1.
Sicels
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The Sicels were an Italic tribe who inhabited eastern Sicily during the Iron Age. Their neighbours to the west were the Sicani, the Sicels gave Sicily the name it has held since antiquity, but they rapidly fused into the culture of Magna Graecia. Archaeological excavation has shown some Mycenean influence on Bronze Age Sicily, the earliest literary mention of Sicels is in the Odyssey. Homer also mentions Sicania, but makes no distinctions, they were a place and a faraway people and apparently they were one. It is possible that the Sicels and the Sicani of the Iron Age had consisted of an Illyrian population who had imposed themselves on a native, Pre-Indo-European population. Thucydides and other writers were aware of the traditions according to which the Sicels had once lived in Central Italy, east. Thence they were dislodged by Umbrian and Sabine tribes, and finally crossed into Sicily and their social organization appears to have been tribal, their economy, agricultural. According to Diodorus Siculus, after a series of conflicts with the Sicani, the common assumption is that the Sicels were the more recent arrivals, that they had introduced the use of iron into Bronze Age Sicily and brought the domesticated horse. This would date their arrival on the island to the early first millennium BC, but there is some evidence that the ethnonym may predate the Iron Age, based on the name Shekelesh given to one of the Sea Peoples in the Great Karnak Inscription. Sixty kilometres from the coast of the Ionian Sea, Sicels, Greek goods, especially pottery, moved along natural routes, and eventually Hellenistic influences can be observed in regularised Sicel town planning. After a few years of independence, his army was defeated by the Greeks in 450 BC, without his charisma, the movement collapsed and the increasingly Hellenized culture of the Sicels lost its distinctive character. The classification of the language of the Sicani remains uncertain but it has suggested that the Elymians spoke an Italic language. Of the Sicel language the little that is known is derived from glosses of ancient writers and from a few inscriptions. It is thought that the Sicels did not employ writing until they were influenced by the Greek colonists. The first inscription discovered, of ninety-nine Greek letters, was found on a spouted jug found in 1824 at Centuripe, there have been various attempts at interpreting it with no sure results. Then the soil parted, giving birth to the twins, who were venerated in Sicily as patrons of navigation and of agriculture. In the most archaic level of Greek mythology, a titan, Tityos and he came to the attention of later Greek mythographers only when he attempted to waylay Leto near Delphi. If such a mytheme is set into action as ritual, it is usual to see a pair of sacrificial children laid in the earth to encourage the green growth, in the temple to Adranus, father of the Palici, the Sicels kept an eternal fire
2.
Szekler National Council
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The Szekler National Council is a civic organization representing the Székelys of Romania. The organisation serves as a platform to promote Szekler autonomy, the Council was founded on October 16,2003. Its first president was József Csapó, who served until late 2006, until the Council held a new presidential election in February 2008, in which Balázs Izsák emerged victorious, the president ad interim had been Imre Fodor, the former mayor of Târgu Mureş. The Council wants to obtain self-government for the Székely Land and it looks to the historical fact that the Székely Seats were the traditional self-governing territorial units of the Transylvanian Székelys during medieval times. The Seats were not part of the traditional Hungarian county system and their autonomy was granted in return for the military services they provided to the Hungarian Kings. The Council also claims the rights of Székelys to self-determination, as guaranteed by the Treaty of Trianon, officially, the treaty was intended to be a confirmation of the concept of the right for self-determination of nations. The SZNC hopes to obtain self-determination for the Székely Land on the Catalan model, to guarantee the representation of every Székely settlement, every settlement which has under 1500 Székely inhabitants can nominate one deputy. The Székely settlements which have over 1500 Székely inhabitants can nominate one deputy for every 3000 Székely inhabitants, Székely autonomy initiatives Székely Land List of Székely settlements Official site
3.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
4.
Harghita County
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Harghita is a county in the center of Romania, in eastern Transylvania, with the county seat at Miercurea Ciuc. In 2002, Harghita County had a population of 326,222, hungarians-84. 62% Romanians -14. 06% Romani -1. 18%, and others. In 2011, it had a population of 302,432, hungarians-85. 21% Romanians –12. 96% Romani, others –1. 76%. Harghita county has the highest percentage of Hungarians in Romania, just ahead of Covasna county, the Székelys of Harghita are mostly Roman Catholic, with Reformed and Unitarian minorities, while the ethnic Romanians are primarily Orthodox. Catholicism is strongest in the east, in the former Csíkszék, while Protestants are concentrated in the west, south and west of Odorheiu Secuiesc. By religion, the county is divided roughly as follows, Roman Catholic Orthodox Reformed Unitarian Other Demographic evolution Harghita County has an area of 6,639 km². Harghita consists primarily of mountains, connected to the Eastern Carpathians, such as the Ciuc and Harghita Mountains, volcanic plateaux, foothills, the mountains are volcanic in origin, and the region is known for its excellent hot mineral springs. Harghita is known as one of the coldest regions in Romania and it is in this county that two of the most important rivers in Romania, the Mureș and the Olt, originate. These rivers origins, near the villages of Izvoru Mureșului and Sândominic, are only a few miles apart, yet the Mureș flows west to the Tisza, while the Olt flows south to the Danube. In the western part of the county the two Târnava rivers flow to the Târnava Plateau, which is part of the Transylvanian Plateau, the county is renowned for its spa resorts and mineral waters. Neamț County and Bacău County to the East, brașov County and Covasna County to the South. The countys main industries, Wood industry – up to 30%, Foods and beverages industry, Textile and leather processing, the main tourist attractions in Harghita county are The cities of Miercurea Ciuc, Odorheiu Secuiesc, Gheorgheni, Toplița
5.
Covasna County
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Covasna is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Sfântu Gheorghe. In 2011, it had a population of 206,261, making it the least populous of Romanias 41 counties, the Hungarians of Covasna are primarily Székelys. Covasna county has an area of 3,710 km². The main part of the consists of mountains from the Eastern Carpathians group. Most localities can be found in the valleys and depressions located along the different rivers crossing the county, the main river is the Olt River, along its banks lies the capital city Sfântu Gheorghe. Vrancea County and Bacău County in the East, Covasna county’s Industry’s main sectors are food industry, ready-made garment and textile, wood and wooden products, metals, machines and automotive suppliers, building materials. Other sectors of industry are chemicals, toys, water, printing, energy, jewelry, industry in Covasna county’s economy is representing 42. 53%. Other privately owned companies in the field of textiles, producing different articles, some of them have their own brand, in 2015 started the Schweighoffer Holzindustrie after investing 150 million EUR in a new plant for primary wood processing. With the rich forested areas, Covasna has a tradition of sawn timber export and production of furniture. Recently created the ProWood Cluster in the interest of the industry, a few years ago automotive industry suppliers were established, with two new plants producing steering wheels and electric circuits for vehicles. This industry can build up its workforce with new students from the technical university in Brasov. Covalact is a nationwide well-known dairy product brand, now owned by Dutch investors, another milk processing plant under brand Olympus, with Greek investors, establishing it’s HQ in the county. Dunapack, a member of the Austrian Prizhorn, supplies corrugated cardboard boxes to almost all branches, from FMCG to fruit, vegetable. While IT&C as a sector is in emerging state, Covasna county’s Strategy for Development plans to use this field of activity as one pillar for development. Many new start-ups are in the area successful deploying large projects for international companies. A large number of young technicians arrive from universities, agriculture represents 4. 83% of Covasna county’s economy, mainly producing varieties of potatoes, several companies being able to supply selected and packaged crops for hyper-markets. Other agricultural products are rapeseed, grains, cabbage, Covasna county, with a large number of mineral water springs, have developed during history a network of spas for treating different health problems, mainly cardio-vascular. There is a potential for development of this field of health
6.
Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
7.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
8.
Roman Catholicism in Romania
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The Catholic Church in Romania is a Latin Rite Christian church, part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and Curia in Rome. Its administration is centered in Bucharest, and comprises two archdioceses and four other dioceses and it is the second largest Romanian denomination after the Romanian Orthodox Church, and one of the 16 state-recognized religions. Overall data for 2011 indicated that there were 870,774 Romanian citizens adhering to the Roman Catholic Church, of these, the largest groups were Hungarians, Romanians, Germans and Slovaks. Most Roman Catholics inhabit the region of Transylvania and Bacău County in Moldavia, the smaller Roman Catholic communities include Banat Bulgarians, Italians, Poles, Croats and Krashovani, Czechs, and Romani people. The Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic is a sui iuris Catholic Church which uses the Byzantine Rite. It has separate jurisdiction, five eparchies, and one headed by a major archbishop. The majority of its members are Romanians, with groups of Ukrainians from northern Romania, members of the Armenian community who adhere to the Armenian Rite are grouped in the Roman Catholic-led Gherla Vicariate. The other diocese of its rank, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia, groups the region of Transylvania-proper, four other dioceses function in Romania and are based, respectively, in Timişoara, Oradea, Satu Mare, and Iaşi. The Church presently runs a faculty of theology, four institutes, six medical schools. Among the journals issued by Catholic institutions are the Romanian-language Actualitatea Creştină and Lumina Creştinului, as well as the Hungarian-language Keresztény Szó, the Diocese of Alba Iulia was probably set up in the 11th century. Tradition holds that this was done under supervision from King Stephen I — according to the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913, a more likely patron is Ladislaus I, other dioceses were created in Cenad and Oradea. They were subordinated to the Archbishop of Kalocsa, part of the Roman Catholic Church in Hungary, the northern area comprised in the comitatus of Máramaros was originally part of the Alba Iulia Diocese, while the southern one, Szeben, was a provostship not comprised in any bishopric. During the rule of Béla IV, the Catholic hierarchy was disestablished by the Mongol incursion, in 1304, Pope Boniface VIII sent the first Catholic missionaries from Transylvania into the lands over the Carpathian Mountains, where Eastern Orthodox bishops were already present. A Diocese of Cumania was created in Milcov, in areas ruled by Moldavia and Wallachia. Its assets were granted by the Hungarian rulers, whose claimed suzerainty over the region, direct control over the congregation was made difficult by the intrusion of the Golden Horde, who had set up its base in the region later known as Budjak. Around 1318, the Dobrujan town of Vicina was part of the Catholic vicariate of Northern Tartary, nevertheless, Roman Catholics remained an important presence in both areas. As a result of fighting between Wallachias Prince Vladislav I Vlaicu and Hungarian King Louis I, concessions were made by both sides, and Wallachia agreed to tolerate a Catholic bishopric, the following year, Wallachia resumed its anti-Catholic policies. New sees were created in country, in 1371, the one in Siret, and, under the rule of Alexandru cel Bun
9.
Reformed Church in Romania
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The Reformed Church in Romania is the organization of the Calvinist church in Romania. The majority of its followers are of Hungarian ethnicity and Hungarian is the church language. The large majority of the Churchs parishes are located in Transylvania, 95% of the members were Hungarian ethnicity. The religious institution is composed of two bishoprics, the Királyhágómellék Reformed Church District and the Transylvanian Reformed Church District, the headquarters are at Oradea and Cluj-Napoca, respectively. Together with the Unitarian Church of Transylvania and the two Lutheran churches of Romania, the Calvinist community runs the Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj, the church adheres to the, Apostle Creed Nicene Creed Athanasian Creed Heidelberg Catechism Second Helvetic Confession. Official website of the Transylvanian district Official website of the Királyhágómellék district
10.
Unitarian Church of Transylvania
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The Unitarian Church of Transylvania is a church of the Unitarian denomination, based in the city of Cluj, Transylvania, Romania. Founded in 1568 in the Principality of Transylvania, it has a majority-Hungarian following, the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is administrated by a Bishop and two Curators-General, being divided into five Archpriestships. Since March 2009, its Bishop is Rev. Ferenc Bálint Benczédi, the Church, which uses Hungarian as the liturgical language, also endorses and teaches a catechism. In addition, it has two high school-level theological educational institutions, according to the results of the 2002 census, there are 66,846 Romanian citizens of the Unitarian faith. Church officials place the number of believers at 80, 000-100,000, of the total Hungarian minority, Unitarians represent 4. 55%, being the third denominational group after members of the Reformed Church in Romania and Roman Catholics. Since 1700, the Unitarian Church has had 125 parishes — in 2006, the vast majority of church adherents live in Transylvania, mostly between Sighişoara and Odorheiu Secuiesc, more or less around Dârjiu. The Unitarian church is strong in Dârjiu, Atid, Cristuru Secuiesc, Feliceni, Inlăceni, and Mugeni. All of these localities are situated in the corner of Harghita County. The Unitarian Church was first recognized by the Edict of Torda, issued by the Transylvanian Diet under its Unitarian Prince John II Sigismund Zápolya, the Church attracted suspicion from all other established religions, Roman Catholic as well as Protestant, with both camps deeming it heretical. After Dávids imprisonment and 1579 death in custody, the institution entered a period of decline, in 1994, the IARF European Conference was held in the same location. The Transylvanian Unitarian Church is also a member of the International Council of Unitarians. The church allows both men and women to be ordained as ministers, in 2016, the deputy bishop announced his support for same-sex marriage. The locality of Dârjiu is home to a 13th-century fortified church, later reformed as Unitarian, further murals in the region are to be found at Unitarian churches in Mugeni, Crăciunel, and smaller ones in Rugăneşti and Cristuru Secuiesc. John Sigismund Unitarian Academy Unitárius Hírnök Catechism of Ferencz Joszef Hymnal Official site
11.
Hungarians
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
12.
Romanian language
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Romanian is a Romance language spoken by around 24 million people as a native language, primarily in Romania and Moldova, and by another 4 million people as a second language. It has official status in Romania and the Republic of Moldova and it is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Latin Union. Romanian is a part of the Balkan-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin separated from the Western Romance during the 5th–8th centuries. To distinguish it within that group in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. Eastern Romance languages, like the branches of Romance languages, descend from Vulgar Latin. These vestiges of military usage are unique to Romanian in its language family. s. o, sat village, șes plain, a supune, tindă veranda, țară homeland a. s. o. This linguistic evidence challenges the Roeslerian theory, the vestiges from sermo castrensis particularize the Romanian language in the neolatin area, together with its isolated history. e. With Rom. māgurā and Alb. magulë etc, the Roman Empire withdrew from Dacia in 271–272 AD, leaving it to the Goths. The history of Eastern Romance between the 3rd century and the development of Proto-Romanian by the 10th century, when the area came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, is unknown. It is a matter of debate whether Proto-Romanian developed among Romanized people who were left behind in Dacia by the Roman withdrawal or among Latin-speakers in the Balkans south of the Danube, during the Middle Ages, Romanian became influenced by the Slavic languages and to some degree by Greek. Romanian remains unattested throughout the Middle Ages, and only enters the record in the early 16th century. The use of the denomination Romanian for our language and use of the demonym Romanians for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. In 1534, Tranquillo Andronico notes, Valachi nunc se Romanos vocant, francesco della Valle writes in 1532 that Romanians are calling themselves Romans in their own language, and he subsequently quotes the expression, Știi Românește. After travelling through Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania Ferrante Capecci accounts in 1575 that the population of these regions call themselves românești. Pierre Lescalopier writes in 1574 that those who live in Moldavia, Wallachia, the Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lebel writes in 1542 that Vlachi se numeau între ei Romuini and the Polish chronicler Stanislaw Orzechowski notes in 1554 that în limba lor walachii se numesc romini. In Palia de la Orăștie stands written «, că văzum cum toate limbile au și înfluresc întru cuvintele slăvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbă nu avem. și le-au dăruit voo fraților români. », nevertheless, the oldest extant document written in Romanian remains Neacșus letter and was written using Cyrillic letters. There are no records of any documents written in Romanian from before 1521
13.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
14.
Tolna County
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Tolna, is an administrative county in present Hungary and in the former Kingdom of Hungary. It lies in central Hungary, on the west bank of the river Danube and it shares borders with the Hungarian counties Somogy, Fejér, Bács-Kiskun, and Baranya. The capital of Tolna county is Szekszárd, Tolna was also the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory, which was about the same as that of present Tolna county, is now in central Hungary, the capital of the county was Szekszárd. In 2015, it had a population of 225,936, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Germans and Roma. Total population,230,361 Ethnic groups, Identified themselves,214953 persons, Hungarians,194685 Germans,10195 Gypsies,8768 Others,32,000 persons in Tolna County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census. Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census, Catholic –47. 2% Reformed –8. 0%, Evangelical –3. 0%, Other religions –1. 1%, Non-religious –15. 5%, Atheism –1. 0%, Undeclared –24. 1%. Official site in Hungarian and German Tolnai Népújság - The county portal
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Baranya County
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Baranya, is the name of an administrative county in Hungary, in the Baranya region, and also in the former Kingdom of Hungary. The county lies in southern Hungary, on the border with Croatia, the River Drava forms part of its southern border, and the River Danube its eastern border. It shares borders with the Hungarian counties Somogy, Tolna, the capital of Baranya county is Pécs. In German, it is known as Komitat Branau, and in Croatian as Baranjska županija, the county is name after the Slavic word bara, which means marsh, bog, thus the name of Baranya means marshland. Even today large parts of the region are swamps, such as the natural reservation Kopački Rit in its southeast, another theory states that the name of the region come from the Slavic and Hungarian word bárány, which means lamb. This county has an area of 4,430 km2 –4. The northern part of the county is an area with large forests. The central areas are shared between the Baranya Hills and Villány Mountains, the very eastern and southern parts are flat. The highest point in the county is Zengő in the Mecsek Mountains and this is also the highest point of the mountain range. The climate is Mediterranean, with a number of sunshine hours. Baranya has the highest amount of rainfall in the country, Baranya is rich in mineral and thermal water, and also in other resources. 98% of Hungarys coal resources are found here, Croatia in the South – Osijek-Baranja County and Virovitica-Podravina County Somogy County in the Northwest. The area has been inhabited since ancient times, before the Hungarian tribes conquered the area, it was inhabited by Slavs and Avars. Stephen I founded a seat here. In 1526, the county was occupied by Ottomans and was freed in 1689 and its medieval borders remained unchanged until 1919. According to the treaty of Trianon, the southern part of the county reverted to Slavic rule. The re-organizing of the counties brought only minor changes, Baranya has the largest number of minorities in Hungary, providing home to 34% of the German minority and 32% of the Southern Slav minorities in Hungary. In 2015, it had a population of 371,110, besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Germans, Roma, Croats, and Serbs
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Vojvodina
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Vojvodina, officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian Plain. Novi Sad is the largest city and administrative center of Vojvodina, Vojvodina has a population of almost 2 million. It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity, there are some 26 ethnic groups in the province, the term vojvodina in Serbian means a type of duchy – more specifically, a voivodeship. It derives from the word vojvoda which stems from the Proto-Slavic language word voevoda and those words are etymologically connected with modern-day words vojnik and voditi. Its original name was the Serbian Voivodeship which then became Voivodeship of Serbia, Indo-European peoples first settled in the territory of present-day Vojvodina in 4200 BC. Before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, Indo-European peoples of Illyrian, Thracian, the first states organized in this area were the Celtic State of the Scordisci with capital in Singidunum, and the Dacian Kingdom of Burebista. During Roman rule, Sirmium was one of the four cities of the Roman Empire. The city was also the capital of several Roman administrative units, including Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Secunda, the Diocese of Pannonia, Roman rule lasted until the 5th century, after which the region came into the possession of various peoples and states. While Banat was a part of the Roman province of Dacia, Syrmia belonged to the Roman province of Pannonia, Bačka was not part of the Roman Empire and was populated and ruled by Sarmatian Iazyges. After the Romans were driven away from this region, various Indo-European and these peoples included Goths, Sarmatians, Huns, Gepids and Avars. For regional history, the largest in importance was a Gepid state, according to the 7th-century Miracles of Saint Demetrius, Avars gave the region of Syrmia to a Bulgar leader named Kuber circa 680. The Bulgars of Kuber moved south with Maurus to Macedonia where they co-operated with Tervel in the 8th century, Slavs settled todays Vojvodina in the 6th and 7th centuries, before some of them crossed the rivers Sava and Danube and settled in the Balkans. Slavic tribes that lived in the territory of present-day Vojvodina included Abodrites, Severans, Braničevci, in the 9th century, after the fall of the Avar state, the first forms of Slavic statehood emerged in this area. The first Slavic states that ruled over this region included the Bulgarian Empire, Great Moravia, during the Bulgarian administration, local Bulgarian dukes, Salan and Glad, ruled over the region. Salans residence was Titel, while that of Glad was possibly in the rampart of Galad or perhaps in the Kladovo in eastern Serbia. Glads descendant was the duke Ahtum, another ruler from the 11th century who opposed the establishment of Hungarian rule over the region. In the village of Čelarevo archaeologists have found traces of people who practised the Judaic religion. Bunardžić dated Avar-Bulgar graves excavated in Čelarevo, containing skulls with Mongolian features and Judaic symbols, erdely and Vilkhnovich consider the graves to belong to the Kabars who eventually broke ties with the Khazar Empire between the 830s and 862
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Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
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Magyar Autonomous Region
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The Magyar Autonomous Region and Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region were autonomous regions in the Peoples Republic of Romania. In 1950, Romania adopted a Soviet-style administrative and territorial division of the country into regions and raions. According to the 1956 census, the population of the region was 731,361, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows, Hungarians, Romanians, Roma, Germans. The official languages of the province were Hungarian and Romanian and the administrative centre was Târgu Mureș. Moreover, the specifically Hungarian wing of the Romanian Communist Party was abolished in 1953, in December 1960, a governmental decree modified the boundaries of the Magyar Autonomous Region. Its southern raions were reattached to Braşov Region and in place of this, the region was called the Mureș Region-Magyar Autonomous, after the Mureș River. The ratio of Hungarians was thus reduced from 77.3 percent to 62 percent, in 1968, the Great National Assembly put an end to the soviet style administrative division of the country into regions and re-introduced the historical judeţ system, still used today. This also automatically eliminated the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region and replaced it with counties that are not identified with any nationality, in two of these counties, Harghita and Covasna, Hungarians form the majority of inhabitants
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