1.
Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
2.
History of Jerusalem
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3.
Timeline of Jerusalem
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This is a timeline of major events in the History of Jerusalem, a city that had been fought over sixteen times in its history. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, 4500–3500 BCE, First settlement established near Gihon Spring. C.2000 BCE, First known mention of the city, using the name Rusalimum, the Semitic root S-L-M in the name is thought to refer to either peace or Shalim, the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion. C.1850 BCE, According to the Book of Genesis, Biblical scholars have often interpreted the location of the mountain to be Jerusalem, although this is disputed. 1700–1550 BCE, According to Manetho, the Hyksos invade the region,1178 BCE, The Battle of Djahy between Ramesses III and the Sea Peoples marks the beginning of the decline in power of the New Kingdom in the Levant during the Bronze Age collapse. C.1000 BCE, According to the Bible, Jerusalem is inhabited by Jebusites and is known as Jebus, C.1010 BCE, King David attacks and captures Jerusalem. Jerusalem becomes City of David and capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, C.962 BCE, King Solomon builds the First Temple. 931–930 BCE, Solomon dies, and the Golden Age of Israel ends, Jerusalem becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Judah led by Rehoboam after the split of the United Monarchy. 925 BCE, Egyptian Sack of Jerusalem – Pharaoh Sheshonk I of the Third Intermediate Period invades Canaan following the Battle of Bitter Lakes, possibly the same as Shishak, the first Pharaoh mentioned in the Bible who captured and pillaged Jerusalem. 853 BCE, The Battle of Qarqar in which Jerusalems forces were involved in an indecisive battle against Shalmaneser III of Neo-Assyria. C.850 BCE, Jerusalem is sacked by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians, who looted King Jehorams house, C.830 BCE, Hazael of Aram Damascus conquers most of Canaan. According to the Bible, Jehoash of Judah gave all of Jerusalems treasures as a tribute,786 BCE, Jehoash of Israel sacks the city, destroys the walls and takes Amaziah of Judah prisoner. C.740 BCE, Assyrian inscriptions record military victories of Tiglath Pileser III over Uzziah of Judah,733 BCE, According to the Bible, Jerusalem becomes a vassal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. After Ahaz of Judah appeals to Tiglath Pileser III of the Neo-Assyrian Empire to protect the city from Pekah of Israel, Tiglath Pileser III subsequently conquers most of the Levant. At around this time, the Siege of Gezer,20 miles west of Jerusalem, is recorded on a relief at the Assyrian royal palace in Nimrud. C.712 BCE, The Siloam Tunnel is built in order to water from the Gihon Spring inside the city. 712 BCE, Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem – Jerusalem pays further tribute to the Neo-Assyrian Empire after the Neo-Assyrian King Sennacherib laid siege to the city. C.670 BCE, Manasseh, the ruler of Jerusalem, is brought in chains to the Assyrian king, C.627 BCE, The death of Ashurbanipal and the successful revolt of Nabopolassar replaces the Neo-Assyrian Empire with the Neo-Babylonian Empire
4.
City of David
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The City of David (Hebrew, is an Israeli settlement and the archaeological site which is speculated to compose the original urban core of ancient Jerusalem. In 1997 management of the park was taken over by Ir David Foundation, the international community regards Israeli settlements illegal under international law, although Israel disputes this. It is best known for its Iron Age structures attributed to Judean kings, the site is now located under the Arab neighborhood of Wadi Hilweh, and extends down from the southern city walls of Jerusalems Old City. Not far from that area a number of bullae were unearthed, bearing the names of Yehucal son of Shelemiah and Gedaliah son of Pashhur. The area is one of the most intensively excavated sites in the Holy Land and it is on a narrow ridge running south from the Temple Mount in the predominantly Arab neighborhood of Silwan in East Jerusalem. The City of David is highly controversial in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and it is located in Wadi Hilweh, on the western ridge of the predominately Arab neighborhood of Silwan. Jews constitute the majority of the population, the construction of the 16,000 m2 Kedem Compound, approved in April 2014, was denounced by UNESCO in October 2016. Archaeological exploration of the began in the nineteenth century, with excavations undertaken by Charles Warren in 1867. Warren was sent by the Palestine Exploration Fund, Warren conducted an excavation of the area south of the Temple Mount and recovered a massive fortification. The finding led him to conduct excavations at the area south to mount temple. There he revealed a shaft coming from underground to the surface and he suggested that the shaft was used to supply water to the city. Today this shaft is called after his discoverer warrens shaft, Warren believed that he is excavating the old biblical city of David. There have been numerous excavations since and several digs are currently underway, complete lists of the Ottoman Era digs, British Mandate era digs, Jordanian era digs and of the early Israeli era digs are available at the website of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The area includes sites of archaeological interest, notably the Siloam tunnel, Warrens shaft. All of these water supply systems drew their water from the Gihon Spring which lies on the Ophels eastern slope, the site of the Gihon Spring and Pool of Siloam are incorporated in an archaeological park open to the public. Visitors can wade through the Siloam Tunnel, through which the waters of the ancient spring still flow, chalcolithic remains include bits of pottery found in clefts in the bedrock by Macalister and Duncan. The expedition also discovered a number of places where the bedrock had been cut in various ways and these included areas where the rock had been smoothed and others where it had been cut to form flow channels. There were also groups of small basins, sometimes called cup marks
5.
Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period
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It was the center of religious life for all Jews, even those who lived in the diaspora prayed towards Jerusalem on a daily basis and made pilgrimages during religious festivals. It was also in Jerusalem during the stages of this period that Christianity was born. The 600 years of the Second Temple period can be divided into several periods, the physical development of the city was greatly affected by the changing characteristics of each era, while at the same time influencing these periods themselves. The citys population was characterized by social stratification, both economic and religious, which grew more pronounced over the years. There existed in the city, for example, a distinction between a rich and cosmopolitan elite and the wider population wishing less influence in the nations ways from the outside world. At the time of the return to Zion from the Babylonian captivity and its walls were derelict and a modest shrine now stood at the site of Solomons once grand Temple. The city, nevertheless, enjoyed a vibrant and flourishing religious life and it was at this time that the first Mishnas were written up and both the Bible and the Halakha begun to take their modern form. The same time witnessed the emergence of a dominant priestly class, mizpah continued as the provincial capital for over a century. The Persians may have experimented at first with ruling Yehud as a client kingdom under descendants of Jehoiachin, but by the mid-5th century BCE the prophets and Davidic kings had disappeared, leaving only the High Priest. The practical result was that after c.500 BCE Yehud became in practice a theocracy, alongside the High Priest was the Persian governor, apparently usually a local, charged primarily with keeping order and seeing that tribute was paid. He would have been assisted by officials and a body of scribes, but there is no evidence that a popular assembly existed. Judah during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE was basically polytheistic, persian-era Jerusalem was tiny, about 1500 inhabitants, even as low as 500 according to some estimates. It was the only true urban site in Yehud, the bulk of the population living in small unwalled villages. This picture did not much change throughout the entire Persian period, there is no sign in the archaeological record of massive inwards migration from Babylon. The urban area did not include the hill, which had been inside the walls before the Babylonian destruction. The Bible describes the construction of a wall by Nehemiah, the biblical Book of Ezra also describes the construction of a new temple by returning exiles from Babylon). The conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE ushered in the Hellenistic period, for most of the Hellenistic period, however, Jerusalem was quite prosperous. It had a measure of autonomy in managing its own affairs and was awarded the status of a polis
6.
Aelia Capitolina
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Aelia Capitolina was a Roman colony, built under the emperor Hadrian on the site of Jerusalem, which was in ruins since the siege of 70 AD, leading in part to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 AD. Aelia Capitolina remained the name of Jerusalem until 638 AD when the Arabs conquered the city. Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by Herod, was still in ruins following the siege of the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 AD. Josephus – a contemporary historian and apologist for Judaism who was born in Jerusalem, was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation. When the Roman Emperor Hadrian vowed to rebuild Jerusalem from the wreckage in 130 AD, the Jews awaited with hope, but then after Hadrian visited Jerusalem, he was told that rebuilding the Second Temple would encourage sedition. He then decided to rebuild the city as a Roman colony which would be inhabited by his legionaries, hadrians new plans included temples to the major regional deities, and certain Roman gods, in particular Jupiter Capitolinus. The Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt, which took the Romans three years to suppress, enraged Hadrian, and he determined to erase Judaism from the province. Circumcision was forbidden, Iudaea province was renamed Syria Palaestina and Jews expelled from the city, indeed, following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, dispensing with the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town, Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha BAv. Taken together, these measures essentially secularized the city, burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians. Within the span of a few decades, the city shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, in the Siege of Jerusalem of 614 AD, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629, Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 AD. Among Muslims of Islams earliest era it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis which was restricted to the Temple Mount, the rest of the city was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE, Aelia Capitolina. Eusebius evidence for continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Bordeaux Pilgrim, the city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth Legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which apparently encamped all over the western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this continued through the 4th century. The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise, the urban grid was based on the usual central north-south road and central east-west route. Tetrapylones were constructed at the junctions between the main roads
7.
History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages
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After this, the city remained a backwater of the late medieval Muslim empires and would not again exceed a population of 10,000 until the 16th century. It was passed back and forth through various Muslim factions until decidedly conquered by the Ottomans in 1517, Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, The city covered two square kilometers and had a population of 200,000. In the five following the Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century. During the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 800, Charlemagne enlarged Probus hospital and added a library to it, from the days of Constantine until the Arab conquest in 638, despite intensive lobbying by Judeo-Byzantines, Jews were forbidden to enter the city. Following the Arab capture of Jerusalem, the Jews were allowed back into the city by Muslim rulers such as Umar ibn al-Khattab, during the 8th to 11th centuries, Jerusalems prominence gradually diminished as the Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control. The city was one of the Arab Caliphates first conquests in 638, Umar chose to pray some distance from the church, so as not to endanger its status as a Christian temple. Fifty-five years later, the Mosque of Omar was constructed on the site where he prayed, after fall of Jerusalem, Umar permitted Jews to practice their religion freely and live in Jerusalem. Sixty years later, the Umayyad Dynasty caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned and completed the construction of the Dome of the Rock over the Foundation Stone on Jerusalems Temple Mount. Although the Quran does not mention the name Jerusalem, the hadith specify that it was from Jerusalem that Muhammad ascended to heaven in the Night Journey, or Isra, Al-Malik built the octagonal and gold-sheeted Dome over the location from which Muhammad was believed to have ascended into heaven. The Al-Aqsa Mosque was also nearby, again in honor of the story of the Night Journey. Jerusalem under Muslim rule did not achieve the political or cultural status enjoyed by the capitals Damascus, Baghdad, the Emperor Charlemagne started the precedent of Western European influence in the region under various treaties with the Caliphs establishing Frankish protection for pilgrims. With the decline of the Carolingian Empire in the early 10th century, however, the recovered Byzantines filled this void and as the Empire expanded under the Byzantine Crusades, Christians were again allowed to pilgrimage to Jerusalem. According to Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, German Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century, the story is told that a German-speaking Palestinian Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of the First Crusade came to besiege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger’s family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to Worms to repay the favor. Further evidence of German communities in the city comes in the form of halakic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century. As the Byzantine borders expanded into the Levant in the early 11th century, the Egyptian Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of all churches throughout Al-Islam starting with the churches in Jerusalem. In 1070–71, the Turkic emir Atsiz ibn Uvaq al-Khwarizmi besieged and captured the city and he therefore besieged the city again, and on recapturing it, slaughtered an estimated 3,000 of the rebel inhabitants, including those who had taken shelter in the Al-Aqsa Mosque
8.
Kingdom of Jerusalem
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The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was a crusader state established in the Southern Levant by Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099 after the First Crusade. The kingdom lasted nearly two hundred years, from 1099 until 1291 when the last remaining possession, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks, the sometimes so-called First Kingdom of Jerusalem lasted from 1099 to 1187, when it was almost entirely overrun by Saladin. This second kingdom is called the Second Kingdom of Jerusalem or the Kingdom of Acre. Three other crusader states founded during and after the First Crusade were located north, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch. While all three were independent, they were tied to Jerusalem. Beyond these to the north and west lay the states of Armenian Cilicia, further east, various Muslim emirates were located which were ultimately allied with the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. Jerusalem itself fell to Saladin in 1187, and in the 13th century the kingdom was reduced to a few cities along the Mediterranean coast. In this period, the kingdom was ruled by the Lusignan dynasty of the Kingdom of Cyprus, dynastic ties also strengthened with Tripoli, Antioch, and Armenia. The kingdom was soon dominated by the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa. Emperor Frederick II claimed the kingdom by marriage, but his presence sparked a war among the kingdoms nobility. The kingdom became more than a pawn in the politics and warfare of the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties in Egypt, as well as the Khwarezmian. The Mamluk sultans Baibars and al-Ashraf Khalil eventually reconquered all the remaining crusader strongholds, the kingdom was ethnically, religiously, and linguistically diverse, although the crusaders themselves and their descendants were an elite Catholic minority. They imported many customs and institutions from their homelands in Western Europe, the kingdom also inherited oriental qualities, influenced by the pre-existing customs and populations. The majority of the inhabitants were native Christians, especially Greek and Syrian Orthodox, as well as Sunni. The native Christians and Muslims, who were a lower class, tended to speak Greek and Arabic, while the crusaders spoke French. There were also a number of Jews and Samaritans. According to the Jewish writer Benjamin of Tudela, who travelled through the kingdom around 1170, since sets a lower bound for the Samaritan population at 1,500, since the contemporary Tolidah, a Samaritan chronicle, also mentions communities in Gaza and Acre. The First Crusade was preached at the Council of Clermont in 1095 by Pope Urban II, however, the main objective quickly became the control of the Holy Land
9.
Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem
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The Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, also known as the Sanjak of Jerusalem, was an Ottoman district with special administrative status established in 1872. The district encompassed Jerusalem as well as Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa, Gaza, during the late Ottoman period, the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, together with the Sanjak of Nablus and Sanjak of Akka, formed the region that was commonly referred to as Southern Syria or Palestine. The district was separated from Damascus and placed directly under Constantinople in 1841, scholars provide a variety of reasons for the separation, including increased European interest in the region, and strengthening of the southern border of the Empire against the Khedivate of Egypt. However, after less than two months, the sanjaks of Nablus and Acre were separated and added to the Vilayet of Beirut, leaving just the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem. In 1906, the Kaza of Nazareth was added to the Jerusalem Mutasarrifate, as an exclave, the area was conquered by the Allied Forces in 1917 during World War I and a military Occupied Enemy Territory Administration set up to replace the Ottoman administration. OETA South consisted of the Ottoman sanjaks of Jerusalem, Nablus, the military administration was replaced by a British civilian administration in 1920 and the area of OETA South was incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine in 1923. The political status of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was unique to other Ottoman province since it came under the authority of the Ottoman capital Constantinople. The inhabitants identified themselves primarily on religious terms, the districts villages were normally inhabited by farmers while its towns were populated by merchants, artisans, landowners and money-lenders. The elite consisted of the leadership, wealthy landlords and high-ranking civil servants. In 1841, the district was separated from Damascus and placed directly under Constantinople, before 1872, the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was officially a sanjak within the Syria Vilayet. In 1904, former Jerusalem official Najib Azuri formed in Paris, France the Ligue de la Patrie Arabe whose goal was to free Ottoman Syria and Iraq from Turkish domination. In 1908, Azuri proposed the elevation of the mutassarifate to the status of vilayet to the Ottoman Parliament after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. The area was conquered by the Allied Forces in 1917 during World War I, OETA South consisted of the Ottoman sanjaks of Jerusalem, Nablus and Acre. Below are six contemporary Ottoman maps showing the Quds Al-Sharif Sancağı or Quds Al-Sharif Mutasarrıflığı, the Mutasarrıfs of Jerusalem were appointed by the Porte to govern the district. They were usually experienced civil servants who spoke little or no Arabic, but knew a European language - most commonly French - in addition to Ottoman Turkish
10.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
11.
Jordanian annexation of the West Bank
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Jordanian annexation of the West Bank refers to the occupation and consequent annexation of the West Bank by Jordan in the aftermath of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. At the end of hostilities, Jordan was in control of the West Bank. Following the December 1948 Jericho Conference, and the 1949 renaming of the country from Transjordan to Jordan and it was recognized by the United Kingdom, Iraq and Pakistan. Jordan transferred its citizenship to the residents of the West Bank, prior to hostilities in 1948, all of the country known as Palestine had been under the British-controlled Mandate Government of Palestine, since 1917. Prior to that time, the country had been under Ottoman Turk occupation since 1517, toward the expiration of the British Mandate, Arabs aspired for independence and self-determination, as did the Jews of the country. On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion, on behalf of the Jewish leadership, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, on 22 September 1948, the All-Palestine Government was established in Gaza captured by Egypt. On 30 September, the First Palestine Congress, which saw Palestine as part of Syria, the December 1948 Jericho Conference, a meeting of prominent Palestinian leaders and King Abdullah, voted in favor of annexation into what was then Transjordan. By the end of the war, Jordanian forces had control over the West Bank, on 3 April 1949, Israel and Jordan signed an armistice agreement. The main points included, Jordanian forces remained in most positions held in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. Jordan withdrew its forces from its front posts overlooking the Sharon plain, in return, Israel agreed to allow Jordanian forces to take over positions in the West Bank previously held by Iraqi forces. The committee was never formed, and access to the Holy Places was denied to Israelis throughout the Jordanian occupation, the remainder of the area designated as part of an Arab state under the UN Partition Plan was partly occupied by Egypt, partly occupied and annexed by Israel. The intended international enclave of Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, the Jordanians immediately expelled all the Jewish residents of East Jerusalem. All but one of the 35 synagogues in the Old City were destroyed over the course of the next 19 years, either razed or used as stables, many other historic and religiously significant buildings were replaced by modern structures. The United States, together with the United Kingdom favored the annexation by Transjordan, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank on 24 April 1950, giving all residents automatic Jordanian citizenship. West Bank residents had received the right to claim Jordanian citizenship in December 1949. Jordans annexation was regarded as illegal and void by the Arab League. A motion to expel Jordan from the League was prevented by the votes of Yemen. On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure, on 27 July 1953, King Hussein of Jordan announced that East Jerusalem was the alternative capital of the Hashemite Kingdom and would form an integral and inseparable part of Jordan
12.
Assyrian siege of Jerusalem
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In approximately 701 BCE, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, attacked the fortified cities of Judah, laying siege on Jerusalem, but failed to capture it. In 721 BCE, the Assyrian army captured the Israelite capital at Samaria, the virtual destruction of Israel left the southern kingdom, Judah, to fend for itself among warring Near Eastern kingdoms. At the time of Samarias fall, there existed two kings in Judah — Ahaz and his son Hezekiah — who ruled as co-regents. After the fall of the Northern Kingdom, the kings of Judah tried to extend their influence, although Judah was a vassal of Assyria during this time and paid an annual tribute to the powerful empire, it was the most important state between Assyria and Egypt. In 715 BCE, following the death of Ahaz, Hezekiah became the regent of Judah and initiated widespread religious changes. He re-captured Philistine-occupied lands in the Negev desert, formed alliances with Ashkelon and Egypt, in response, Sennacherib attacked Judah, laying siege to Jerusalem. Sources from both sides claimed victory, the Judahites in the Tanakh, and Sennacherib in his prism, Sennacherib claimed the siege and capture of many Judaean cities, but only siege—not capture—of Jerusalem. The story of the Assyrian siege is told in the Hebrew Bible books of Isaiah, Chronicles, as the Assyrians began their invasion, Hezekiah began preparations to protect Jerusalem. In an effort to deprive the Assyrians of water, springs outside the city were blocked, workers then dug a 533-meter tunnel to the Spring of Gihon, providing the city with fresh water. Additional siege preparations included fortification of the walls, construction of towers. Hezekiah gathered the citizens in the square and encouraged them by reminding them that the Assyrians possessed only an arm of flesh, according to Second Kings 18, while Sennacherib was besieging Lachish, he received a message from Hezekiah offering to pay tribute in exchange for Assyrian withdrawal. Nevertheless, Sennacherib marched on Jerusalem with a large army, when the Assyrian force arrived, its field commander brought a message from Sennacherib himself. He listed the gods of the thus far swept away by Sennacherib then asked. During the siege, Hezekiah clad himself in out of anguish from the psychological warfare that the Assyrians were waging. The prophet Isaiah took a part in the political life of Judah. When Jerusalem was threatened, he assured Hezekiah that the city would be delivered, the Hebrew Bible states that during the night, an angel of YHWH brought death to 185,000 Assyrians troops. Hezekiah had shut up all water outside the city so thirst and it is also a possibility that a disease spread throughout the camp and killed a large number of Sennacheribs men. When Sennacherib saw the destruction wreaked on his army, he withdrew to Nineveh, Sennacheribs Prism, which details the events of Sennacheribs campaign against Judah, was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh in 1830, and is now stored at the Oriental Institute in Chicago, Illinois
13.
Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)
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In 589 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to Jerusalem, culminating in the destruction of the city and its temple in the summer of 587 BC. Following the siege of 597 BC, the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar installed Zedekiah as tributary king of Judah, however, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon, and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra, the king of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar responded by invading Judah and began a siege of Jerusalem in December 589 BC, during this siege, the duration of which was either 18 or 30 months, every worst woe befell the city, which drank the cup of Gods fury to the dregs. In 586 BC, after completion of the year of Zedekiahs reign, Nebuchadnezzar broke through Jerusalems walls. Zedekiah and his followers attempted to escape but were captured on the plains of Jericho, there, after seeing his sons killed, Zedekiah was blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon, where he remained a prisoner until his death. After the fall of Jerusalem, The Babylonian general, Nebuzaraddan, was sent to complete its destruction, Jerusalem was plundered, and Solomons Temple was destroyed. Most of the elite were taken into captivity in Babylon, the city was razed to the ground. Only a few people were permitted to remain to tend to the land, gedaliah was made governor of the remnant of Judah, the Yehud Province, with a Chaldean guard stationed at Mizpah. On hearing this news, the Jews who were in Moab, Ammon, Edom, gedaliah was assassinated two months later, and the population that had remained and those who had returned then fled to Egypt for safety. In Egypt, they settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph, the Babylonian Chronicles, published in 1956, indicate that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem the first time putting an end to the reign of Jehoaichin, on 2 Adar 597 BC. There has been debate as to when the second siege of Jerusalem took place. Thieles reckoning is based on the presentation of Zedekiahs reign on an accession basis, which was occasionally used for the kings of Judah. In that case, the year that Zedekiah came to the throne would be his year, his first full year would be 597/596 BC, and his eleventh year. Since Judahs regnal years were counted from Tishri in autumn, that would place the end of his reign, a timeline for the final siege of Jerusalem is shown in the table below. Dates are taken from the 2011 From Abraham to Paul, A Biblical Chronology, a book by Andrew E. Steinnman
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Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)
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The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War. The siege ended with the sacking of the city and the destruction of its Second Temple, the destruction of both the first and second temples is still mourned annually as the Jewish fast Tisha BAv. The Arch of Titus, celebrating the Roman sack of Jerusalem, at one point they destroyed the food stocks in the city, a drastic measure thought to have been undertaken perhaps in order to enlist a merciful Gods intervention on behalf of the besieged Jews. Titus began his siege a few days before Passover, surrounding the city, the thrust of the siege began in the west at the Third Wall, north of the Jaffa Gate. By May, this was breached and the Second Wall also was taken shortly afterwards, leaving the defenders in possession of the Temple and the upper and lower city. The Jewish defenders were split into factions, John of Gischalas group murdered another faction leader, Eleazar ben Simon, the enmities between John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora were papered over only when the Roman siege engineers began to erect ramparts. Titus then had a built to girdle the city in order to starve out the population more effectively. Titus was almost captured during this attack, but escaped. Overlooking the Temple compound, the fortress provided a point from which to attack the Temple itself. Battering rams made little progress, but the fighting itself eventually set the walls on fire, destroying the Temple was not among Titus goals, possibly due in large part to the massive expansions done by Herod the Great mere decades earlier. Titus had wanted to seize it and transform it into a dedicated to the Roman Emperor. The fire spread quickly and was out of control. The Temple was captured and destroyed on 9/10 Tisha BAv, at the end of August, Josephus described the scene, As the legions charged in, neither persuasion nor threat could check their impetuosity, passion alone was in command. Crowded together around the many were trampled by their friends, many fell among the still hot and smoking ruins of the colonnades. As they neared the Sanctuary they pretended not even to hear Caesars commands, the partisans were no longer in a position to help, everywhere was slaughter and flight. Most of the victims were citizens, weak and unarmed, butchered wherever they were caught. Round the Altar the heaps of corpses grew higher and higher, while down the Sanctuary steps poured a river of blood, josephuss account absolves Titus of any culpability for the destruction of the Temple, but this may merely reflect his desire to curry favor with the Flavian dynasty. The Roman legions quickly crushed the remaining Jewish resistance, some of the remaining Jews escaped through hidden underground tunnels, while others made a final stand in the Upper City
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Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem
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Following the victory in Antioch, Shahrbaraz conquered Caesarea Maritima, the administrative capital of the province. Some 20,000 Jewish rebels joined the war against the Byzantine Christians, depending on the chronicler figures of either 20,000 or 26,000 are given. The Persian army reinforced by Jewish forces led by Nehemiah ben Hushiel, Jews and Samaritans were persecuted frequently by the Byzantines resulting in numerous revolts. Byzantine religious propaganda developed strong anti-Jewish elements, in several cases Jews tried to help support the Sasanian advance. A pogrom in Antioch in 608 would lead to a Jewish revolt in 610 which was crushed, Jews also revolted in both Tyre and Acre in 610. The Jews of Tyre were massacred in reprisal, unlike in earlier times when Jews had supported Christians in the fight against Shapur I, the Byzantines had now become viewed as oppressors. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE Jews were prohibited from entering the city, constantine allowed Jews to enter for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha BAv. In 438 CE the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews entering the city, However, following violent Christian opposition the ban was reinstated. The ban on settlement was maintained until the Arab conquest, except during the reign of the emperor Julian, due to these circumstances Jerusalem is thought to have had only a small Jewish population prior to the events of 614. Following the unopposed capture of Jerusalem, control of the city was handed to Nehemiah ben Hushiel, Nehemiah was then appointed the ruler of Jerusalem. He began making arrangements for the building of the Third Temple, after only a few months a Christian revolt occurred. Nehemiah ben Hushiel and his council of sixteen righteous were killed along with many other Jews, following the outburst of violence in Jerusalem the surviving Jews fled to Shahrbaraz’s encampment at Caesarea. Christians were able to retake the city before the walls were breached by Shahrbaraz’s forces who lay siege to the city. According to Antiochus Strategos, the abbot Modestos set out to Jericho where he mustered a force from the Byzantine troops which were garrisoned there. However, once the Byzantine troops caught sight of the overwhelming Persian army encamped outside the city walls, they fled, sources vary on how long the siege lasted. Depending on the source it lasted 19,20 or 21 days, according to Sebeos the siege resulted in a total Christian death toll of 17,000,4,518 prisoners were massacred near Mamilla reservoir per Antiochus. Christian sources later exaggerated the extent of the massacre, claiming a death toll as high as 90,000, in addition 35,000 or 37,000 people including the patriarch Zacharias are said to have been deported to Mesopotamia. The city is said to have burnt down
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Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
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The Siege of Jerusalem took place from June 7 to July 15,1099, during the First Crusade. The climax of the First Crusade, the siege saw the Crusaders seize Jerusalem from the Fatimid Caliphate. After the successful siege of Antioch in June 1098, the Crusaders remained in the area for the rest of the year, the papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy had died, and Bohemond of Taranto had claimed Antioch for himself. Baldwin of Boulogne remained in Edessa, captured earlier in 1098, there was dissent among the princes over what to do next, Raymond of Toulouse, frustrated, left Antioch to capture the fortress at Maarrat al-Numan in the Siege of Maarat. By the end of the year the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to Jerusalem without them. Eventually, on January 13,1099 Raymond began the south, down the coast of the Mediterranean, followed by Robert of Normandy and Bohemonds nephew Tancred. On their way the Crusaders besieged Arqa but failed to capture it, therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalems Christian inhabitants. Further march towards Jerusalem met no resistance, on 7 June, the crusaders reached Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the Seljuqs by the Fatimids only the year before. Many Crusaders wept upon seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach. As with Antioch the crusaders put the city to a siege, in which the crusaders themselves probably suffered more than the citizens of the city, due to the lack of food and water around Jerusalem. The city was well-prepared for the siege, and the Fatimid governor Iftikhar ad-Daula had expelled most of the Christians, of the estimated 5,000 knights who took part in the Princes Crusade, only about 1,500 remained, along with another 12,000 healthy foot-soldiers. Early in the siege, some low-class knights claimed to have been visited by Adhemar, the papal regate for the crusade and they claimed that this was a Battle of Jericho situation, and that he instructed them to march around the city walls barefoot. They did so for a few days, singing holy chants, after which, Peter the Hermit held religious sermons in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, in the Garden of Gethsemane, and on the Mount of Olives, sending the crusading knights lost into religious zeal. It was at time that they were ready for a siege. A direct assault on the walls on June 13 was a failure, without water or food, both men and animals were quickly dying of thirst and starvation and the crusaders knew time was not on their side. Coincidentally, soon after the first assault, two Genoese galleys sailed into the port at Jaffa, the crusaders also began to gather wood from Samaria in order to build siege engines. They were still short on food and water, and by the end of June there was news that a Fatimid army was marching north from Egypt, the prime need of the crusaders was for ladders and siege towers to scale the walls of Jerusalem. The Egyptian Fatimid garrison had cleared the area of trees
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Siege of Jerusalem (1244)
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The 1244 Siege of Jerusalem took place after the Sixth Crusade, when the Khwarezmians conquered the city on July 15,1244. The size of Frederick IIs army and his reputation within the Islamic world was sufficient to regain Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and these were recovered by treaty from the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil. However, Jerusalem did not remain for long in Christian hands, the Ayyubids invited the free-roaming Khwarazmian clans, whose empire had been destroyed by the Mongols, to reconquer the city. In the siege and subsequent fall of the city in August,1244, the Siege on Orthodox Wiki The Siege on Encyclopædia Britannica The Siege on Timeline, History of Jerusalem The Siege on The Jewish History Resource Center
18.
Battle of Jerusalem
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Before Jerusalem could be secured, two battles were recognised by the British as being fought in the Judean Hills to the north and east of the Hebron–Junction Station line. These were the Battle of Nebi Samwill from 17 to 24 November, as a result of these victories, British Empire forces captured Jerusalem and established a new strategically strong fortified line. This line ran from well to the north of Jaffa on the plain, across the Judean Hills to Bireh north of Jerusalem. With the capture of the road from Beersheba to Jerusalem via Hebron and Bethlehem, together with substantial Ottoman territory south of Jerusalem, the city was secured. On 11 December, General Edmund Allenby entered the Old City on foot through the Jaffa Gate instead of horse or vehicles to show respect for the holy city and he was the first Christian in many centuries to control Jerusalem, a city held holy by three great religions. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Lloyd George described the capture as a Christmas present for the British people, the battle was a great morale boost for the British Empire. The British Empire victory forced von Falkenhayn to withdraw his Seventh and Eighth Armies, as the Ottoman III Corps reached Jerusalem via the Hebron road after its defeat at Beersheba, it was ordered to develop defences around Jerusalem. This corps held the city while the XX Corps retreated from Junction Station into the Judean Hills towards Jerusalem, as they retired the XX Corps left strong rearguards to stop or slow the British advance. Time was needed to construct defences and for reorganisation of the depleted and disorganised Seventh Army, when they arrived in the city XX Corps took over responsibility for Jerusalems defences, while III Corps continued to move northwards from Jerusalem along the Nablus road. The British War Cabinet had cautioned Allenby not to commit to any operations that might not be sustainable in the term if the strength of British forces in the area could not be maintained. Their concerns were possibly linked to a proposal published on 8 November by the new Russian Bolshevik government between Russia and Germany. The document, scheduled to be signed on 3 March 1918, would constitute a separate peace treaty, all German forces on the eastern front could then turn their attention to fighting British and French forces elsewhere. His front-line forces had been fighting and advancing for a period fighting many miles from their bases and were tired and depleted. Now 35 miles from the railhead at Deir el Belah, Allenbys troops did not have a line of defensive entrenchments behind which they could stop a concerted push by these two Ottoman armies, such a counterattack could well see them driven back to Gaza and Beersheba. He decided to quickly attack Fevzi Pashas Ottoman 7th Army in the Judean Hills with the hope of capturing Jerusalem and this would keep pressure on this army in the hope of denying them time to complete their reorganisation, dig deep trenches or worst of all, counterattack. The planned advance into the Judean Hills would rely heavily on the ability of the lines of communications to keep the front line supplied with food, water. Between Gaza and Beit Hanun the road was unsealed and deep in making it difficult for lorries to proceed. Supplies were also shipped by sea and landed at Wadi Sukereir, lack of infrastructure at Jaffa meant all supplies brought via ship had to be cross-loaded onto surf boats, which then had to be unloaded on the beaches
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Battle for Jerusalem
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The Battle for Jerusalem occurred from December 1947 to 18 July 1948, during the 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine. The Jewish and Arab populations of Mandatory Palestine and later the Israeli, under the UN Partition Plan, Jerusalem was to be placed under international rule in a corpus separatum. Fighting nevertheless immediately broke out in the city between Jewish and Arab militias, with bombings and attacks by both sides, starting in February 1948, Arab militia under Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni blockaded the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, preventing the supply of the Jewish population. This blockade was broken in mid-April by Operation Nachshon and Operation Maccabee, on 14 May and the following days, Etzioni and Harel brigades supported by Irgun troops launched several operations aiming to take over the Arab side of the city. Israeli victories against the Arab militias in the city pushed Abdallah of Jordan to order the Arab Legion to intervene and it deployed in East Jerusalem, fought the Israelis and took the Jewish quarter of the Old City. The population was expelled and the fighters taken prisoners to Jordan, the Israeli forces launched three assaults on Latrun to free the road to the city but without success. Israeli forces built a road to Jerusalem before the truce imposed by UN on 11 June. During the period called the First Truce the Jewish city was supplied with food, ammunition, weapons, fighting didnt resume during the remaining months of the 1948 war. The city was split between Israel and Jordan after the war, Israel ruling West Jerusalem and Jordan ruling East Jerusalem with the Old City, following the outbreak of disturbances at the end of 1947 the road between Tel Aviv and Jewish Jerusalem became increasingly difficult for Jewish vehicles. Ambushes by Palestinian Arab irregulars became more frequent and more sophisticated, aside from the large Jewish population, Jerusalem held special importance to the Yishuv for religious and nationalist reasons. In particular, the Arab forces tried to cut off the road to Jerusalem from the coastal plain, the Arabs blocked access to Jerusalem at Latrun and Bab al-Wad, a narrow valley surrounded by Arab villages on hills on both sides. The breaking of the siege of Jerusalem and the annexation of the areas to the Jewish state became primary goals for the Israelis in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. In December 1947 the Jewish Agency set up the Jerusalem Emergency Committee, headed by Dov Yosef, in January the Committee estimated 4,500 tons a month was needed. They were given 50,000 Palestine pounds credit with the Histadruts wholesalers, in January 1948 the number of trucks supplying Jewish Jerusalem had fallen to thirty per day. By March the daily number of trucks reaching Jerusalem was six. By the end of March it was clear that food supplies for civilians in Jewish Jerusalem would run out, on 1 April The Times estimated that the Jewish population of Jerusalem required a minimum of 50 truckloads per week. On 3 April, The Scotsman reported that a spokesman at a meeting of Arab military leaders in Damascus had announced that Jerusalem would be strangled by a blockade. One estimate of the size of the forces at the beginning of March 1948 gives the Arabs 5,300 men in Jerusalem and surrounding district
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East Jerusalem
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East Jerusalem or Eastern Jerusalem is the sector of Jerusalem that was not part of Israeli-held West Jerusalem at the end of the 1948–1949 Arab–Israeli War. Despite its name, East Jerusalem includes neighborhoods to the north, east and south of the Old City and this arrangement was formalized in the Rhodes Agreement in March 1949. A week after David Ben-Gurion presented his partys assertion that Jewish Jerusalem is an organic, inseparable part of the State of Israel in December 1949 and these decisions were confirmed respectively in the Knesset in January 1950 and the Jordanian Parliament in April 1950. On being captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, East Jerusalem, with expanded borders, in the Palestine Liberation Organization s Palestinian Declaration of Independence of 1988, Jerusalem is stated to be the capital of the State of Palestine. East Jerusalem has been occupied by Israel since 1967 and was annexed by Israel in 1980. On 27–28 June 1967, East Jerusalem was integrated into Jerusalem by extension of its borders and was placed under the law. In a unanimous General Assembly resolution, the UN declared the measures trying to change the status of the city invalid, following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jerusalem was divided into two parts. The western portion, populated primarily by Jews, came under Israeli rule, while the eastern portion, populated mainly by Muslim and Christian Palestinians, following the 1967 Six-Day War, the eastern part of Jerusalem came under Israeli rule, along with the entire West Bank. Shortly after the Israeli takeover, East Jerusalem was annexed to West Jerusalem, in November 1967, United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 was passed, calling for Israel to withdraw from territories occupied in the recent conflict in exchange for peace treaties. This declaration was determined to be null and void by United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, East Jerusalem is a term heavy with political implications. Israelis call the Arab populated part of the city East Jerusalem because of its location in the part of the single larger Jerusalem city unit. The term East Jerusalem is ambiguous and may be used to refer to either of the following, Jerusalem was to be an international city under the 1947 UN Partition Plan. It was not included as a part of either the proposed Jewish or Arab states, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the western part of Jerusalem was captured by Israel, while East Jerusalem was captured by Jordan. The war came to an end with the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements, upon its capture, the Jordanians immediately expelled all the Jewish residents of the Jewish Quarter. The ancient Jewish cemetery on Mount of Olives was desecrated, Jordan also destroyed the Jewish villages of Atarot and Neve Yaakov just north of Jerusalem. East Jerusalem absorbed some of the refugees from West Jerusalems Arab neighborhoods that came under Israeli rule, thousands of Arab refugees who were displaced from their homes in Israeli-held West Jerusalem were settled in the previously Jewish areas of East Jerusalem. In 1950 East Jerusalem, along with the rest of the West Bank, was annexed by Jordan. During the period of Jordanian rule, East Jerusalem lost much of its importance, as it was no longer a capital and it even saw a population decrease, with merchants and administrators moving to Amman
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West Jerusalem
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A number of western countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States acknowledge de facto Israeli authority, but withhold de jure recognition. Israels claim of sovereignty over West Jerusalem is considered to be stronger than its claim over East Jerusalem, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine made of Jerusalem and its area an international city. Arabs living in such western Jerusalem neighbourhoods as Katamon or Malha were forced to leave, almost 70% of the land in West Jerusalem in the pre-mandate period had been owned by Palestinians, a fact which made it hard for the evicted Palestinians to accept Israeli control in the West. The Knesset passed laws to transfer this Arab land to Israeli Jewish organizations, Israel established West Jerusalem as its capital in 1950. The Israeli government needed to invest heavily to create employment, building new government offices, a new university, the Great Synagogue, West Jerusalem became covered by the Law and Administrative Ordinance of 1948, subjecting West Jerusalem to Israeli jurisdiction. During the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel captured the eastern side of the city, over the following years, their control remain tenuous, the international community refusing to recognise their authority and the Israelis themselves not feeling secure. In 1980, the Israeli government annexed East Jerusalem and reunified the city, the population of Jerusalem has largely remained segregated along the citys historical east/west division. The larger city contains two populations that are almost completely economically and politically segregated, each interacting with its separate central business district, supporting analysis that the city has retained a duocentric, as opposed to the traditional monocentric, structure
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Old City (Jerusalem)
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The Old City is a 0.9 square kilometers walled area within the modern city of Jerusalem. Until 1860, when the Jewish neighborhood Mishkenot Shaananim was established, traditionally, the Old City has been divided into four uneven quarters, although the current designations were introduced only in the 19th century. Today, the Old City is roughly divided into the Muslim Quarter, Christian Quarter, Armenian Quarter, the Old Citys monumental defensive walls and city gates were built in the years 1535–1542 by the Turkish sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The current population of the Old City resides mostly in the Muslim and Christian quarters. As of 2007 the total population was 36,965, the breakdown of religious groups in 2006 was 27,500 Muslims,5,681 Christians, not including the 790 Armenians, and 3,089 Jews. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Old City was captured by Jordan, today, the Israeli government controls the entire area, which it considers part of its national capital. However, the Jerusalem Law of 1980, which effectively annexed East Jerusalem to Israel, was declared null, East Jerusalem is now regarded by the international community as part of occupied Palestinian territory. In 2010, Jerusalems oldest fragment of writing was found outside the Old Citys walls, according to the Bible, before King Davids conquest of Jerusalem in the 11th century BCE the city was home to the Jebusites. The Bible describes the city as heavily fortified with a city wall. The city ruled by King David, known as Ir David, or the City of David, was southeast of the Old City walls, outside the Dung Gate. His son King Solomon extended the city walls and then, in about 440 BCE, during the Persian period, Nehemiah returned from Babylon, in 41–44 CE, Agrippa, king of Judea, built a new city wall known as the Third Wall. Muslims occupied Jerusalem in the 7th Century under the second caliph and he granted its inhabitants an assurance treaty. Sophronius believed that Umar, a warrior who led an austere life, was a fulfillment of this prophecy. In the account by the Patriarch of Alexandria, Eutychius, it is said that Umar paid a visit to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and sat in its courtyard. Eutychius adds that Umar also wrote a decree which he handed to the Patriarch, in which he prohibited Muslims gathering in prayer at the site. In 1099, Jerusalem was captured by the Western Christian army of the First Crusade and it remained in their hands until recaptured by the Arab Muslims, led by Saladin and he summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the city. In 1219, the walls of the city were razed by Muazzim Sultan of Damascus, in 1229, by treaty with Egypt, in 1239 he began to rebuild the walls, but they were demolished again by Daud, the emir of Kerak. In 1243, Jerusalem came again under the control of the Christians, the Kharezmian Tatars took the city in 1244 and Sultan Malik al-Muattam razed the walls, rendering it again defenseless and dealing a heavy blow to the citys status
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Temple Mount
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The Temple Mount, known to Muslims as the Haram esh-Sharif, a hill located in the Old City of Jerusalem, is one of the most important religious sites in the world. It has been venerated as a site for thousands of years by Judaism, Christianity. The present site is dominated by three monumental structures from the early Umayyad period, the al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Rock, Herodian walls and gates with additions dating back to the late Byzantine and early Islamic periods cut through the flanks of the Mount. Currently it can be reached through eleven gates, ten reserved for Muslims and one for non-Muslims, the Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism, which regards it as the place where Gods divine presence is manifested more than in any other place. According to the rabbinic sages whose debates produced the Talmud, it was here the world expanded into its present form. Several passages in the Hebrew Bible indicate that during the time when they were written, the Temple Mount was identified as Mount Zion. The Mount Zion mentioned in the parts of the Book of Isaiah, in the Book of Psalms. The name later migrated for a last time, this time to Jerusalems Western Hill, according to the Bible, both Jewish Temples stood at the Temple Mount, though archaeological evidence only exists for the Second Temple. However, the identification of Solomons Temple with the area of the Temple Mount is widespread, according to the Bible the site should function as the center of all national life—a governmental, judicial and religious center. During the Second Temple period it functioned also as an economic center, according to Jewish tradition and scripture, the First Temple was built by King Solomon the son of King David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE, in the 2nd century, the site was used for a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. It was redeveloped following the Arab conquest, Jewish tradition maintains it is here a Third and final Temple will also be built. The location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer and it was from the Holy of Holies that the High Priest communicated directly with God. The Temple was of importance in Jewish worship, in the Tanakh. In the New Testament it remains the site of events in the life of Jesus. It was to end, proof of a biblical prophecy fulfilled and of Christianitys victory over Judaism with the New Covenant. Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam, revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammads journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam. Muslims preferred to the esplanade as the heart for the Muslim quarter since it had abandoned by Christians
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Temple in Jerusalem
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These successive temples stood at this location and functioned as a site of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship. The Hebrew name given in the Hebrew Bible for the complex is either Beit YHWH, Beit HaElohim House of God, or simply Beiti my house. The term hekhal hall or main building is often translated temple in older English Bibles, in rabbinical literature the temple is Beit HaMikdash, The Sanctified House, and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name. The Hebrew Bible says that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon and this temple was sacked a few decades later by Shoshenq I, Pharaoh of Egypt. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, according to the Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple was authorized by Cyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE, after the fall of the Babylonian Empire the year before. It was completed 23 years later, on the day of Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the Great. However, with a reading of the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah, there were four edicts to build the Second Temple. Cyrus in 536 BCE, which is recorded in the first chapter of Ezra, next, Darius I of Persia in 519 BCE, which is recorded in the sixth chapter of Ezra. Third, Artaxerxes I of Persia in 457 BCE, which was the year of his reign. Finally, by Artaxerxes again in 444 BCE in the chapter of Nehemiah. Moreover, the narrowly avoided being destroyed again in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Alexander was allegedly turned from his anger at the last minute by astute diplomacy, further, after the death of Alexander on 13 June 323 BCE, and the dismembering of his empire, the Ptolemies came to rule over Judea and the Temple. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were given many civil liberties, however, when the Ptolemaic army was defeated at Panium by Antiochus III of the Seleucids in 198 BCE, this policy changed. Antiochus wanted to Hellenize the Jews, attempting to introduce the Greek pantheon into the temple. Moreover, a rebellion ensued and was crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken. However, his policies never took effect in Judea, since he was assassinated the year after his ascension, Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his older brother to the Seleucid throne and immediately adopted his fathers previous policy of universal Hellenisation. The Jews rebelled again and Antiochus, in a rage, retaliated in force, considering the previous episodes of discontent, the Jews became incensed when the religious observances of Sabbath and circumcision were officially outlawed. When Antiochus erected a statue of Zeus in their temple and Hellenic priests began sacrificing pigs, when a Greek official ordered a Jewish priest to perform a Hellenic sacrifice, the priest killed him
25.
Western Wall
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The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall. The Western Wall is considered due to its connection to the Temple Mount. Because of the status quo policy, the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray, though it is not the holiest site in the Jewish faith, which lies behind it. The original, natural and irregular-shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever-larger Temple compound to be built at its top, on top of this box-like structure Herod built a vast paved esplanade which surrounded the Temple. Of the four retaining walls, the one is considered to be closest to the former Temple. The term Wailing Wall is not used by Jews and increasingly many others who consider it derogatory, in a broader sense, Western Wall can refer to the entire 488 metre-long retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. The wall has been a site for Jewish prayer and pilgrimage for centuries, from the mid-19th century onwards, attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews, but none was successful. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. This period ended on June 10,1967, when Israel gained control of the following the Six-Day War. Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza. The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term ha-kotel ha-maaravi, the Western Wall, the name Wailing Wall, and descriptions such as wailing place, appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century. The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German and this term itself was a translation of the Arabic el-Mabka, or Place of Weeping, the traditional Arabic term for the wall. This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn, at some time in the 19th century, the Arabs began referring to the wall as the al-Buraq Wall. This was based on the tradition that inside the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed, al-Buraq. The tradition on which this is based only states that the Prophet, or the angel Jibrail, tethered the steed at the gate of the mosque, meaning, at the gate of the Temple Mount. Israeli archaeologist Meir Ben-Dov concluded that the Muslim association with Western Wall began in the nineteenth century in response to renewed Jewish identification with the site. The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187-foot exposed section of ancient wall situated on the flank of the Temple Mount
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Dome of the Rock
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The Dome of the Rock is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. The original dome collapsed in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–23, the Dome of the Rock is in its core one of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture. The octagonal plan of the structure may also have influenced by the Byzantine Church of the Seat of Mary built between 451 and 458 on the road between Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Herods Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the Romans, and after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, Jerusalem was ruled by the Christian Byzantine Empire throughout the 4th to 6th centuries. During this time, Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem began to develop, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built under Constantine in the 320s, but the Temple Mount was left undeveloped after a failed project of restoration of the temple under Julian the Apostate. The Dome of the Rock is now assumed to have been built by the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik and his son. According to Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, construction started in 687, construction cost was reportedly seven times the yearly tax income of Egypt. A dedicatory inscription in Kufic script is preserved inside the dome, the date is recorded as AH72, the year historians believe the construction of the original Dome was completed. In this inscription, the name of al-Malik was deleted and replaced by the name of Abbasid caliph Al-Mamun and this alteration of the original inscription was first noted by Melchior de Vogüé in 1864. Some scholars have suggested that the dome was added to a building, built either by Muawiyah I, or indeed a Byzantine building dating to before the Muslim conquest. Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces, the two engineers in charge of the project were Raja ibn Haywah, a Muslim theologian from Beit Shean and Yazid Ibn Salam, a non-Arab who was Muslim and a native of Jerusalem. Creswell in his book The Origin of the Plan of the Dome of the Rock notes that those who built the shrine used the measurements of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The diameter of the dome of the shrine is 20.20 m and its height 20.48 m, while the diameter of the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is 20.90 m and its height 21.05 m. It comprises a dome, approximately 20 m in diameter. Surrounding this circle is an arcade of 24 piers and columns. The original construction was surrounded by arcades, like the Dome of the Chain. Under Abbasid caliph Al-Mamun, a wall was added. The building was damaged by earthquakes in 808 and again in 846
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Al-Aqsa Mosque
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Al-Aqsa Mosque, also known as Al-Aqsa and Bayt al-Muqaddas, is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam and is located in the Old City of Jerusalem. Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa during the Night Journey, Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration, when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba. The mosque was destroyed by an earthquake in 746 and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in 754. His successor al-Mahdi rebuilt it again in 780, another earthquake destroyed most of al-Aqsa in 1033, but two years later the Fatimid caliph Ali az-Zahir built another mosque which has stood to the present day. When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, they used the mosque as a palace and the Dome of the Rock as a church, but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin in 1187. More renovations, repairs and additions were undertaken in the centuries by the Ayyubids, Mamluks, Ottomans, the Supreme Muslim Council. Today, the Old City is under Israeli control, but the remains under the administration of the Jordanian/Palestinian-led Islamic Waqf. Al-Masjid al-Aqsa translates from Arabic into English as the farthest mosque, for centuries, al-Masjid al-Aqsa referred not only to the mosque, but to the entire sacred sanctuary, while al-Jami al-Aqsa referred to the specific site of the mosque. This changed during the period of Ottoman rule when the complex came to be known as al-Haram al-Sharif. The al-Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount, referred to by Muslims today as the Haram al-Sharif, at the time of the Second Temple, the present site of the mosque was occupied by the Royal Stoa, a basilica running the southern wall of the enclosure. The Royal Stoa was destroyed along with the Temple during the sacking of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, however, remains identified as those of the Nea Church were uncovered in the south part of the Jewish Quarter in 1973. Analysis of the beams and panels removed from the mosque during renovations in the 1930s shows they are made from Cedar of Lebanon. Radiocarbon dating indicates a range of ages, some as old as 9th-century BCE. These included a mosaic like those used in Byzantine churches, the current construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque is dated to the early Umayyad period of rule in Palestine. However, Arculf visited Palestine during the reign of Muawiyah I and this latter claim is explicitly supported by the early Muslim scholar al-Muthahhar bin Tahir. According to several Muslim scholars, including Mujir ad-Din, al-Suyuti, and al-Muqaddasi, however, the entire Haram al-Sharif was meant to represent a mosque. The bridge would have spanned the street running just outside the wall of the Haram al-Sharif to give direct access to the mosque. Direct access from palace to mosque was a feature in the Umayyad period
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Church of the Holy Sepulchre
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The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, a few steps away from the Muristan. The tomb is enclosed by the 18th-century shrine, called the Aedicule, within the church proper are the last four Stations of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of Jesus Passion. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox and Roman Catholic, and to a lesser degree the Egyptian Copts, Syriacs and Ethiopians. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, the Roman emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD built a dedicated to the goddess Venus in order to bury the cave in which Jesus had been buried. The first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great, ordered in about 325/326 that the temple be replaced by a church, during the building of the Church, Constantines mother, Helena, is believed to have rediscovered the tomb. Socrates Scholasticus, in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a description of the discovery. The remains are enveloped by a marble sheath placed some 500 years before to protect the ledge from Ottoman attacks. However, there are several thick window wells extending through the marble sheath and they appear to reveal an underlying limestone rock, which may be part of the original living rock of the tomb. The church was starting in 325/326, and was consecrated on 13 September 335. From pilgrim reports it seems that the housing the tomb of Jesus was freestanding at first. Each year, the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates the anniversary of the consecration of the Church of the Resurrection on 13 September and this building was damaged by fire in May of 614 when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius restored it and rebuilt the church after recapturing the city, after Jerusalem came under Arab rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the citys Christian sites. A story reports that the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony and he feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius added that Umar wrote a decree prohibiting Muslims from praying at this location, the building suffered severe damage due to an earthquake in 746. Early in the century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas, in the year 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Orthodox Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent the Church, in 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, the doors and roof were burnt, and the Patriarch John VII was murdered
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Hebrew University of Jerusalem
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The Hebrew University of Jerusalem is Israels second oldest university established in 1918,30 years before the State of Israel. The Hebrew University has three campuses in Jerusalem and one in Rehovot, the worlds largest Jewish studies library is located on its Edmond J. Safra Givat Ram campus. The university has 5 affiliated teaching hospitals including the Hadassah Medical Center,7 faculties, more than 100 research centers, a third of all the doctoral candidates in Israel are studying in the Hebrew University. The first Board of Governors included Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Martin Buber, four of Israels prime ministers are alumni of the Hebrew University. In the last decade, eight researchers and alumni of the University received the Nobel Prize, one was awarded the Fields Medal, one of the visions of the Zionist movement was the establishment of a Jewish university in the Land of Israel. Founding a university was proposed as far back as 1884 in the Kattowitz conference of the Hovevei Zion society, the cornerstone for the university was laid on July 24,1918. The Universitys first Chancellor was Judah Magnes, by 1947, the University had become a large research and teaching institution. Plans for a school were approved in May 1949, and in November 1949. In 1952, it was announced that the institute founded by the University in 1940 would become a full-fledged faculty. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, attacks were carried out against convoys moving between the Israeli-controlled section of Jerusalem and the University. The leader of the Arab forces in Jerusalem, Abdul Kader Husseini, after the Hadassah medical convoy massacre, in which 79 Jews, including doctors and nurses, were slaughtered, the Mount Scopus campus was cut off from Jerusalem. British soldier Jack Churchill coordinated the evacuation of 700 Jewish doctors, when the Jordan government denied Israeli access to Mount Scopus, a new campus was built at Givat Ram in western Jerusalem and completed in 1958. In the interim, classes were held in 40 different buildings around the city, the Terra Santa building in Rehavia, rented from the Franciscan Custodians of the Latin Holy Places, was also used for this purpose. A few years later, together with the Hadassah Medical Organization, by the beginning of 1967, the students numbered 12,500, spread among the two campuses in Jerusalem and the agricultural faculty in Rehovot. After the unification of Jerusalem, following the Six-Day War of June 1967, the University was able to return to Mount Scopus, in 1981 the construction work was completed, and Mount Scopus again became the main campus of the University. On July 31,2002, a member of a terrorist cell detonated a bomb during lunch hour at the Universitys Frank Sinatra cafeteria when it was crowded with staff and students. Nine people — five Israelis, three Americans, and one dual French-American citizen — were murdered and more than 70 wounded, World leaders, including Kofi Annan, President Bush, and the President of the European Union issued statements of condemnation. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, Rothberg International School, the Rothberg International School features secular studies and Jewish/Israeli studies
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Knesset
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The Knesset is the unicameral national legislature of Israel. As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the President and Prime Minister, approves the cabinet, in addition, the Knesset elects the State Comptroller. The Prime Minister may also dissolve the Knesset, however, until an election is completed, the Knesset maintains authority in its current composition. The Knesset is located in Givat Ram, Jerusalem, as the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the president, approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government through its committees. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the President and the State Comptroller from office, the Knesset is presided over by a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. The Knesset is divided into committees, which amend bills on the appropriate subjects, Committee chairpersons are chosen by their members, on recommendation of the House Committee, and their factional composition represents that of the Knesset itself. Committees may elect sub-committees and delegate powers to them, or establish joint committees for issues concerning more than one committee, to further their deliberations, they invite government ministers, senior officials, and experts in the matter being discussed. There are four types of committees in the Knesset, permanent committees amend proposed legislation dealing with their area of expertise, and may initiate legislation. However, such legislation may only deal with Basic Laws and laws dealing with the Knesset, elections to the Knesset, Knesset members, or the State Comptroller. Special committees function in a manner to permanent committees, but are appointed to deal with particular manners at hand. Parliamentary inquiry committees are appointed by the plenum to deal with issues viewed as having national importance. The Ethics Committee is responsible for jurisdiction over Knesset members who violate the rules of ethics of the Knesset, within the framework of responsibility, the Ethics Committee may place various sanctions on a member, but is not allowed to restrict a members right to vote. The Knesset numbers 120 members, a subject which has often been a cause for proposed reforms and this proposed law has also been favoured by other politicians, including Benjamin Netanyahu. The 120 members of the Knesset are popularly elected from a single electoral district to concurrent four-year terms. All Israeli citizens 18 years or older may vote in legislative elections, Knesset seats are allocated among the various parties using the DHondt method of party list proportional representation. A party or electoral alliance must pass the threshold of 3. 25% of the overall vote to be allocated a Knesset seat. Parties select their candidates using a closed list, thus, voters select the party of their choice, not any specific candidate. The electoral threshold was set at 1% from 1949 to 1992, then 1. 5% from 1992 to 2003
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Jerusalem Biblical Zoo
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The Tisch Family Zoological Gardens in Jerusalem, popularly known as the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo, is a zoo located in the Malha neighborhood of Jerusalem, Israel. It is famous for its collection of featured in the Hebrew Bible. According to Dun and Bradstreet, the Biblical Zoo was the most popular tourist attraction in Israel from 2005 to 2007, the zoo had about 55,000 members in 2009. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo opened in September 1940 as an animal corner on Rabbi Kook Street in central Jerusalem. The zoo was founded by Aharon Shulov, a professor of zoology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, early on, the zoo ran into several difficulties in its decision to focus on animals mentioned in the Bible. For one, the meaning of names of animals, reptiles and birds in Scriptures is often uncertain, for example, nesher, commonly translated as eagle. Zoo planners decided to branch beyond strictly biblical animals and include worldwide endangered species as well, the presence of the animal corner generated many complaints from residents in adjoining buildings due to the smell and noise, as well as the perceived danger of animal escapes. Due to the complaints, the zoo relocated in 1941 to a 4. 5-dunam lot on Shmuel HaNavi Street, here, too, complaints were heard from the neighbors, but the zoo remained at this site for the next six years. In 1947 the zoo, which by now had 122 animals and it remained there from 1947 to 1950. Its occupancy coincided with the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the siege of Jerusalem, zookeepers resorted to hunting down stray dogs near garbage dumps in order to feed the carnivorous animals. Many of the carnivores died anyway, and other, non-dangerous species had to be released, as part of the Israel-Jordan Armistice Agreements of 1949, access to Mount Scopus was restricted. The United Nations helped the zoo relocate to a 15-hectare lot in Givat Komuna, adjacent to the neighborhoods of Romema. According to Shulov, when the zoo arrived in Romema, only two wolves, one hyena, one lion and one leopard were left, the zoo remained in Romema from 1950 to 1991, becoming a beloved Jerusalem institution. The zoo grew to 28 acres and more than 200 species, through gifts, trades with other zoos, and its success at breeding, the zoos collection exceeded 500 animals by 1967. During the Six-Day War, however,110 animals were killed by shrapnel, the zoo was administered by a nonprofit corporation with representatives from Hebrew University, the Jerusalem Municipality, and the Israeli Ministries of Tourism and Education. From a financial standpoint, however, the zoo had little money, Shulov, who retired as director in 1983, often served as director without pay. The zoo was considered inferior to the zoos of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek, who took office in 1965, became one of the main supporters and fund-raisers through his Jerusalem Foundation
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Demographic history of Jerusalem
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Jerusalems population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000 year history. Since medieval times, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, most population data pre-1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District. These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-19th century. In 2003, the population of Jerusalem was 693,217, including 464,527 Jews and 228,690 Arabs and others. Though they may have citizens of that particular kingdom and empire and involved with civic activities and duties. Some Palestinian residents of the city prefer to use the term Maqdisi or Qudsi as a Palestinian demonym, the tables below provide data on demographic change over time in Jerusalem, with an emphasis on the Jewish population. g. Thus, year-to-year comparisons may not be due to the varying geographic areas covered by the population censuses. In the Achaemenid Yehud Medinata the population of Jerusalem is estimated at between 1500 and 2750. Jerusalems population prior to the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 has been estimated to be around 70,398 by Wilkinson in 1974,80,000 by Broshi in 1978. According to Josephus, the populations of adult male scholarly sects were as follows, over 6,000 Pharisees, more than 4,000 Essenes, new Testament scholar Cousland notes that recent estimates of the population of Jerusalem suggest something in the neighbourhood of a hundred thousand. A minimalist view is taken by Hillel Geva, who estimates from archaeological evidence that the population of Jerusalem before its 70 CE destruction was at most 20,000, Josephus also wrote that 97,000 were sold as slaves. After the Roman victory over the Jews, as many as 115,880 dead bodies were carried out through one gate between the months of Nisan and Tammuz. Henry Light, who visited Jerusalem in 1814, reported that Muslims comprised the largest portion of the 12,000 person population, in 1818, Robert Richardson estimated the number of Jews to be 10,000, twice the number of Muslims. Between 1838 and 1876, conflicting estimates exist regarding whether Muslims or Jews constituted a majority in the city. It is therefore obvious that they here had as strong a motive to exaggerate their number, as they often have in other circumstances to underrate it. Besides, this number of 7000 rests merely on report, Sir Moses himself has published nothing on the subject, in 1843, Reverend F. C. Ewald, a Christian traveler visiting Jerusalem, reported an influx of 150 Jews from Algiers. He wrote that there were now a number of Jews from the coast of Africa who were forming a separate congregation. Between 1856 and 1880, Jewish immigration to Palestine more than doubled, the majority of these immigrants were Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe, who subsisted on Halukka
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Mayor of Jerusalem
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The Mayor of the City of Jerusalem is head of the executive branch of the political system in Jerusalem, The Jerusalem Municipality. The mayors office administers all city services, public property, most public agencies, the mayors office is located in Safra Square, it has jurisdiction over all the citys neighborhoods. The mayor appoints a number of officials, including Directors who head city departments. The Jerusalem City Council was established in 1863 during the rule of the Ottoman Empire, by 1840, the Jewish community constituted the largest single religious group in the city. From the 1880s onward, the Jews constituted the majority within the city, however, it was only in 1937, under the British Mandate, that the first Jewish mayor was appointed. This is a list of mayors of Jerusalem in chronological order, 1848–1863 — Ahmad Agha Duzdar Al-Asali 1863–1867 — Abdelrahman al-Dajani 1867 — Rafadulo Astiriyadis Effendi 1867–1869 — Abdelrahman al-Dajani. 1870–1876 — Yusuf Ziya Paşa al-Khālīdī, triumvirate 1876–1877 — Abd al-Qādir al-Khalīlī Abū l-Hudā/Umar al-Ḥusaynī Abd al-Salām Paşa al Ḥusaynī/Salīm Shākir al-Ḥusaynī. 1877–1878 — Rafadulo Astiriyadis Effendi 1878–1879 — Yusuf Ziya Paşa al-Khālīdī
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Grand Mufti of Jerusalem
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The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem is the Sunni Muslim cleric in charge of Jerusalems Islamic holy places, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The position was created by the British military government led by Ronald Storrs in 1918, since 2006 it has been held by Muhammad Hussein. While Palestine was under British Mandate, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem was a created by the British Mandate authorities. The creation of the new title was intended by the British to enhance the status of the office, when Kamil al-Husayni died in 1921, the British High Commissioner Herbert Samuel appointed Mohammad Amin al-Husayni to the position. Amin al-Husayni, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. In 1948, after Jordan occupied Jerusalem, Abdullah I of Jordan officially removed al-Husayni from the post, banned him from entering Jerusalem, on the death of Jarallah in 1952, the Jordanian Waqf appointed Saad al-Alami as his replacement. When he died in 1994, Arafat appointed Ekrima Said Sabri, Sabri was removed in 2006 by Palestinian National Authority president Mahmoud Abbas, who was concerned that Sabri was involved too heavily in political matters. Abbas appointed Muhammad Ahmad Hussein, who was perceived as a political moderate, however, shortly after his appointment, Hussein made comments which suggested that suicide bombing was an acceptable tactic for Palestinians to use against Israel
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Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem
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Since 2005, the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem has been Theophilos III. The Patriarch is styled Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land, Syria, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Holy Zion. The Patriarch is the head of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre, the Patriarchate traces its line of succession to the first Christian bishops of Jerusalem, the first being James the Just in the 1st century AD. Jerusalem was granted autocephaly in 451 by the Council of Chalcedon, certainly no spot in Christendom can be more venerable than the place of the Last Supper, which became the first Christian church. James the Just, who was martyred around 62, is described as the first Bishop of Jerusalem and this led to Jerusalem becoming a patriarchate, one of the five patriarchates known as the pentarchy, when the title of patriarch was created in 531 by Justinian. After the Saracen conquest in the 7th century, Muslims recognized Jerusalem as the seat of Christianity, in 1099 the Crusaders appointed a Latin Patriarch. As a result, the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchs lived in exile in Constantinople until 1187, today, the headquarters of the patriarchate is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The number of Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Holy Land is estimated to be about 200,000, a majority of Church members are Palestinian Arabs, and there are also a small number of Assyrians, Greeks and Georgians. The patriarchate was recently involved in a significant controversy, Patriarch Irenaios, elected in 2001, was deposed, on decisions of the Holy Synod of Jerusalem, in the aftermath of a scandal involving the sale of church land in East Jerusalem to Israeli investors. The move enraged many Eastern Orthodox Palestinian members, since the land was in an area that most Palestinians hoped would become part of a Palestinian state. On May 24,2005 a special Pan-Orthodox Synod was convened in Constantinople to review the decisions of the Holy Synod of Jerusalem. On August 22,2005, the Holy Synod of the Church of Jerusalem unanimously elected Theophilos, the early Christian community of Jerusalem was led by a Council of Elders, and considered itself part of the wider Israelite community. This collegiate system of government in Jerusalem is seen in Acts 11,30 and 15,22, eusebius of Caesarea provides the names of an unbroken succession of thirty-six Bishops of Jerusalem up to the year 324. These are the bishops of Jerusalem that lived between the age of the apostles and the referred to, all of them belonging to the circumcision. The province was renamed Syria Palaestina, Jerusalem was left in total ruin, and a new city built nearby called Aelia Capitolina. These gentile bishops, were appointed under the authority of the Metropolitans of Caesarea, until the setting up of the Patriarchates in 325, Metropolitan was the highest episcopal rank in the Christian church. Also, the Council for the first time established the Patriarchates, the Bishops of Jerusalem were appointed by the Patriarchs of Antioch. Macarius I Maximus III Cyril I John II Praulius Juvenal, since 451 Patriarch The Council of Chalcedon in 451 raised the bishop of Jerusalem to the rank of patriarch
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King of Jerusalem
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The King of Jerusalem was the supreme ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Crusader state founded by Christian princes in 1099 when the First Crusade took the city. Godfrey of Bouillon, the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, himself refused the title of king, thus, the title of king was only introduced for his successor, King Baldwin I in 1100. The city of Jerusalem was lost in 1187, but the Kingdom of Jerusalem survived, the city of Jerusalem was re-captured in the Sixth Crusade, during 1229–39 and 1241–44. The Kingdom of Jerusalem was finally dissolved with the fall of Acre, after the Crusader States ceased to exist, the title of King of Jerusalem was claimed by a number of European noble houses descended from the kings of Cyprus or the kings of Naples. The title of King of Jerusalem is currently used by Felipe VI of Spain and it was claimed by Otto von Habsburg as Habsburg pretender until his renunciation of all claims in 1958, and by the kings of Italy until 1946. The following year, his brother Baldwin I was the first to use the title king, the kingship of Jerusalem was partially elected and partially hereditary. During the height of the kingdom in the century there was a royal family. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, here the king was considered a primus inter pares, and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal. The purpose-built royal palace used from the 1160s onwards was located south of Jerusalems citadel, the Kingdom of Jerusalem introduced French feudal structures to the Levant. The king personally held several fiefs incorporated into the royal domain and he was also responsible for leading the kingdom into battle, although this duty could be passed to a constable. While several contemporary European states were moving towards centralized monarchies, the king of Jerusalem was continually losing power to the strongest of his barons and this was partially due to the young age of many of the kings, and the frequency of regents from the ranks of the nobles. After the fall of Jerusalem in 1187, the capital of the kingdom was moved to Acre, in this period the kingship was often simply a nominal position, held by a European ruler who never actually lived in Acre. The claim was made in 1264 as senior descendant and rightful heir of Alice of Champagne, second daughter of Queen Isabella I, Hugh being the son of their eldest daughter. But was passed over by the Haute Cour in favour of his cousin, Hugh of Antioch, after Conrad IIIs execution by Charles I of Sicily in 1268, the kingship was held by the Lusignan family, who were simultaneously kings of Cyprus. However, Charles I of Sicily purchased the rights of one of the heirs of the kingdom in 1277, in that year, he sent Roger of Sanseverino to the East as his bailiff. Roger captured Acre and obtained a forced homage from the barons, Roger was recalled in 1282 due to the Sicilian Vespers and left Odo Poilechien in his place to rule. His resources and authority was minimal, and he was ejected by Henry II of Cyprus when he arrived from Cyprus for his coronation as King of Jerusalem, Acre was captured by the Mamluks in 1291, eliminating the crusader presence on the mainland. In 1127 Fulk V, Count of Anjou received an embassy from King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, Baldwin II had no male heirs but had already designated his daughter Melisende to succeed him
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Positions on Jerusalem
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There is significant disagreement in the international community on the legal and diplomatic status of Jerusalem. Legal scholars disagree on how to resolve the dispute under international law, many United Nations member states formally adhere to the United Nations proposal that Jerusalem should have an international status. The chief dispute revolves around the status of East Jerusalem. As a result, foreign embassies are located in Tel Aviv. Jerusalem is one of the key issues in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, both Israelis and the Palestinians want it as their capital. The European Union has stated that Jerusalems status is that of corpus separatum, from 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the 1860s, Jews have formed the largest religious group in the city and since around 1887, in the 19th century, European powers vied for influence in the city, usually on the basis of extending protection over Christian churches and Holy Places. A number of countries also established consulates in Jerusalem. In 1917 and following the First World War, Great Britain was in control of Jerusalem, however, the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine were in mortal dispute and Britain sought United Nations assistance in resolving the dispute. Jewish representatives accepted the plan, however, representatives of the Palestinian Arabs, in May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine issued the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel. The new state was quickly recognised de facto by the United States, Iran, Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognize Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, the United States extended official recognition after the first Israeli election, on 31 January 1949. Israel became a member of the United Nations on 11 May 1949, the states recognizing Israel did not recognize its sovereignty over Jerusalem generally citing the UN resolutions which called for an international status for the city. With the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel and the subsequent invasion by surrounding Arab states, the 1949 Armistice Agreements left Jordan in control of the eastern parts of the city, while the western sector was held by Israel. Each side recognised the de facto control of their respective sectors. Soon after Israel declared that Jerusalem was a part of the State of Israel. In 1950, Jordan annexed eastern Jerusalem, following the 1967 war, Israel declared that Israeli law would be applied to East Jerusalem and enlarged its eastern boundaries, approximately doubling its size. The action was deemed unlawful by other states who did not recognize it and it was condemned by the UN Security Council and General Assembly who described it as an annexation in violation of the rights of the Palestinian population
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Religious significance of Jerusalem
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The city of Jerusalem is significant in a number of religious traditions, including the Abrahamic religions Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which consider it a holy city. Some of the most sacred places for each of these religions are found in Jerusalem, Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since the 10th century BCE. During classical antiquity, Jerusalem was considered the center of the world, the city of Jerusalem is given special status in Jewish religious law. In particular, Jews outside Jerusalem pray facing its direction, any expansion of the city for these purposes must be approved by the Sanhedrin. Also, when the Temple in Jerusalem was standing, Jerusalem observed special laws regarding the Four Species on Sukkot, Jerusalem has long been embedded into Jewish religious consciousness. Jews have studied and personalized the struggle by King David to capture Jerusalem and his desire to build the Jewish temple there, as described in the Book of Samuel, many of King Davids yearnings about Jerusalem have been adapted into popular prayers and songs. Jerusalem appears in the Tanakh 669 times and Zion appears 154 times, the Tanakh, is a text sacred to both Judaism and Christianity. In Judaism it is considered the Written Law, the basis for the Oral Law studied, practiced and treasured by Jews, the Talmud elaborates in great depth the Jewish connection with the city. When the Babylonians captured the city in 580 BC, they destroyed the temple and that is, all worshiping was practiced in the temple and only the temple. From the Babylonian capture, Judaism was codified, the Tanakh laid the foundation for both Christianity and Islam. In Christian tradition, Jerusalems place in the life of Jesus gives it great importance, Jerusalem is the place where Jesus was brought as a child, to be presented at the Temple and to attend festivals. According to the Gospels, Jesus preached and healed in Jerusalem, there is also an account of Jesus cleansing of the Temple, chasing various traders out of the sacred precincts. The earliest Christians were outcast and used the symbol to recognize one another to avoid being killed or reprimanded for being Christian by Roman rule. Christianity became more popular over time, but made a huge expansion when the Roman Emperor Constantine claimed Christianity as his religion, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is said to have been built over the location where Jesus was crucified and where the tomb was buried. In medieval times, Christians thought Jerusalem was the center of the world, Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being planted in the center of the earth, and the imagery is tied to the concept of the Death and resurrection of Jesus being for the benefit of all mankind. Medieval maps of Europe usually placed the east —Jerusalem—at the top, Jerusalem is considered a sacred site in Sunni Islamic tradition, along with Mecca and Medina. Islamic tradition holds that previous prophets were associated with the city, due to such significance, it was the first Qibla for Muslims and the prophet Muhammad designated the Al-Aqsa for pilgrimage. Born in 570 AD, Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be a messenger for God and he reformed the perspective that God should be worshiped through prayer, reciting Gods messages and only worshiping God
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Jerusalem in Judaism
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Since the 10th century BCE Jerusalem has been the holiest city, focus and spiritual center of the Jews. Many of King Davids yearnings about Jerusalem have been adapted into popular prayers, the earliest tradition regarding Jerusalem states that Adam, the first man, was created from the same place where in future the Altar would stand in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. After he was ejected from the Garden of Eden, he returned to this spot to offer a sacrifice to God, cain and Abel also brought their offerings on this Altar. It is believed that Adam lived in Jerusalem for all of his life, the Altar in Jerusalem remained as a permanent shrine where all people could worship God until it was destroyed by the Flood. After the Flood, Noah rebuilt it, the Bible records that Noah blessed his son Shem, which indicated that Jerusalem would be included in Shems inheritance. Shem and his progeny lived in Jerusalem and set up an academy there where the word of God was taught, when the city became large enough to require government, Shem was crowned king and given the title Malchi-Tzedek. Tzedek, meaning righteousness, a used to refer to Jerusalem. In ancient times the city was divided, with the “Lower City” to the east, the eastern section was referred to as Salem, while the upper section which included the place of the Altar was called the Land of Moriah. 340 years after the Flood, Canaanite tribes began to invade the Holy Land, Shem and his people retained control of the Lower City and maintained the academy there. Some legends tell that Abraham went to Jerusalem as a child to study the tradition with Noah. God later instructed Abraham to leave Mesopotamia and return to the Promised Land, after he was victorious in a war he got caught up in, he was blessed by Shem. Shortly after, eastern Jerusalem – Salem – began to come under the domination of the Philistines who were occupying the area, in order to make peace with them, Abraham went to negotiate with their king Abimelech who assured him safety of Shems academy. When Abraham’s son and heir Isaac was born, Abimelech approached Abraham in order to make a covenant between them, the treaty stipulated that as long as a descendant of Abimelech dwelt in the land, no descendant of Abraham would wage war against them. This covenant was later to be the reason why the Israelites would not capture the eastern part of Jerusalem, when Abraham was told to sacrifice his son, God directed them to Moriah. When the spot where the Altar had stood became apparent to Abraham he rebuilt it and it was after he passed this last test, he took Shem’s place as the Priest of the Altar on Mount Moriah. Abraham named the place “Yirah” or Yiru, meaning awe, when this was united with the name of the eastern part of the city, the city got its present name JeruSalem, implying “complete awe of God. As a result, the part of the city was eventually purchased from Ephron’s descendants by the Israelites. Although Jerusalem appears in the Hebrew Bible 669 times, it is not mentioned in the Pentateuch, in Judaism it is considered the Written Law, the basis for the Oral Law studied, practiced and treasured by Jews and Judaism for three millennia
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Jerusalem in Christianity
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According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city to which Jesus was brought as a child, to be presented at the Temple and to attend festivals. According to the Canonical gospels, Jesus preached and healed in Jerusalem, the events of Pentecost, which are recorded in the New Testament Book of Acts, also took place at this location. There is also an account of Jesus cleansing of the Temple at the Temple Court, much of this area was also uncovered by the excavations conducted by the elder Mazar. Tradition holds that the place of the Last Supper is the Cenacle, archaeologist Bargil Pixner claims to have found three walls of the original structure still extant today. The place of Jesus anguished prayer and betrayal, Gethsemane, is somewhere near the Church of All Nations on the Mount of Olives. Jesus trial before Pontius Pilate may have taken place at the Antonia Fortress, popularly, the exterior pavement where the trial was conducted is beneath the Convent of the Sisters of Zion. Other Christians believe that Pilate tried Jesus at Herods Palace on Mount Zion, the Via Dolorosa, or way of suffering, is the traditional route to Golgotha, the place of crucifixion, and is an important pilgrimage. The route ends at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Holy Sepulchre is traditionally believed to be the location of Golgotha and Jesus nearby tomb. The original church was built in 336 by Constantine I, the Garden Tomb is a popular pilgrimage site near the Damascus Gate. It was suggested by Charles George Gordon that this site, rather than the Holy Sepulchre, is the place of Golgotha. The Acts of the Apostles and Pauline Epistles show James the Just and he and his successors were the focus for Jewish Christians until the destruction of the city by Emperor Hadrian in 135. The exclusion of Jews from the new city of Aelia Capitolina meant that gentile bishops were appointed under the authority of the Metropolitans of Caesarea and, ultimately, the Patriarchs of Antioch. Helena is remembered as the Patron Saint of Archaeologists and claimed to have found the Cross of Christ, Jerusalem received special recognition in Canon VII of Nicaea in 325, without yet becoming a metropolitan see. The traditional founding date for the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre is 313 which corresponds with the date of the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 raised the Bishop of Jerusalem to the rank of patriarch, together with Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, however, Byzantine politics meant that Jerusalem simply passed from the Syrian jurisdiction of Antioch to the Greek authorities in Constantinople. For centuries, Greek clergy dominated the Jerusalem church, meanwhile, the Roman church never accepted the Pentarchy and instead claimed primacy, see Papal supremacy and East–West Schism. In 638, Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, handed over the keys of the city to Calif Umars Muslim forces, the Muslim authorities in Jerusalem were not kind to their Christian subjects, forcing them to live a life of discrimination, servitude and humiliation. The mistreatment of Christians would only worsen as the armies of the First Crusade approached Jerusalem, on 15 July 1099, the army of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem
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Jerusalem in Islam
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Jerusalem in Islam refers to the status of Jerusalem in the Muslim religious tradition. Al-Aqsa is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after the mosques of al-Haram in Mecca and it is strongly associated with the Biblical prophets David, Solomon, Elijah and Jesus. Muhammads journey to the Farthest Mosque is mentioned in the Quran, the verse states, Exalted is He who took His Servant by night from al-Masjid al-Haram to al-Masjid al- Aqsa, whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Seeing, islamic tafsirs hold the term the farthest Mosque to refer to the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem. Holiest sites in Islam Islamization of Jerusalem Jerusalem in the Quran Al Quds fil Quran
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Jerusalem Law
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The Jerusalem Law is a common name of Basic Law, Jerusalem, Capital of Israel passed by the Knesset on July 30,1980. However, this clause was dropped after the first reading in the Knesset, for example, United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, adopted by 14 votes to none, with 1 abstention, declared soon after that the law was null and void and must be rescinded. This resolution called upon member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from the city, as legislation, the Act is regarded as largely symbolic. An amendment in 2000 further specified the jurisdiction of the law and it actually did not change its range. The amendment also prohibited transfer of authority to a foreign body, Basic Law, Jerusalem, Capital of Israel Jerusalem, Capital of Israel,1. Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel, seat of the President, the Knesset, the Government and the Supreme Court,2. Jerusalem is the seat of the President of the State, the Knesset, the Government, Jerusalem shall be given special priority in the activities of the authorities of the State so as to further its development in economic and other matters. The Government shall set up a body or special bodies for the implementation of this section. 1, Area of the jurisdiction of Jerusalem 5, prohibition of the transfer of authority 6. Clauses 5 and 6 shall not be modified except by a Basic Law passed by a majority of the members of the Knesset, text of the law, Basic Law, Jerusalem, Capital of Israel
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Jerusalem Day
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Jerusalem Day is an Israeli national holiday commemorating the reunification of Jerusalem and the establishment of Israeli control over the Old City in the aftermath of the June 1967 Six-Day War. The day is marked by state ceremonies and memorial services. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel declared Jerusalem Day a minor religious holiday to mark the regaining of access to the Western Wall, the Jewish leadership accepted the plan, including the internationalization of Jerusalem, but the Arabs rejected the proposal. As soon as Israel declared its independence in 1948, it was attacked by its Arab neighbours, Jordan took over east Jerusalem and the Old City. Israeli forces made an attempt to dislodge them, but were unable to do so. By the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War Jerusalem was left divided between Israel and Jordan, the Old City and East Jerusalem continued to be occupied by Jordan, and the Jewish residents were forced out. This state of affairs changed in 1967 as a result of the Six-Day War, before the start of the war, Israel sent a message to King Hussein of Jordan saying that Israel would not attack Jerusalem or the West Bank as long as the Jordanian front remained quiet. Urged by Egyptian pressure and based on intelligence reports, Jordan began shelling civilian locations in Israel to which Israel responded on June 6 by opening the eastern front. The following day, June 7,1967, Israel captured the Old City of Jerusalem, later that day, Defense Minister Moshe Dayan declared what is often quoted during Yom Yerushalayim, This morning, the Israel Defense Forces liberated Jerusalem. We have united Jerusalem, the capital of Israel. We have returned to the holiest of our holy places, never to part from it again, to our Arab neighbors we extend, also at this hour—and with added emphasis at this hour—our hand in peace. And to our Christian and Muslim fellow citizens, we solemnly promise full religious freedom, the war ended with a ceasefire on June 11,1967. On May 12,1968, the government proclaimed a new holiday – Jerusalem Day – to be celebrated on the 28th of Iyar, on March 23,1998, the Knesset passed the Jerusalem Day Law, making the day a national holiday. One of the themes of Jerusalem Day, based on a verse from the Book of Psalms, is Keir shechubra lah yachdav—Built-up Jerusalem is like a city that was joined together. In 1977, the government advanced the date of Jerusalem Day by a week to avoid it clashing with Election Day, in 2004, the Israeli government instituted a national memorial ceremony for those Ethiopian Jews who died on their way to Israel. The slogan for Jerusalem Day 2007, celebrated on May 16, marking the 40th anniversary of the reunification of Jerusalem, was Mashehu Meyuhad leKol Ehad, punning on the words meyuhad and meuhad. To mark the anniversary, the approach to Jerusalem on the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv highway was illuminated with blue lighting which remained in place throughout the year. In 2015, Yad Sarah a non-profit volunteer organization began organizing a special tour specifically for wheelchair bound residents, religious Zionists recite special holiday prayers with Hallel
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Quds Day
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Nominally, it exists in opposition to the Jerusalem Day celebration instituted by Israel in May 1968, and which Knesset law changed into a national holiday in 1998. In Iran, the government sponsors and organizes the days rallies, and its celebration in that country has had, down to at least 2012, a decade-long tradition of voicing anti-Semitic attacks. Quds Day is also held in other countries, mainly in the Arab and Muslim world. Rallies are held in cities by both Muslim and non-Muslim communities around the world. The context was one of deepening tensions between Israel and Lebanon at the time, khomeini declared the liberation of Jerusalem a religious duty to all Muslims. I ask all the Muslims of the world and the Muslim governments to join together to sever the hand of this usurper, I ask God Almighty for the victory of the Muslims over the infidels. Iran celebrates the event characteristically by putting on public display poster images of the city of Jerusalem, thematic speeches, art exhibitions reflecting the issue, in Lebanon, the Hezbollah organization marks the occasion by a substantive military parade organized for the last week of Ramadan. Since 1989, the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan observes the event by hosting academic conferences, Arab societies generally pay the occasion lip-service in order to make a show of solidarity with the cause of Palestinian aspirations for nationhood. Quds Day has actually become a day for protestors in Iran and in other societies to attack the legitimacy of the state of Israel, the day is also marked throughout Muslim and Arab countries. In countries with significant Shia populations, particularly Lebanon, where Hezbollah organizes Quds Day observances, events are also held in Iraq, the Palestinian Gaza Strip, and Syria. Hamas, and the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine endorse Quds Day, according to the BBC, while the idea behind Quds Day originally was to gather all Muslims in opposition to the existence of Israel, the event has not developed beyond an Iranian experience. Apart from rallies, usually funded and organized by Iran itself, in capital cities. In Iran, the parades are sponsored and organized by the government. Events include mass marches and rallies, senior Iranian leaders give fiery speeches condemning Israel, as well as the U. S. government. The crowds respond with chants of Death to Israel, and Death to America, according to Roger Howard, many Iranians under the age of 30 continue to participate in Quds Day events, though proportionately less than those on the streets. He adds that many Iranian students on campus say in private that the Arab–Israeli conflict has nothing to do with us. On Quds Day 1985, amid the war of the cities of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi bombers and long-range missiles struck 14 cities, reportedly killing at least 78 people and wounding 326. According to the Islamic Republic News Agency, the sound of the exploding bombs, in Tehran, President Ali Khamenei said the Palestinians should resist and fight Zionism
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Judaization of Jerusalem
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Throughout history, the demography of Jerusalem has undergone successive waves of Judaization, Hellenization, Romanization, Christianization, Arabization, and Islamization. At the conclusion of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan occupied the Eastern part of Jerusalem while Israel occupied the Western part, on 2 August 1948, by declaration of the Minister of Defence, Israel applied its laws to the areas of Jerusalem under its control. Displaced peoples, both Arabs and Jews, were not allowed to cross the lines to return to vacated homes. Jewish Israelis took possession of many of the vacant homes in Western Jerusalem, in 1967, during the Six-Day War Israel captured East Jerusalem, which had been under Jordanian military occupation since 1948-49. Via the Jerusalem Law, Israel united the city and expanded the city limits to include adjacent parts of the West Bank, Israeli law was applied to the areas and the inhabitants of the lands annexed by Israel. This action was condemned in a Security Council Resolution. Palestinian refugees were disallowed return by both Jordan and Israel, and Jewish Israelis occupied many of the left by the refugees. Palestinians who had remained in East Jerusalem until then were offered full Israeli citizenship and those who declined citizenship were given permanent residency status. The creation of a Jewish majority in Jerusalem has always been a priority of the Israeli government, after 1947 in West Jerusalem. The rejection of the Right of return is motivated by the intention to maintain a Jewish majority, Judaization in territorial terms is characterized by Oren Yiftachel as a form of ethnicization, which he argues is the main force in shaping ethnocratic regimes. Yiftachel identifies Judaization as a strategy and project in Israel. He also characterizes the goals of those pursuing a Greater Israel or Greater Palestine as being driven by ethnicization, the Israeli government is attempting to Judaise East Jerusalem, and maintain a Jewish majority against the demographic threat of a higher Palestinian birth rate. Despite the rapid grow of the Jewish population since 1967, its size has decreased due to a higher growth rate among the Arab population. The Jewish percentage of the population dropped from 74% in 1967 to 66% in 2005, to reverse this trend, they suggested expanding Jerusalems border to the west, or removing Arab neighborhoods from the citys municipal area. Some of the means by which the Israeli government is Judaizing Jerusalem, according to Leilani Farha, are via the revocation of residency rights, absentee property laws, Palestinians residing outside of Jerusalem for seven or more years can lose their Jerusalem residency status. According to UN figures, in 2006 at least 1,360 Palestinians had their ID cards revoked, in Israel, foreign spouses who are Jewish are automatically granted citizenship under Israels Law of Return. Urban planning has been an instrument to change the demographics of Jerusalem, three days after the end of the Six-Day War, the Moroccan Quarter in the Old City was demolished by the Israeli army to improve access to the Western wall. The Israeli Government has sought to increase the Jewish population by establishing Israeli settlements in, redrawing Jerusalems municipal boundaries has incorporated illegal settlements
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Islamization of Jerusalem
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The Islamization of Jerusalem refers to the transformation of the city that followed the Islamic Conquest of Jerusalem by Umar ibn Al-Khattāb in 638 CE. The remodulation was grounded on a narrative in early Islamic texts that emphasized the citys cosmological significance within Gods creation. After 16 months, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca in present-day Saudi Arabia, Jerusalem importance rose in Islam in 682 CE, when Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr rebelled against the Islamic rulers in Damascus, conquered Mecca and prevented pilgrims from reaching Mecca. Although Jerusalem is not mentioned by its name in Quran, it is mentioned in later Islamic literature and in Hadiths, as the place of Muhammad ascension to heavenly sanctuary. According to early Arab historian and the biographer of Muhammad, Al-Waqidi, the identification of Al Aqsa with Jerusalem came later, during Umayyad Caliphate in the late 7th century In 638 the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. With the Arab conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city, while the majority population of Jerusalem during the time of Arab conquest was Christian, the majority of Palestine population about 300, 000-400,000 inhabitants, was still Jewish. According to several Muslim scholars, including Mujir ad-Din, al-Suyuti, and al-Muqaddasi, the Jewish background in the construction of the Dome of the Rock is commonly accepted by historians. A number of scholars consider the construction of the Dome as the Muslim desire to rebuild Solomons Temple or Mihrab Dawud. Grabar and Busse claimed that this was the primary Islamic legitimization for the sanctity of the Dome of the Rock, an early Islamic tradition from the converted rabbi Kaab al-Ahbar states Ayrusalaim which means Jerusalem and the Rock which means the Temple. I shall send you my servant Abd al-Malik who will build you, I shall surely restore you to Bayt Al Maqdis, its first kingdom and I shall crown it with gold, silver and gems. And I shall surely send you my creatures, and I shall surely invest my throne of glory upon the rock, since I am the sovereign God, and David is the king of the Children of Israel. He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar stands to this day, according to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers. The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the late 7th century, the 10th century historian al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalems monumental churches. Over the next four hundred years Jerusalems prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control, by early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000. In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city. Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a due to citys fall of strategic value. In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tartars, who decimated the citys Christian population, the Khwarezmian Tartars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247
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Jerusalem Embassy Act
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The Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995 is a public law of the United States passed by the 104th Congress on October 23,1995. The act also called for Jerusalem to remain an undivided city, Israels declared capital is Jerusalem, but this is not internationally recognized, pending final status talks in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The United States has withheld recognition of the city as Israels capital, the proposed law was adopted by the Senate, and the House. Jerusalem holds unique spiritual and religious significance for the worlds Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, the terms of the British Balfour Declaration of 1917 were included in the Mandate for Palestine by the League of Nations. The US government was not a party to agreements, but stated official foreign policy in 1919 was to ‘acquiesce’ in the Balfour Declaration. On September 21,1922, the US Congress passed a joint resolution stating its support for a homeland in Palestine for the Jewish people, following the conflict that ensued, cease-fires and the 1949 Armistice Agreements were negotiated and accepted by both sides. One of these resulted, in part, in a division of Jerusalem. On April 25,1949, King Abdullah officially changed the name of Transjordan to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and he had secured the support of Great Britain. Moreover, on April 24,1950, the Jordan House of Deputies and House of Notables, in a joint session, adopted a resolution annexing the West Bank and Jerusalem. Because the status of Jerusalem had been included previously in the UN Partition Plan, most countries did not accept this Israeli position, and most embassies have been located elsewhere. The United States has also stated that, in a de jure sense, the embassy move was, and continues to be, delayed by successive United States government in order to appear neutral on the issue of Jerusalem. The act asserted that every country has a right to designate the capital of its choice, the act notes that the city of Jerusalem is the seat of Israels President, Parliament, and Supreme Court, and the site of numerous government ministries and social and cultural institutions. Jerusalem is defined as the center of Judaism. Furthermore, it stipulates that since the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, religious freedom has been guaranteed to all. S.1322 also stated that Jerusalem should be recognized as the capital of the State of Israel, the section also briefly stated U. S. policy concerning the matter. Statement of the Policy of the United States. — Jerusalem should remain a city in which the rights of every ethnic. Jerusalem should be recognized as the capital of the State of Israel, since the legislations introduction, the consensus has been that this action poses considerable risk to United States national security at home and abroad for this reason. Under the Constitution of the United States the President has exclusive authority to recognize foreign sovereignty over territory, former U. S. presidents Bill Clinton, George W. S. foreign relations
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