlington. In 2000 there was a management buyout of Cleveland Bridge which led to the formation of Dorman Long Technology in August 2000. Some of the key events connected with iron-making in Cleveland,1837, The first Cleveland ironstone mine opens, at Grosmont, for the Losh, Wilson,1841, Bolckow and Vaughan open the first ironworks in Middlesbrough. 1850,8 June - The Discovery of the Cleveland Main Seam of Ironstone at Eston by Ironmaster John Vaughan,1855,30 blast furnaces operate within six miles of Middlesbrough. 1865, One million tonnes per annum of iron are produced to make the one of the worlds major centres of iron production. 1875, Number of blast furnaces increases to 100, producing two million TPA,1879, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas arrives in Cleveland and introduces the first commercial steel. 1901, Partial amalgamation of Bell companies with Dorman Long,1902, The first integrated steelworks, involving conversion of iron ore to finished rolled steel shapes, is built at Cargo Fleet. 1917, The Redcar steel plant is opened, making steel in the open hearth process,1924, Dorman Long wins the contract to build the Sydney Harbour Bridge. 1928-9, Dorman Long takes over residues of Bell and Bolckow Vaughan,1946, Dorman Long purchases 600 acres of land between the Redcar and Cleveland Works to build the Lackenby development. 1967, Dorman Long, South Durham Steel Iron Co, and Stewarts and Lloyds come together to create British Steel,1967, The steel industry is nationalised and the British Steel Corporation is born. 1973, The existing Redcar Ironworks site development begins,1979, The number of blast furnaces drops to one - producing 3.3 million tons per year. 1989, Company is privatised becoming British Steel plc,1990, Merged with The Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company, Darlington. 1999, British Steel plc merges with the Dutch steel and aluminium company Koninklijke Hoogovens to become Corus Group,2000, Dorman Long Technology Ltd formed as an independent company as part of a management buy out of Cleveland Bridge in August 2000. The greatest example of Dorman Longs work in Teesside itself is the single span Newport Lifting Bridge, opened by the Duke of York in February 1934 it was Englands first vertical lift bridge. With a lifting span of 270 feet long by 66 feet wide, the electrically operated lifting mechanism allowed the road to be lifted 100 feet in one and a half minutes by means of ropes passing through sheaves in the four corner towers
19.
Sydney central business district
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The Sydney central business district is the main commercial centre of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It extends southwards for about 3 km from Sydney Cove, the point of first European settlement in which the Sydney region was initially established, due to its pivotal role in Australias early history, it is one of the oldest established areas in the country. Geographically, its north–south axis runs from Circular Quay in the north to Central railway station in the south, at the 2011 Australian Census, the CBD recorded a population of 14,308. Sydney CBD is very used to refer not only to the CBD proper. The Sydney CBD is Australias main financial and economic centre, as well as a hub of economic activity for the Asia-Pacific region. The city centre employs approximately 13% of the Sydney regions workforce and it produced $64.1 billion worth of goods and services in 2011–12. Culturally, the city centre is Sydneys focal point for nightlife and it is also home to some of the citys most significant buildings and structures. The Sydney CBD is an area of very densely concentrated skyscrapers and other buildings, interspersed by parks such as Hyde Park, The Domain, Royal Botanic Gardens. George Street is the Sydney CBDs main north–south thoroughfare, the CBD runs along two ridge lines below Macquarie Street and York Streets. Between these ridges is Pitt Street, running close to the course of the original Tank Stream, bridge Street, took its name from the bridge running east–west that once crossed this stream. Pitt Street is the heart of the city which includes the Pitt Street Mall. Macquarie Street is a historic precinct that houses such buildings as the State Parliament House, administratively, the Sydney CBD falls under the authority of the local government area of the City of Sydney. The New South Wales state government also has authority over some aspects of the CBD, the Sydney CBD is home to some of the largest Australian companies, as well as serving as an Asia-Pacific headquarters for many large international companies. Sydneys CBD is serviced by rail, light rail, buses. There is a largely-underground CBD rail loop, accessed in both directions via Central, which services five additional CBD stations, plus a spur line to Bondi Junction which services two. The only light rail line currently operating links the southern part of the CBD, buses, both government-run and privately owned, service the CBD along several dozen routes to both inner and more remote suburbs. NightRide is an bus service that operates between midnight and 5, 00am, with most services running from George Street outside the Sydney Town Hall. Sydney Ferries operate largely from Circular Quay, on the edge of the CBD
20.
North Shore (Sydney)
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The North Shore is a term used to describe the primarily residential area of northern metropolitan Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia. The term refers to the suburbs located on the shore of Sydney Harbour up to Hornsby. Before British settlement, the Lower North Shore was home to the Gorualgal and Cammeraygal, after the establishment of Sydney in 1788, settlement of the North Shore of the harbour was quite limited. One of the first settlers was James Milson who lived in the vicinity of Jeffrey Street in Kirribilli, the north shore was more rugged than the southern shore and western areas of the harbour and had limited agricultural potential. The early activities in the area included tree felling, boatbuilding, the North Shore railway line was built in the 1890s. Access to the Sydney CBD, located on the shore of the harbour remained difficult until the completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932. This led to commencement the development of suburbs on the North Shore, cumberland County mapping from 1792 to 1894 indicate that the four local governments that stand today were derived from one, the Parish of Willoughby. From the Parish of Willoughby came the City of Willoughby and the municipalities of Mosman, Lane Cove, North Sydney was formerly known as St. Leonards. Most of the North Shore suburbs are part of the Hawkesbury Plateau, the Plateau begins north of the Port Jackson and runs up until the Hawkesbury River. Thus much of the North Shore is hilly with steep valleys running down into the harbour. These ridges and valleys were populated with dry sclerophyll forest. There are many parks and areas of the sclerophyll forest adjacent to and within residential areas. The Lane Cove National Park and the Garigal National Park include many areas of remnant bushland adjacent to the Lane Cove River, there is excellent bushwalking, abseiling and bouldering around Lindfield and North Turramurra. Gordon houses one of Sydneys largest bat colonies in a bat reserve leading to Middle Harbour, the Upper North Shore usually refers to the suburbs between Chatswood and Hornsby. It is made up of the handful of suburbs located within Ku-ring-gai, the affluent area is known for its clean leafy streets, stately homes and high property prices. Ku-ring-gai was rated as having the one quality of life in Australia in the BankWest Quality of Life Index 2008. The Lower North Shore refers to the Sydney Harbour Peninsula that is located on the side of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The three bodies of water surround the Lower North Shore are Lane Cove River on its western border, Sydney harbour on its south side
21.
Sydney Opera House
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The Sydney Opera House is a multi-venue performing arts centre in Sydney, Australia. It is one of the 20th centurys most famous and distinctive buildings, designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, the building was formally opened on 20 October 1973 after a gestation beginning with Utzons 1957 selection as winner of an international design competition. The government of New South Wales, led by the premier, Joseph Cahill, performances are presented by numerous performing artists, including four resident companies, Opera Australia, The Australian Ballet, the Sydney Theatre Company and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. As one of the most popular attractions in Australia, more than eight million people visit the site annually. The building is managed by the Sydney Opera House Trust, an agency of the New South Wales State Government, on 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The building covers 1.8 hectares of land and is 183 m long and 120 m wide at its widest point and it is supported on 588 concrete piers sunk as much as 25 m below sea level. Although the roof structures are referred to as shells, they are precast concrete panels supported by precast concrete ribs. Though the shells appear uniformly white from a distance, they feature a subtle chevron pattern composed of 1,056,006 tiles in two colours, glossy white and matte cream. The tiles were manufactured by the Swedish company Höganäs AB which generally produced stoneware tiles for the paper-mill industry. Apart from the tile of the shells and the curtain walls of the foyer spaces. Significant interior surface treatments also include off-form concrete, Australian white birch plywood supplied from Wauchope in northern New South Wales, of the two larger spaces, the Concert Hall is in the western group of shells, the Joan Sutherland Theatre in the eastern group. The scale of the shells was chosen to reflect the internal requirements, with low entrance spaces. The smaller venues are within the podium, beneath the Concert Hall, a smaller group of shells set to the western side of the Monumental Steps houses the Bennelong Restaurant. The podium is surrounded by substantial open spaces, and the large stone-paved forecourt area with the adjacent monumental steps is regularly used as a performance space. The Sydney Opera House includes a number of venues, Concert Hall, With 2,679 seats. It contains the Sydney Opera House Grand Organ, the largest mechanical action organ in the world. Joan Sutherland Theatre, A proscenium theatre with 1,507 seats, until 16 October 2012 it was known as the Opera Theatre. Drama Theatre, A proscenium theatre with 544 seats, used by the Sydney Theatre Company and other dance, Playhouse, An end-stage theatre with 398 seats
22.
John Bradfield (engineer)
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Dr. John Jacob Job Crew Bradfield CMG was a prominent Australian engineer who is best known for his work overseeing the design and building of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Bradfield was born in Sandgate, Queensland, the youngest son of John Edward Bradfield and he married Edith Jenkins, daughter of John Ventris Jenkins, in Brisbane on 28 May 1891. They had one daughter Mary Margaret and five sons, Edward, Anthony Bailey, Alan, Stanley George, and Keith Noel Everal. Keith Bradfield, an engineer with the Department of Civil Aviation, was responsible for changes to Alexandra Canal adjacent to Sydney Airport allowing the airport to expand between 1947 and 1970, Bradfield died in Sydney on 23 September 1943. His wife Edith died in Sydney in 1954 and he received his early education in Ipswich, Queensland where he attended Ipswich North State School and Ipswich Grammar School. He then completed a Bachelor of Engineering in 1889 and then a Master of Engineering in 1896 from University of Sydney and he was a member of the Queenslanders Association in Sydney. In 1924 Bradfield received the first doctor of science in engineering at the University of Sydney for his thesis on electric railways, from 1889 to 1891, Bradfield worked for the Queensland Railways Department as a draftsman. In 1891 he joined the New South Wales Public Works Department, in 1912 he was appointed Chief Engineer for metropolitan railway construction, when he commenced his long association with secretary Kathleen Muriel Butler. In 1915 Bradfield submitted a report outlining a grand scheme for Sydneys railways involving the electrification of the railways, a city underground railway. World War I led to the collapse of all three proposals, during World War I, Bradfield worked with Professor Warren and Mr A. E. Cutler to establish the first civil aviation school, where pilots were trained for overseas service. It was not until 1922 that the Bridge Bill passed through Parliament, much of his work on the Sydney Harbour Bridge involved the assistance of his secretary Kathleen Muriel Butler, who was involved in the checking of specifications and the negotiations with tenderers. The bridge was designed to carry four lanes of road traffic, both sets of rail tracks were linked into the underground Wynyard railway station on the south side of the bridge by symmetrical ramps and tunnels. The Bradfield Highway, which is the main section of the bridge. In 1923 the first sod was turned on the city railway, Bradfield had a grand vision for Sydneys railway system that has only been partly fulfilled. Bradfields concept called for the construction of a network of underground city railway lines in association with the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge and a new rail terminal, Central. A larger network of lines was proposed for the western, eastern and southern suburbs however most of these lines remained concepts only and have never been constructed. The Depression, and later World War II, along with the growth of the car led to passenger numbers in Bradfields plan being grossly overestimated. The underground city loop was constructed originally as a line to St James
23.
Middlesbrough
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Middlesbrough is a large industrial town on the south bank of the River Tees in North Yorkshire, north-east England, founded in 1830. The local council, an authority, is Middlesbrough Borough Council. The 2011 Census recorded the total resident population as 138,400. Middlesbrough is part of the larger area of Teesside which had an overall population of 376,333 at the 2011 Census. Middlesbrough became a county borough within the North Riding of Yorkshire in 1889, in 1968, the borough was merged with a number of others to form the County Borough of Teesside, which was absorbed in 1974 by the county of Cleveland. In 1996, Cleveland was abolished, and Middlesbrough Borough Council became an authority within North Yorkshire. RGs Erimus was chosen as Middlesbroughs motto in 1830 and it recalls Fuimus the motto of the Norman/Scottish Bruce family, who were lords of Cleveland in the Middle Ages. The towns coat of arms is a lion, from the arms of the Bruce family, a star, from the arms of Captain James Cook. The importance of the church at Middleburg, later known as Middlesbrough Priory, is indicated by the fact that, in 1452. After the Angles, the area home to Viking settlers. The name Mydilsburgh is the earliest recorded form of Middlesbroughs name and dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, in 1801, Middlesbrough was a small farm with a population of just 25. During the latter half of the 19th century, however, it experienced rapid growth, the Stockton and Darlington Railway had been developed to transport coal from Witton Park Colliery and Shildon in County Durham, to the River Tees in the east. It had always been assumed by the investors that Stockton as the then lowest bridging point on the River Tees would be suitable to take the largest ships at the required volume. As a result, in 1829 he and a group of Quaker businessmen bought the Middlesbrough farmstead and associated estate, some 527 acres of land, and established the Middlesbrough Estate Company. Through the company, the set about the development of a new coal port on the banks of the Tees nearby. By 1830 the S&DR had been extended to Middlesbrough and expansion of the town was assured, the town of Middlesbrough was born. New businesses quickly bought up premises and plots of land in the new town and soon shippers, merchants, butchers, innkeepers, joiners, blacksmiths, by 1851 Middlesbroughs population had grown from 40 people in 1829 to 7,600. The first coal shipping staithes at the port were constructed just to the west of the site earmarked for the location of Middlesbrough, the port was linked to the S&DR on 27 December 1830 via a branch that extended to an area just north of the current Middlesbrough railway station
24.
Hell Gate Bridge
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The Hell Gate Bridge, originally the New York Connecting Railroad Bridge or The East River Arch Bridge, is a 1, 017-foot steel through arch railroad bridge in New York City. The bridge crosses the Hell Gate, a strait of the East River, the bridge is the largest of three bridges that form the Hell Gate complex. An inverted bowstring truss bridge with four 300-foot spans crosses the Little Hell Gate, together with approaches, the bridges are more than 17,000 feet long. The Tyne Bridge in Newcastle, England, and the Sydney Harbour Bridge in Australia derived their own designs from the Hell Gate Bridge, the Sydney Harbour Bridge, however, is about 60% larger than the Hell Gate Bridge. The bridge was conceived in the early 1900s to link New York and the Pennsylvania Railroad with New England, construction was overseen by Gustav Lindenthal, whose original design left a gap of 15 feet between the steel arch and the masonry towers. The original plans for the piers on the approach ramps called for a steel lattice structure. The design was changed to concrete to soothe concerns that asylum inmates on Wards. The engineering was so precise that when the last section of the span was lifted into place. Construction of the Hell Gate Bridge began on March 1,1912, the bridge was dedicated and opened to rail traffic on March 9,1917, with Washington–Boston through trains first running on April 1. It was the worlds longest steel arch bridge until the Bayonne Bridge opened in 1931, during World War II, it was among the dozen or so targets of economic value of significant enough importance to attract the attention of Nazi German sabotage planners. The Nazis Operation Pastorius landed German agents on American soil in 1942 in hopes of wrecking the bridge, in the 1990s, the bridge was repainted for the first time since it opened. It was painted a red called Hell Gate Red. Due to a flaw in the paint, however, the red color began to fade before the work was completed, leading to the bridges currently faded, splotchy appearance. The bridge would be the last New York City bridge to collapse if humans disappeared, taking at least a millennium to do so, most other bridges would fall in about 300 years. The bridge originally carried four tracks, two each for passenger and freight, but one track was abandoned in the mid-1970s. At one time, all tracks were electrified with the 11 kV,25 Hz overhead catenary, the passenger tracks have been electrified since 1917, and the freight tracks from 1927 to 1969, using Amtraks 25 Hz traction power system. Some passengers paid to use the bridge, some fares over the bridge were higher than the usual fares for the same mileage. In September 1940, coach fares were two cents per mile, so Boston to New York was $4.60, the same to Grand Central Terminal or to Penn Station
25.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
26.
Port Mann Bridge
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The Port Mann Bridge is a 10-lane cable-stayed bridge that opened to traffic in 2012. It is currently the second longest cable-stayed bridge in North America and was the widest bridge in the world until the opening of the new Bay Bridge in California. The new bridge replaced a steel bridge that spanned the Fraser River. The old bridge consisted of three spans with an orthotropic deck carrying five lanes of Trans-Canada Highway traffic, with spans of three steel plate girders and concrete deck. The total length of the previous Port Mann was 2,093 m, the main span was 366 m, plus the two 110 m spans on either side. Volume on the old bridge was 127,000 trips per day, approximately 8 percent of the traffic on the Port Mann bridge was truck traffic. The previous bridge was the longest arch bridge in Canada and third-longest in the world at the time of its inauguration, the old Port Mann Bridge opened on June 12,1964, originally carrying four lanes. It was named after the community of Port Mann, through which the end of the bridge passed. At the time of construction, it was the most expensive piece of highway in Canada, the first civilian to drive across the bridge was CKNW reporter Marke Raines. He was not authorized to cross, so he drove quickly, in 2001 an eastbound HOV lane was added by moving the centre divider and by cantilevering the bridge deck outwards in conjunction with a seismic upgrade. On January 31,2006, the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation introduced the Gateway Program as a means to address growing congestion, the Port Mann / Highway 1 project added another HOV lane and will provide cycling and pedestrian access. The multi-use pedestrian/bicycle path opened July 1,2015, a bus service was reintroduced over the Port Mann Bridge for the first time in over 20 years. However, critics claimed that the new bridge only delayed the reintroduction of bus service on the bridge, the new bus rapid transit service is now operated in the HOV lanes along Highway 1 from Langley to Burnaby. The estimated construction cost was $2.46 billion, including the cost of the Highway 1 upgrade, of this, the bridge itself comprised roughly a third. The total cost, including operation and maintenance, was expected to be $3.3 billion, now that the new bridge is completed, the existing bridge, which was more than 45 years old, has been taken down. The project was intended to be funded by using a public-private partnership, development Group was chosen as the preferred developer. Group included the Macquarie Group, Transtoll Inc. Peter Kiewit Sons Co. although a memorandum of understanding had been signed by the province, final terms could not be agreed upon. As a consequence, the decided to fund the entire cost of replacement
27.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
28.
Dawes Point, New South Wales
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Dawes Point is a suburb of the City of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Dawes Point is located on the edge of the Sydney central business district, at the southern end of Sydney Harbour Bridge. Sections of Dawes Point have been included as part of The Rocks area in the past and some residents, the area was originally known by the Aboriginal names of Tar-ra and Tullagalla. This was later changed to Point Maskelyne in honour of Reverend Dr Nevil Maskelyne and he sent out the first astronomical instruments which were established at the point in the countrys first observatory, by Lieutenant William Dawes, astronomer with the First Fleet. The point was renamed in honour of Dawes and it was also the site of the first guns mounted in Sydney by Dawes in 1788, contained Sydneys first cemetery and later Dawes Point Battery. Walsh Bay was the site of Sydneys port facilities, the wharves were converted to apartments, theatres, restaurants, cafes and a hotel. By the 1840s, the people of Dawes Point and Millers Point were a community in which rich. Wharf owners and traders lived and worked beside those who worked on the wharves and bond stores, as well as those who arrived, only two of the merchant houses, built by and for the early wharf owners, survive. The fortunes of Dawes Point and Millers Point fluctuated more than elsewhere in Sydney, mostly prosperous in its early years, the area was less desirable by the 1890s, and in 1900 there was a catastrophic event that led to a complete reshaping of Millers Point. At the beginning of the 20th century, the government compulsorily acquired all private wharves, homes and commercial properties in the Rocks, Dawes Point and Millers Point. Modern and efficient wharves with dual level access were built, as well as new accommodation for workers, in the 1960s and 70s, the government tried again to clear the area and build high-rise offices, but this was thwarted by the Green Bans, supported community and unions. The Sydney Theatre and The Wharf Theatre, which are part of the Sydney Theatre Company, are located in Dawes Point, media related to Dawes Point, New South Wales at Wikimedia Commons Shirley Fitzgerald
29.
The Rocks, Sydney
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The Rocks is an urban locality, tourist precinct and historic area of Sydneys city centre, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is located on the shore of Sydney Harbour, immediately north-west of the Sydney central business district. The precinct and its surroundings are administered independently of the local government area of the City of Sydney. The Rocks area borders on the Bradfield Highway, leading to the Sydney Harbour Bridge, with the localities of Dawes Point and Millers Point and it is immediately adjacent to Circular Quay on Sydney Cove, the site of Australias first European settlement in 1788. The Rocks became established shortly after the formation in 1788. It was known as Tallawoladah by the Cadigal people, the original buildings were first traditional vernacular houses, of wattle and daub, with thatched roofs, and later of local sandstone, from which the area derives its name. From the earliest history of the settlement, the area had a reputation as a slum, after November 1790, many of the inhabitants were also aboriginals. In 1823, the district had a population of about 1,200, during the late nineteenth century, the area was dominated by a gang known as the Rocks Push. It maintained this reputation until approximately the 1870s. By the early 20th century, many of the historic buildings were in serious decay. In 1900, bubonic plague broke out, and the government resumed areas around The Rocks and Darling Harbour, with the intention of demolishing them. More than 3,800 houses, buildings and wharves were inspected and hundreds demolished, during the 1920s, several hundred buildings were demolished during the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. In February 1971, a group of residents formed the Rocks Residents Group to oppose the plans. They felt that the new dwellings would result in increased rents, the residents group requested a green ban from the Builders Labourers Federation, who had become increasingly active in preventing controversial developments over the previous four years. By 1973, the union had imposed the ban, and after discussions with the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority, by October 1973, it appeared that the redevelopment would proceed as originally planned, using non-union labour. For two weeks, demonstrations by local residents and unionists followed, with numerous arrests being made, liberal Premier Robert Askin was in the midst of an election campaign, and used the protests as a means of conveying his law and order message to voters. However, the ban stayed in place until 1975, when the state union leadership was overthrown. Instead of demolishing The Rocks, renovations transformed the area into a commercial, as housing stock becomes dilapidated, government policy is to sell the now extremely valuable public housing units to private owners, in the expectation that they will restore the properties
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Milsons Point, New South Wales
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Milsons Point is a suburb on the lower North Shore of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The suburb is located 3 kilometres north of the Sydney central business district in the government area of North Sydney Council. Milsons Point was named after James Milson, one of the earliest settlers, Milsons Point was named after James Milson, a free settler originally from Lincolnshire. Milson settled in the area near Milsons Point and established a business supplying ships with stone ballast, fresh water, and the produce of his dairy, orchard. In the early 1820s Milson settled in the vicinity of Jeffrey Street, Kirribilli, in 1824 Milson received a 50-acre grant of his own adjoining Campbells land. In 1826 a bushfire raged through the area destroying Milsons home, orchard and dairy, in 1831 Campbell was involved with Milson in a court action over Milsons non-payment of the lease of the 120 acres. Milson lived in the vicinity of Jeffrey Street until 1831 when he built a new home, Brisbane House, the next home he built, also on his 50 acres, was called Grantham. By the 1840s Milson was leasing only the portion Campbells 120 acres that contained Milsons orchard in the vicinity of Jeffrey Street, in 1872 Milson died at home at Gratham in the modern suburb of Milsons Point in what was then called the Municipality of East St Leonards. The last of the holdings in the lower North Shore area were resumed in the early 1920s for the construction of the Harbour Bridge. Milsons Point supports the end of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Milsons Point is well connected with the CBD of Sydney by the bridge, ferries, the Warringah Freeway provides a link south to the Sydney CBD and north to Chatswood. Milsons Point railway station is on the approach to the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The Milsons Point ferry wharf, serviced by the Balmain, Pyrmont Bay, in addition to rail services, Milsons Point is serviced by buses that run to the Lower North Shore and Northern Beaches. School Buses leave from Bradfield Park to transport students to schools in North Sydney, Milsons Point has a mixture of residential and commercial development. Michael Stutchbury Milsons Point has the entertainment centre Luna Park and the North Sydney Olympic Pool, schools in the area include the Catholic schools Loreto Kirribilli for girls and St Aloysius College for boys
31.
Trams in Sydney
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The Sydney tramway network served the inner suburbs of Sydney, Australia from 1879 until 1961. In its heyday, it was the largest in Australia, the second largest in the Commonwealth of Nations, the network was heavily worked, with about 1,600 cars in service at any one time at its peak during the 1930s. Patronage peaked in 1945 at 405 million passenger journeys and it had a maximum street mileage of 181 miles, in 1923. Sydneys first tram was horse-drawn, running from the old Sydney railway station to Circular Quay along Pitt Street, built in 1861, the design was compromised by the desire to haul railway freight wagons along the line to supply city businesses, in addition to passenger traffic. This resulted in a track that protruded from the road surface, hard campaigning by competing omnibus owners – as well as a fatal accident involving the leading Australian musician Isaac Nathan in 1864 – led to closure in 1866. In 1879 a steam tramway was established, despite several accidents, it was a great success and the system expanded rapidly through the city and inner suburbs. The Steam Motor Trams comprised a Baldwin locomotive hauling one or more double-deck carriages, a preserved Baldwin Steam Motor Tram is at the Powerhouse Museum Discovery Centre at Castle Hill and there is an operational steam motor and trailer set at the Valley Heights Steam Tramway Museum. Another is at the Museum of Transport and Technology, Auckland, there were also two cable tram routes, to Ocean Street and in North Sydney, later extended to Crows Nest, because of the steep terrain involved. Additionally, horse trams operated between Newtown and St Peters railway stations in the 1890s and between Manly and North Manly from 1903 to 1907 and these two instances were replacements of existing steam trams during periods of low patronage. The Sydney tram power supply system was built using New York City subway electrical equipment that was adapted for tram usage, a generating plant was installed at Ultimo and White Bay Power Stations. Service began with C-class saloon cars, followed by D-class combination cars, in contrast to other cities that started with combination cars and toastracks, then quickly abandoned them for drop-centre and saloon cars, Sydney started by going the other way. Revered though those trams were, they were deathtraps for conductors, on average, each day one conductor fell or was knocked off the footboard by passing motor vehicles. The majority suffered a fractured skull, in the three years 1923,1924,1925, there were 282,289, and 233 accidents respectively to conductors on NSW tramways. From 1916 to 1932, there were 4,097 accidents to tram employees,63 of the falls were fatal. Of the more than 100 falls reported of conductors, one died from their injuries. It was not until the 1930s with the introduction of the R-class that the drop-centre saloon tram, widely used elsewhere in Australia, came to Sydney. Even so, footboard trams continued in use until the late 1950s. By the 1920s, the system had reached its maximum extent, in many ways, the Sydney tram system was a victim of its own success
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North Shore, Northern & Western Line
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The North Shore, Northern & Western Line is a commuter rail line operated by Sydney Trains in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It serves the North Shore, Northern Suburbs and parts of the Inner West, following victory in the 2011 New South Wales election, the OFarrell Government embarked on reform of transport in New South Wales. In November 2011, a new organisation, Transport for NSW, was created to improve planning and coordination of transport projects, the organisation developed a new rail timetable and branding, which was put into effect on 20 October 2013. This saw the merger of the North Shore Line and Western Line with the Northern Line, a new numbering system was also introduced and the line was given the number T1. The North Shore, Northern & Western Line utilises a number of different railway lines and is the result of various schemes to link the lines together, the line is centred around the Main Suburban railway line which runs from Central to Granville. The Main Northern and Main Western lines branch from the Main Suburban Line, the North Shore Line branches from the Main Northern Line and was later extended through the city and connected to the Main Suburban Line as well. The Epping to Chatswood line provides a connection between the Main Northern and North Shore lines, enabling the creation of the North Shore. The Main Western line opened to Penrith in 1863 as a branch from the junction with the Main South line at Granville, electrification reached Parramatta in 1928 and Penrith in 1955. A branch line was opened to Richmond in 1864 under the stewardship of engineer James Moore, electrification from Riverstone to Richmond opened in August 1991. Through running to and from Sydney commenced in 1992, Trains from the Main Western and Richmond lines run as the Western Line. The North Shore line was opened on 1 January 1890 between Hornsby and St Leonards, the line was extended to the Sydney Harbour foreshore at Milsons Point in 1893. Transport between this original Milsons Point station and central Sydney was by ferry boat, the line was electrified in 1927. The result is that the two ends of the North Shore Line link to the Sydney railway system at Central and Hornsby, the traditional Northern Line was the suburban portion of the Main Northern line which opened in 1886 and was electrified in 1926. When the Sydney Harbour Bridge was opened, the Northern Line was connected to the City underground, in 2009 the Epping to Chatswood line was opened. The traditional Northern line route ran from Hornsby to North Sydney via Strathfield, the Northern Line was colour coded red prior to being merged with the North Shore and Western lines. After merging, the Northern Line loop was split on weekdays, in 2018 the Epping to Chatwood line will be closed and be converted to a metro. As a result, the traditional Northern line route from Hornsby to Central via Strathfield will be reinstated with expanded train services on the North Shore line and this will coincide the proposed new timetable that year. The route is complex and features many branches and it passes through a number of business districts and major centres, namely Hornsby, Macquarie Park, Chatswood, North Sydney, the Central Business District, Parramatta, Blacktown and Penrith
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Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
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Moruya, New South Wales
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Moruya is a town in New South Wales, Australia, situated on the Moruya River, on the far south coast situated on the Princes Highway 305 kilometres south of Sydney and 175 kilometres from Canberra. At the 2011 census, Moruya had a population of 2,531 people, the town relies predominantly on agriculture, aquaculture, and tourism. Moruya is administered by the Eurobodalla Shire council and the chambers are located in the town. The name Moruya is derived from an Aboriginal word, mherroyah, black swans can still be seen in the lakes and rivers around Moruya, and the black swan is used locally as an emblem. The area is the home of two tribes, the Walbanga and the Brinja-Yuin. European settlement commenced in the 1820s following the extension of the limits of location in 1829, the coast from Batemans Bay to Mherroyah was surveyed in 1828 by Surveyor Thomas Florance. The first European settler was Francis Flanagan from Ireland who settled at Shannon View in 1829, John Hawdon from England established a property named Kiora in 1831 and a village named after the property grew. The town centre was surveyed in 1850 and the town gazetted in 1851, Moruya was proclaimed a municipality in 1891. Local industries were timber getting, gold mining, dairying and quarrying for granite, the granite for the Sydney Harbour Bridge pylons was quarried in the area. Quarrying for granite commenced in the district in the late 1850s by the brothers Joseph, the Moruya Quarry, also known as the Government Quarry, opened in 1876 on the northern bank of the Moruya River. During the seven years of work, a small town of about 70 houses grew up near the quarry called Granitetown. The Moruya Quarry is still operated by the New South Wales Department of Infrastructure, Planning, there was a third quarry west of the Moruya Quarry operated by the Ziegler family. The first bridge across the Moruya River was erected in 1876 though frequent flooding saw new bridges erected in 1900 and 1945 and, most recently, in 1966. This bridge is standing today and is home to the wild bogan of the west During World War II Moruya aerodrome was used as an advanced operational base. A trawler was attacked offshore between Moruya and Batemans Bay by the Japanese in 1942, on 25 December 1944 the US liberty ship SS Robert J. Walker was torpedoed off Moruya by the German submarine U-862, sinking the next day between Moruya and Bega. Casualties were 2 dead and 67 survivors, Moruya has various retailers, banks and services located on the high street, whilst supermarkets are located on the side streets. Harris Scarfe has a store in the town, it being a branch of Goulburn retailer Allens. Moruya has two supermarkets, one is a 10-aisle Woolworths and an IGA, the former 8-aisle Franklins, which opened on 28 June 2011, ceased trading in February 2013
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Newcastle, New South Wales
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Located 162 kilometres north-northeast of Sydney, at the mouth of the Hunter River, it is the predominant city within the Hunter Region. Famous for its coal, Newcastle is the largest coal exporting harbour in the world, beyond the city, the Hunter Region possesses large coal deposits. Geologically, the area is located in the part of the Sydney basin. Newcastle and the lower Hunter Region were traditionally occupied by the Awabakal and Worimi Aboriginal People, in September 1797 Lieutenant John Shortland became the first European settler to explore the area. His discovery of the area was largely accidental, as he had sent in search of a number of convicts who had seized HMS Cumberland as she was sailing from Sydney Cove. While returning, Lt. Shortland entered what he described as a very fine river. He returned with reports of the port and the areas abundant coal. Over the next two years, coal mined from the area was the New South Wales colonys first export, Newcastle gained a reputation as a hellhole as it was a place where the most dangerous convicts were sent to dig in the coal mines as harsh punishment for their crimes. By the start of the 19th century the mouth of the Hunter River was being visited by groups of men, including coal diggers, timber-cutters. Philip Gidley King, the Governor of New South Wales from 1800, in 1801, a convict camp called Kings Town was established to mine coal and cut timber. In the same year, the first shipment of coal was dispatched to Sydney and this settlement closed less than a year later. A settlement was attempted in 1804, as a place of secondary punishment for unruly convicts. The settlement was named Coal River, also Kingstown and then renamed Newcastle, the new settlement, comprising convicts and a military guard, arrived at the Hunter River on 27 March 1804 in three ships, HMS Lady Nelson, the Resource and the James. The convicts were rebels from the 1804 Castle Hill convict rebellion, Morpeth, New South Wales is a similar distance north of Newcastle as Morpeth, Northumberland is north of Newcastle upon Tyne. Under Captain James Wallis, commandant from 1815 to 1818, the conditions improved. The quality of these first buildings was poor, and only breakwater survives, during this period, in 1816, the oldest public school in Australia was built in East Newcastle. Newcastle remained a settlement until 1822, when the settlement was opened up to farming. As a penal colony, the rule was harsh, especially at Limeburners Bay
36.
Luna Park Sydney
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Luna Park Sydney is an amusement park located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Luna Park is located at Milsons Point, on the shore of Sydney Harbour. The park was constructed at the foot of the Sydney Harbour Bridge during 1935, and ran for nine-month seasons until 1972, Luna Park was closed in mid-1979, immediately following the Ghost Train fire, which killed six children and one adult. Most of the park was demolished, and a new amusement park was constructed, the park was closed again in 1988 as an independent engineering inspection determined that several rides needed urgent repair. The owners failed to repair and reopen the park before a New South Wales government deadline, after another redevelopment, Luna Park reopened in 2004 and has continued operating since. The park has been utilised as a location for several movies. The location of Luna Park was formerly occupied by a series of workshops, cranes, when the Harbour Bridge was completed in 1932, North Sydney Council opened applications for tenders to develop the site. Despite initial resistance from North Sydney Council towards the idea of an amusement park, immediately after this, Luna Park Glenelg was placed in voluntary liquidation. The rides from Glenelg were purchased by Phillips and his directors, dismantled, transported to Sydney. The construction and reassembly cost £60,000, and employed almost 1,000 engineers, structural workers, fitters, Luna Park first opened to the public on 4 October 1935, to almost immediate success. After a successful opening season, the closed down for the winter months. During the Second World War, Luna Park was a magnet for servicemen, the parks external lights were browned out in case of a Japanese sneak attack on Sydney, the neon lights were disconnected, and non-essential uses of electricity were curtailed. The influx of servicemen drew prostitutes to the area, and large-scale brawls were a common occurrence - usually between Australian home defence troops and American sailors on shore leave, in the early 1950s, numerous changes and additions were made to Luna Park. Atkins and Hopkins went on a tour, bringing back new ride designs and amusements from amusement parks in the Netherlands, the United States, Germany. The Rotor was constructed and installed, and became the stage of many stunts, Arthur Barton redesigned and reconstructed the enormous face over the parks entrance, which had begun to sag and distort. The increasing availability of television and motor cars in the late 1950s, a consortium named World Trade Centre Pty Ltd purchased the site and lease for $750,000. Hopkins and Barton, the last of the original showmen that had built, run and this plan was rejected by the New South Wales government, and after a reshuffle within the consortium, the decision was made to continue operation as an amusement park. Over the next few years, the new managers scrapped several of the old rides, replacing them with new, after consultation with Hanna-Barbera, Luna Parks slogan was temporarily changed from Just for Fun to The Place where Happiness is
37.
Girder
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A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main support of a structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a web, but may also have a box shape, Z shape. A girder is used to build bridges. In traditional timber framing a girder is called a girt, small steel girders are rolled into shape. Larger girders are made as plate girders, welded or bolted together from pieces of steel plate. The Warren type girder replaces the solid web with a latticework between the flanges. This truss arrangement combines strength with economy of materials and can therefore be relatively light and it is an improvement over the Neville truss which uses a spacing configuration of isosceles triangles. Song W, Ma Z, Vadivelu J, Burdette E, transfer Length and Splitting Force Calculation for Pretension Concrete Girders with High-Capacity Strands. Chen X, Wu S, Zhou J. ”Compressive Strength of Concrete Cores with Different Lengths. ”
38.
Pneumatics
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Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases, a centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas. Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air, the air usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components. Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually just air, smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN when supplied in cylinders. Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, compressed oxygen would not asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a hazard if vented improperly. The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind, german physicist Otto von Guericke went a little further. He invented the pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures, the field of pneumatics has changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines with multiple parts that serve different functions, both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil, most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi, simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control. Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance, because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force, compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost. Safety—There is a low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe, liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher due to the incompressibility
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Rivet gun
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A rivet gun, also known as a pneumatic hammer, is a type of tool used to drive rivets. The rivet gun is used on the head side of the rivet. The energy from the hammer in the rivet gun drives the work, as a result, the tail of the rivet is deformed and work-hardened. At the same time the work is drawn together and retained between the rivet head and the broadened and flattened tail. Nearly all rivet guns are pneumatically powered and those rivet guns used to drive rivets in structural steel are quite large while those used in aircraft assembly are easily held in one hand. A rivet gun differs from an air hammer in the precision of the driving force, rivet guns vary in size and shape and have a variety of handles and grips. Pneumatic rivet guns typically have a regulator which adjusts the amount of air entering the tool, regulated air entering passes through the throttle valve which is typically controlled by a trigger in the hand grip. When the trigger is squeezed, the valve opens, allowing the pressurized air to flow into the piston. As the piston moves, a port allowing the air pressure to escape. The piston strikes against the rivet set, the force on the rivet set pushes the rivet into the work and against the buck. The buck deforms the tail of the rivet, the piston is returned to the original position by a spring or the shifting of a valve allowing air to drive the piston back to the starting position. The slow-hitting gun strikes multiple blows as long as the trigger is held down, the repetition rate is about 2,500 blows-per-minute. It is easier to control than a one-hit gun and this is probably the most common type of rivet gun in use. The fast-hitting gun strikes multiple light-weight blows at a rate as long as the trigger is held down. These are repeated in the range of 2,500 to 5,000 bpm, the fast-hitting gun, sometimes referred to as a vibrator, is generally used with softer rivets. The corner riveter is a rivet gun that can be used in close spaces. The rivet is driven at right-angles to handle by a short barreled driver. This gun is different from the above rivet guns in that the air pressure is used to provide an action that compresses the rivet from both sides rather than distinct blows
40.
Thomas S. Tait
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Thomas Smith Tait was a prominent Scottish modernist architect. He designed a number of buildings around the world in Art Deco and Streamline Moderne styles, notably St. Andrews House on Calton Hill, Edinburgh, and the pylons for Sydney Harbour Bridge. Born in 1882 in Paisley, the son of a stonemason, he was educated at the John Neilson Institution. Tait went on to Glasgow School of Art where he studied under the Beaux Arts teacher Eugene Bourdon and he travelled extensively in Europe between 1904 and 1905, before settling in London where he joined the prestigious architectural practice of Sir John James Burnet. In 1910 he married Constance Hardy, the daughter of a London stationmaster, together they had three sons, the eldest, Gordon, born in 1912, later became an architect himself, and worked with his father on the designs for the Glasgow Empire Exhibition of 1938. In June 1913 Tait sat and passed the RIBAs qualifying exam and was admitted ARIBA in September 1913, with the backing of Burnet, Theodore Fyfe. His former dwelling at Gates House, Wyldes Close, Hampstead Garden Suburb London NW11 has been marked with a Blue Plaque by English Heritage, in 1902, Tait was recruited by the architecture firm John Burnet & Son and worked under the founders son, John James Burnet. In 1905, Burnet was appointed to design new galleries at the British Museum in London, Burnet opened a London office at 1 Montague Place, calling it simply John J Burnet, and took Tait with him as his personal assistant. Following his marriage in 1910, Tait took on work at a rival practice, Trehearne and Norman, assisting in the facade design of several commercial buildings on Kingsway. He took this work without the knowledge of Burnet, and when Burnet learned of Taits moonlighting in 1914, Tait suddenly left London for New York, leaving his wife and son Gordon at home, to work as an assistant with Donn Barber. Tait soon returned to London and took a job as draughtsman to Trehearne & Norman on further Kingsway buildings. Between 1915 and 1918, Tait and Burnet became reconciled and collaborated on a number of projects, the firm was renamed Sir John Burnet & Partners. Due to ill health, Burnet himself grew less active in the partnership, in 1925 Tait was made a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Tait’s growing reputation resulted in new commissions both in the UK and internationally, including work in London, South Africa, Australia. In 1927-8 he was employed by the Crittall window factory to build their works village Silver End in Essex in the Art Deco style. In 1930, the American architect Francis Lorne became a partner in the firm, and under the name Burnet, Tait and Lorne, the practice became one of the most influential architects firms in Britain. Tait and Lorne began to pursue a more Modernist architectural direction, the outbreak of the Second World War cut Tait’s career prematurely short. St Andrews House, Edinburgh, was completed shortly after the outbreak of war in 1939, from 1940 to 1942 he worked as Director of Standardisation at the Ministry of Works
41.
Stonemasonry
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The craft of stonemasonry has existed since humanity could use and make tools - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped saws, the resulting block if ordered for a specific component is known as sawn six sides. Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a design, this set out on templets. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the application, the basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their ability to carve stone into foliage, figures. Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used, the precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job. Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions, the modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each type, its application and best uses. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability, stonemasons use all types of natural stone, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary, while some also use artificial stone as well. Igneous stones, Granite is one of the hardest stones, with great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt. Metamorphic, Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours and it has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, the famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble
42.
Quarry
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A quarry is a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground. A quarry is the thing as an open-pit mine from which minerals are extracted. The only non-trivial difference between the two is that open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries, the word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen or luster, polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of residential and commercial properties. Natural stone quarried from the earth is considered a luxury and tends to be a highly durable surface. Quarries in level areas with shallow groundwater or which are located close to surface water often have engineering problems with drainage, generally the water is removed by pumping while the quarry is operational, but for high inflows more complex approaches may be required. For example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to more than 60 feet below sea level, to reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with clay was constructed around the entire quarry. Ground water entering the pit is pumped up into the moat, as a quarry becomes deeper, water inflows generally increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal, this can become the limiting factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging, many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the effective and famous examples of successful quarry restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC. A further problem is pollution of roads from trucks leaving the quarries, to control and restrain the pollution of public roads, wheel washing systems are becoming more common. Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes, water-filled quarries can be very deep with water, often 50 feet or more, that is often surprisingly cold. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmers muscles to weaken, it can also cause shock. Though quarry water is very clear, submerged quarry stones. Several people drown in quarries each year, however, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites
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Railton, Tasmania
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Railton is a town situated 20 km inland from Devonport on the north-west coast of Tasmania, Australias island state. In the 2006 census, Railton had a population of 900 and it was first known as Redwater Creek and became known as Railton after the construction of a tramway line in the 1860s. Railton was first surveyed in 1853 and a line through the town from Deloraine to Latrobe was completed in 1885. Early settlers who were farmers and timber workers lived in slab huts. The wide main street was built to make easier for the bullock teams making their way to the railway station. By the 1900s Railton had a timber trade with 2 sawmills. Railton has several topiaries in various locations around the town, visit the Town of Topiary website for information on how to find them Railton promotes itself as the Town of Topiary. Railton is home to a Cement Australia plant which began operations in 1923 and it was previously known as Goliath Cement. Sykes Sanctuary is 40 acres of land bequeathed by Norman Sykes to the Railton community with the instruction that it be conserved as a bird. Sykes was an eccentric conservationist who gave up city life to live in a small shack, close to nature
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Abutment
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In engineering, abutment refers to the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam whereon the structures superstructure rests or contacts. Multi-span bridges require piers to support ends of spans unsupported by abutments, Dam abutments are generally either side of a valley or gorge but may be artificial in order to support arch dams such as Kurobe Dam in Japan. The term may refer to the structure supporting one side of an arch. Also the impost or abacus of a column in classical architecture may serve as an abutment to an arch, the word derives from the verb abut, meaning to touch by means of a mutual border. An abutment may be used for the following, To transfer loads from a superstructure to its foundation elements, to resist and/or transfer self weight, lateral loads and wind loads. To support one end of an approach. Every time I drive down the road I wanna’ jerk the wheel into a Goddamn bridge abutment, in the film The Big Lebowski The Dudes car was stolen and later located by the police. The officer who found it told The Dude It was discovered last night in Van Nuys lodged against an abutment, to which The Dude responded Oh man, lodged where. Ohio Department of Transportation Fixed Bridge Abutments
45.
Roads & Traffic Authority
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The Roads & Traffic Authority is a former New South Wales government agency that was responsible for major road infrastructure, licensing of drivers, and registration of motor vehicles. The RTA directly managed State roads and provided funding to local councils for regional and local roads, in addition, with assistance from the Federal Government, the RTA also previously managed the NSW national highway system. The agency was abolished in 2011 and replaced by NSW Roads, the Department of Main Roads was created in November 1932. The DMR undertook works across NSW, including maintenance of all roads into Sydney and programs of road reconstruction, construction. The DMR was also responsible for many ferries and New South Wales bridges, on 1 November 2011, the Roads and Traffic Authority in turn was merged with NSW Maritime to become Roads and Maritime Services. Planning and co-ordination functions were transferred to Transport for NSW, the Roads and Traffic Authority is responsible for the registration of vehicles and the issuing of Drivers licences in New South Wales, including testing and administering of licences. Within NSW, the Transport Management Centre is responsible for managing events and unplanned incidents. It is the point for identifying and directing the response to incidents such as crashes, breakdowns. It passes on information to the public through the media, the RTA call centre, Traffic Emergency Patrols vans patrol major road routes and respond to unplanned incidents with the aim of returning the road to normal operating conditions as soon as possible. Both Traffic Commanders and TEP units carry an array of traffic management devices such as traffic cones, barrier boards. Both also are permitted to use and display red and blue lighting and are designated as emergency vehicles. Dual carriageway completion on the whole Hume Highway and the Great Western Highway, lawrence Hargrave Drive North Kiama Bypass Sydney Orbital Network. As part of its duty to provide major road infrastructure, the RTA is responsible for the provision of car ferries. More completed projects from the RTA Roads and Traffic Authority MySpace profile SCATS - Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System Website
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Closed-circuit television
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Closed-circuit television, also known as video surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may point to point, point to multipoint. Videotelephony is seldom called CCTV but the use of video in distance education, Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of surveillance, video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals right to privacy even when in public. In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a control room. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event, a more advanced form of CCTV, utilizing digital video recorders, provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features. More recently, decentralized IP cameras, some equipped with sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices. There are about 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide as of 2016, about 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years, the first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde, Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of V-2 rockets. The noted German engineer Walter Bruch, Wayne Cox, and Tashara Arnold were responsible for the technological design, in the U. S. the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit, marie Van Brittan Brown invented the home security system. The patent was granted in 1969, browns system had a set of 4 peep-holes and a camera that could slide up and down to look through each one. The system included a device that enabled a homeowner to use a set to view the person at the door. The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record, the development of reel-to-reel media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread, VCR technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and use of video surveillance became more common. During the 1990s, digital multiplexing was developed, allowing cameras to record at once, as well as time lapse. This increased savings of time and money and the led to an increase in the use of CCTV, recently CCTV technology has been enhanced with a shift toward Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments. In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States to install video cameras along its main street in an effort to fight crime
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Sydney Harbour Tunnel
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The Sydney Harbour Tunnel is a twin-tube road tunnel in Sydney, Australia. The tunnel was completed and opened to traffic in August 1992 to provide a vehicular crossing of Sydney Harbour to alleviate congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge. It is the tunnel under the harbour, although there are plans to build a set of rail tunnels. The tunnel joins the Warringah Freeway at North Sydney, and the Cahill Expressway at the entrance to the Domain Tunnel. It has two lanes in each direction, and runs at an angle of thirty degrees to the Sydney Harbour Bridge. In 2008, the tunnel was carrying around 90,000 vehicles per day, the tunnel is made up of three sections, twin 900-metre land tunnels on the north shore, twin 400-metre land tunnels on the south shore and a 960-metre immersed tube structure. The tunnel falls about 55 metres from the entrance and about 35 metres from the southern entrance to its deepest point,25 metres below sea level. The IMT structure consists of eight precast concrete units, the units were constructed over 100 kilometres away in a casting basin at Port Kembla and then towed to Sydney Harbour. A trench was dredged before the arrival of the IMTs and then the IMTs were lowered into the trench by a system of pontoons and control towers. After the IMTs were in place the trenches were backfilled and then a rock armour was placed over the top to protect the units against marine hazards, the land tunnels were constructed by a combination of driving and cut-and-cover techniques. The total construction cost of the project was A$554.25 million, the northern end pylons of the Sydney Harbour Bridge were altered to allow for air exhaust from the tunnel to rise over the harbour. Bradfield Park on the side of the bridge also has air intakes. Fresh air is drawn by an underground station on the north shore and is pumped to all sections of the tunnel through vented ducts. The air supply uses fourteen axial flow fans, each up to 2.5 metres in diameter, the exhaust uses sixteen fans that draw exhaust air through two underground ducts from the tunnel ventillation station and transfer the air to the top of the pylon. Each of the fans has a duty of 53 to 103 m³/s, the tunnel was opened to the public to walk through from North Sydney to South Sydney on 30 August 1992. The proceeds of the tickets sold for this event were donated to the Royal Institute for Deaf, the tunnel opened to traffic on 31 August 1992. The Harbour Tunnel is a partnership between the Government of New South Wales and private investors by tender, at the conclusion of the operating contract in August 2022, the tunnel is to be handed back to the NSW Government. In 2006, the New South Wales Government announced that all cash tolls on the Sydney Orbital Network will cease by 2010 and this measure has substantially eased the traffic jams heading towards the electronic gantries, and providing increased convenience and time savings
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