1.
J. C. Leyendecker
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Joseph Christian Leyendecker was one of the preeminent American illustrators of the early 20th century. He is best known for his poster, book and advertising illustrations, the character known as The Arrow Collar Man. Between 1896 and 1950, Leyendecker painted more than 400 magazine covers, during the Golden Age of American Illustration, for The Saturday Evening Post alone, J. C. Leyendecker produced 322 covers, as well as many advertisement illustrations for its interior pages, no other artist, until the arrival of Norman Rockwell two decades later, was so solidly identified with one publication. Leyendecker virtually invented the idea of modern magazine design. Joseph Christian Leyendecker was born on March 23,1874, at Montabaur in Southwest Germany, joseph was the first-born son, his brother Francis Xavier was born three years later. A sister, Augusta, the third and last child, arrived after the family emigrated to America, in 1882, the Leyendecker family immigrated to Chicago, Illinois, where Elizabeths uncle had founded the successful McAvoy Brewing Company. After studying drawing and anatomy under John H. Vanderpoel at the Chicago Art Institute, in 1899, the Leyendecker brothers returned to America and set up residence in an apartment in Hyde Park, Illinois. They had a studio in Chicagos Fine Arts Building at 410 South Michigan Ave, on May 20 of that year, Joe received his first commission for a Saturday Evening Post cover – the beginning of his forty-four-year association with the most popular magazine in the country. In 1900, Joe, Frank, and their sister Mary moved to New York City, then the center of the US commercial art, during the next decade, both brothers began lucrative long-term working relationships with apparel manufactures including Interwoven Socks, Hartmarx, B. Kuppenheimer & Co. and Cluett Peabody & Company, the latter resulted in Leyendeckers most important commission when he was hired to develop a series of images of the Arrow brand of shirt collars. Leyendecker often used his model and partner Charles Beach. Another important commission for Leyendecker was from Kelloggs, the breakfast food manufacturer, as part of a major advertising campaign, he created a series of twenty Kelloggs Kids to promote Kelloggs Corn Flakes. In 1914, the Leyendeckers, accompanied by Charles Beach, moved into a home and art studio in New Rochelle, New York. The 1920s were in many ways the apex of Leyendeckers career, modern advertising had come into its own, with Leyendecker widely regarded as among the preeminent American commercial artists. This popularity extended beyond the commercial, and into Leyendeckers personal life, the parties they hosted at their New Rochelle home/studio were important social and celebrity making events. As the 1920s marked the apex of J. C, Leyendeckers career, so the 1930s marked the beginning of its decline. Around 1930–31, Cluett, Peabody, & Co. ceased using Leyendeckers illustrations in its advertisements, now for shirts, during this time, the always shy Leyendecker became more and more reclusive, rarely speaking with people outside of his sister Mary Augusta and Charles
2.
Cooley Peninsula
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The Cooley Peninsula is a hilly peninsula in County Louth, Ireland, which includes towns such as Omeath, Carlingford and Greenore. The peninsula contains the Cooley Mountains, the highest of which, to the north is Carlingford Lough and the border with Northern Ireland, to the south is Dundalk Bay. The peninsula is ringed by the R173 regional road, in Irish mythology Cooley was the home of the bull Donn Cuailnge, and the site of the Táin Bó Cúailnge Cattle Raid of Cooley. Ancient monuments in Cooley include the Proleek Dolmen, whose capstone weighs an estimated 35 tons, the Cooley Peninsula is the home of current Leinster and Irish rugby players, Rob Kearney and David Kearney. Awarded EDEN - European Destinations of Excellence non traditional tourist destination 2008
3.
Epic poetry
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An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics and these works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all Western epic self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems, classical epic employs dactylic hexameter and recounts a journey, either physical or mental or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, another type of epic poetry is epyllion, which is a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological theme. The term, which means little epic, came into use in the nineteenth century, the most famous example of classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64. The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions, in these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early twentieth-century study of living oral traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and this facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance, poets in literate societies have sometimes copied the epic format. The earliest surviving European examples are the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes and Virgils Aeneid, other obvious examples are Nonnus Dionysiaca, Tulsidas Sri Ramacharit Manas. In his work Poetics, Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry, an attempt to delineate ten main characteristics of an epic, Begins in medias res. The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the universe, Begins with an invocation to a muse. Begins with a statement of the theme, contains long lists, called an epic catalogue. Shows divine intervention on human affairs, features heroes that embody the values of the civilization. Often features the tragic heros descent into the Underworld or hell, the hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home significantly transformed by his journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from, many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native culture. Conventions of epics, Preposition, Opens by stating the theme or cause of the epic and this may take the form of a purpose, of a question, or of a situation. Invocation, Writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters of Zeus, the poet prays to the Muses to provide him with divine inspiration to tell the story of a great hero
4.
Ulaid
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Ulaid or Ulaidh ) was an over-kingdom in north-eastern Ireland during the Middle Ages, made up of a confederation of dynastic groups. Alternative names include Ulidia, which is the Latin form of Ulaid, as well as in Chóicid, the king of Ulaid was called the rí Ulad or rí in Chóicid. Ulaid also refers to a people of early Ireland, and it is them that the province derives its name. Some of the dynasties within the over-kingdom claimed descent from the Ulaid, in historical documents, the term Ulaid was used to refer to the population-group, of which the Dál Fiatach was the ruling dynasty. As such the title Rí Ulad held two meanings, over-king of Ulaid, and king of the Ulaid, as in the Dál Fiatach, the Ulaid feature prominently in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. According to legend, the ancient territory of Ulaid spanned the whole of the province of Ulster, excluding County Cavan. Its southern border was said to stretch from the River Drowes in the west to the River Boyne in the east, Ulaid ceased to exist after its conquest in the late 12th century by the Anglo-Norman knight John de Courcy, and was replaced with the Earldom of Ulster. An individual from Ulaid was known in Irish as an Ultach, Ulaid was also known as Cóiced Ulad, the Fifth of Ulster, and was one of the legendary five provinces of Ireland. The Ulaid are likely the mentioned in Ptolemys 2nd century Geographia. This may be a corruption of Ούλουτοι, the name is likely derived from the Gaelic ul, meaning beard. The late 7th-century writer, Muirchú, spells Ulaid as Ulothi in his work the Life of Patrick, Ulaid has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinized as Ulidia or Ultonia. The latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian, the Irish word for someone from Ulaid is Ultach, which in Latin became Ultonii and Ultoniensis. It may also derive from Uladh plus the Norse suffix -ster, the Ulaid are also referred to as being of the Clanna Rudraige, a late form of group-name. According to historical tradition, the dynasties of the Ulaid where either of the Ulaid population-group or the Cruthin. Medieval Irish genealogists traced the descent of the Ulaid from the legendary High King of Ireland, the Cruthin on the other hand is the Irish term for the Picts, and are stated as initially being the most powerful and numerous of the two groupings. The terms Ulaid and Cruthin in early sources referred to the Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraidi respectively, T. F. ORahilly notably believed the Ulaid were an actual branch of the Érainn. Also claimed as being related to the Ulaid are the Dáirine, another name for the Érainn royalty, there is uncertainty however over the actual ancestry of the people and dynasties within the medieval over-kingdom of Ulaid. The Dál Riata and Dál Fiatach however professed to be of Érainn descent, despite this the term Ulaid still referred to the Dál Fiatach until the Anglo-Norman conquest of the over-kingdom in the late 12th century
5.
Connacht
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Connacht /ˈkɒnɔːt/ or Connaught is one of the provinces of Ireland, situated in the west of the country. Two of its greatest kings, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair and his son Ruaidri Ua Conchobair greatly expanded the kingdoms dominance, the English colony in Connacht shrank from c. Only with in the late 1500s, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, was Connacht shired into its present counties, the province of Connacht has the greatest number of Irish language speakers at between 5–10% of the population. There are Gaeltacht areas in Counties Galway and Mayo, the province of Connacht has no official function for local government purposes, but it is an officially recognised subdivision of the Irish state. It is listed on ISO-3166-2 as one of the four provinces of Ireland, along with counties from other provinces, Connacht lies in the Midlands-North-West constituency for elections to the European Parliament. The Irish language is spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of Counties Mayo and Galway, the Galway Gaeltacht is the largest Irish-speaking region in Ireland covering Cois Fharraige, parts of Connemara, Conamara Theas, Aran Islands, Dúithche Sheoigeach and Galway City Gaeltacht. Irish-speaking areas in County Mayo can be found in Iorras, Acaill, according to the 2011 census Irish is spoken outside of the education system on a daily basis by 14,600 people. There are between 40, 000–55,000 Irish speakers in the province, over 30,000 in Galway, there is also the 4,265 attending the 18 Gaelscoils and three Gaelcholáiste outside the Gaeltacht across the province. The GDP of the province of Connacht is around 15 billion euro, the province is divided into five counties, Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo. Connacht is the smallest of the four Irish provinces, with a population of 542,547, Galway is the only official city in the province. The highest point of Connacht is Mweelrea, in County Mayo, the largest island in Connacht is Achill. The biggest lake is Lough Corrib, much of the west coast is ruggedly inhospitable and not conducive for agriculture. It contains the main areas in Connacht, including the Twelve Bens, Maumturks, Mweelrea, Croagh Patrick, Nephin Beg, Ox Mountains. Killary Harbour, Irelands only true fjord, is located at the foot of Mweelrea, Connemara National Park is in County Galway. The Aran Islands, featuring prehistoric forts such as Dún Aonghasa, have been a regular tourist destination since the 19th century, inland areas such as east Galway, Roscommon and Sligo have enjoyed greater historical population density due to better agricultural land and infrastructure. Rivers and lakes include the River Moy, River Corrib, the Shannon, Lough Mask, Lough Melvin, Lough Allen, the largest urban area in Connacht is Galway, with a population of 76,778. Other large towns in Connacht are Sligo, Castlebar and Ballina, the name Connacht comes from the medieval ruling dynasty, the Connacht, later Connachta, whose name means descendants of Conn, from the mythical king Conn of the Hundred Battles. Before the Connachta dynasty, the province was known as Cóiced Ol nEchmacht, in Modern Irish, the province is usually called Cúige Chonnacht, the Province of Connacht, where Chonnacht is plural genitive case with lenition of the C to Ch
6.
Medb
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Medb is queen of Connacht in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Her husband in the stories of the cycle is Ailill mac Máta. She is the enemy of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, how Medb came to power in Connacht and married Ailill is told in the tale Cath Bóinde, also known as Ferchuitred Medba. She bore him a son, Glaisne, but the marriage was a bad one, Eochaid gave Conchobar another of his daughters, Eithne, but Medb murdered her while she was pregnant, her son Furbaide was born by posthumous caesarian section. Eochaid deposed the then-king of Connacht, Tinni mac Conri, however, Tinni regained a share of the throne when he and Medb later became lovers. Conchobar raped Medb after an assembly at Tara, and war ensued between the High King and Ulster, Tinni challenged Conchobar to single combat, and lost. Eochaid Dála of the Fir Domnann, who had been Tinnis rival for the kingship, protected the Connacht army as it retreated, Medb demanded her husband satisfy her three criteria—that he be without fear, meanness, or jealousy. The last was particularly important, as she had many lovers, while married to Eochaid Dála, she took Ailill mac Máta, chief of her bodyguard, as her lover. Eochaid discovered the affair, challenged Ailill to single combat, Ailill then married Medb and became king of Connacht. Medb and Ailill had seven sons, all called Maine and they originally all had other names, but when Medb asked a druid which of her sons would kill Conchobar, he replied, Maine. Medb and Ailill also had a daughter, Findabair, Medb insisted that she be equal in wealth with her husband, and started the Cattle Raid of Cooley when she discovered that Ailill was one powerful stud bull richer than her. She discovered that the rival to Ailills bull, Finnbennach, was Donn Cúailnge, owned by Dáire mac Fiachna. She sent messengers to Dáire, offering wealth, land and sexual favours in return for the loan of the bull, and Dáire initially agreed. But when a drunken messenger declared that, if he had not agreed, the bull would have been taken by force, Dáire withdrew his consent, an army was raised including contingents from all over Ireland. One was a group of Ulster exiles led by Conchobars estranged son Cormac Cond Longas and his foster-father Fergus mac Róich, former king of Ulster and it is reported that it took seven men to satisfy her, or Fergus once. Because of a curse on the Ulstermen, the invasion was opposed only by the teenage Ulster hero Cúchulainn. Medb and Ailill offered their daughter Findabair in marriage to a series of heroes as payment for fighting Cúchulainn, however, after a final battle against Conchobars assembled army, she was forced to retreat. Donn Cúailnge was brought back to Cruachan, where it fought Ailills bull, Finnbennach, killing him, examples of this occur when Cúchulainn slung a stone and killed a pet stoat as it sat on Medbs shoulder by her neck, south of the ford
7.
1st century
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The 1st century was the century that lasted from AD1 to AD100 according to the Julian calendar. It is often written as the 1st century AD or 1st century CE to distinguish it from the 1st century BC which preceded it, the 1st century is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. During this period Europe, North Africa and the Near East fell under increasing domination by the Roman Empire, the reforms introduced by Augustus during his long reign stabilized the empire after the turmoil of the previous centurys civil wars. Later in the century the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which had been founded by Augustus, the Roman Empire generally experienced a period of prosperity and dominance in this period and the First Century is remembered as part of the Empires golden age. The 1st Century saw the appearance of Christianity, China continued to be dominated by the Han Dynasty, despite a fourteen-year interruption by the Xin dynasty under Wang Mang. Han rule was restored in AD23, Wang Mangs rule represents the watershed between the Western/Former Han and the Eastern/Later Han, the capital was also moved from Changan to Luoyang. Western Asia, Roman and Parthian Empires, Sabaean and Arabian Kingdoms, southeast Asia, Mandala of city-states, Kingdom of Funan East Asia, Han Dynasty, Yamatai, Xiongnu and Xianbei tribal chiefdoms, Three Kingdoms of Korea. North America, Central America, Mayan, Teotihuacan and Zapotec civilizations, caribbean, South America, Nazca, Moche civilizations, Tairona tribal chiefdoms. Early 1st century – Augustus of Primaporta, is made and it is now kept in Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome. Early 1st century – Gemma Augustea is made and it is now kept at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Early 1st century – House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii, is built, excavated in 1893, the year of the silver wedding anniversary of Italys King Humbert and his wife, Margherita of Savoy, who have supported archaeological fieldwork at Pompeii. Early 1st century - Inner shrine, Ise, Mie, Mie Prefecture, is built, AD1, Lions became extinct in Western Europe. AD2, First Census of China, the census is one of the most accurate in Chinese history, AD7, Prince Cunobeline of Catuvellauni defeats the Trinovantes in England and establishes his capital at Camulodunum. AD9, Three Roman legions were ambushed and destroyed at Teutoberg Forest by Germans under the leadership of Arminius, AD9, Prince Cunobeline is crowned King of Catuvellauni, his Kingdom dominates Southern England. AD 9–23, Wang Mang temporarily overthrew the Han dynasty of China, AD14, Augustus Caesar, first emperor of Rome, dies. His adopted son, stepson and son-in-law Tiberius is his successor, AD25, The Han dynasty is restored by Liu Xiu who proclaims himself Emperor Guangwu of Han. AD 28–75, Emperor Ming of Han, Buddhism reaches China, humans arrive on Pentecost Island and establish the Bunlap tribe, among others. AD29, Jesus begins his ministry, AD33, The Crucifixion of Jesus
8.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
9.
Finnbhennach
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In the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology, Finnbhennach was an extremely fertile stud bull owned by king Ailill of Connacht. He was originally one of Bodb Deargs pig-keepers, who fell out one of his colleagues. The two fought, taking a series of animal and human forms, before becoming two worms who were swallowed by two cows and reborn as two bulls, Finnbhennach and Donn Cuailnge. Finnbhennach was born into the herds of queen Medb, but thought belonging to a woman beneath him, Donn Cuailnge was born into the herds of Dáire mac Fiachna of Cooley. He bulled a heifer belonging to the Mórrígan, and the resulting bull-calf fought Finnbhennach, after seeing that Medb was determined to see Finnbhennach fight the bull-calfs sire. When Medb discovered that owning Finnbhennach made Ailill richer than her and she launched the Táin Bó Cuailnge and eventually brought Donn back to Cruachan. Finnbhennach was killed, Donn Cuailnge mortally wounded
10.
Rathcroghan
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Rathcroghan is a complex of archaeological sites near Tulsk in County Roscommon, Ireland. It is identified as the site of Cruachan, the capital of the Connachta. The Rathcroghan Complex is an archaeological landscape with many references found in early Irish medieval manuscripts. Located on the plains of Connacht, Rathcroghan is one of the six Royal Sites of Ireland and this landscape which extends over six square kilometres, consists of 240 plus archaeological sites, sixty of which are protected national monuments. These monuments range from the Neolithic, through the Bronze and Iron Age, to the medieval period. These monuments include burial mounds, ringforts and medieval field boundaries amongst others, the most fascinating of these are the multi period Rathcroghan Mound, the mysterious cave of Oweynagat, the Mucklaghs - a spectacular set of linear earthworks, as well as the Carns medieval complex. There are many interesting historic references to Rathcroghan recorded in medieval manuscripts. Rathcroghan is recorded as the location of one of the fairs of Ireland. It is also the location for the beginning and end of an epic tale – an Táin Bó Cuailnge. Uniquely, Rathcroghan possesses an entrance to the Otherworld, described in the period as Irelands Gate to Hell. The cave has associations with the festival of Samhain, Halloween, as well as being described as the fit abode of Morrigan. According to a Dindshenchas poem, Cruachan was named after Crochen, the handmaid of Étaín, Crochen is so impressed by this síd that she asks Midir if this is his palace. Because of her loyalty to Étaín and her respect to this dwelling, Midir gives it to her, at the end of the poem Crochen is mentioned as the mother of Medb. The same poem mentions Cruachan as a cemetery, Listen. With its barrow for every noble couple, Cruachan features heavily in the Ulster Cycle as it was the home of one of its chief characters Queen Medb. She had been given the kingdom of Connacht by her High-King father Eochaid Feidlech who had de-throned the previous king Tindi Mac Conra over an act of treachery and it is unclear if Tindi had actually ruled the province from Cruachan or if had been built by/for Medb. Another story states that Cruachan had been ruled by the sister, Clothru. Vivid descriptions of the Western capital are given in Fled Bricrenn, there were sixteen windows in the house, and a frame of brass, to each of them, a tie of brass across the roof-light
11.
Macha
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Macha is a goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war, horses, sovereignty, and the sites of Armagh and Eamhain Mhacha in County Armagh, which are named after her. A number of figures called Macha appear in Irish mythology, legend and historical tradition, the name is presumably derived from Proto-Celtic *makajā denoting a plain. It was also said that Macha was called Grian Banchure, the Sun of Womanfolk, a poem in the Lebor Gabála Érenn mentions Macha as one of the daughters of Partholón, leader of the first settlement of Ireland after the flood, although it records nothing about her. Various sources record a second Macha as the wife of Nemed and she was the first of Nemeds people to die in Ireland – twelve years after their arrival according to Geoffrey Keating, twelve days after their arrival according to the Annals of the Four Masters. She is said to have given her name to the city of Armagh – where she was buried, Macha, daughter of Ernmas, of the Tuatha Dé Danann, appears in many early sources. She is often mentioned together with her sisters, Badb and Morrigu, the three are often considered a triple goddess associated with war. A version of the same gloss in MS H.3.18 identifies Macha with Badb, Keating explicitly calls them goddesses, but medieval Irish tradition was keen to remove all trace of pre-Christian religion. Macha is said to have killed by Balor of the Evil Eye during the battle with the Fomorians. Macha Mong Ruad, daughter of Áed Rúad, was, according to legend and historical tradition. Her father rotated the kingship with his cousins Díthorba and Cimbáeth, Áed died after his third stint as king, and when his turn came round again, Macha claimed the kingship. Díthorba and Cimbáeth refused to allow a woman to take the throne, Macha won, and Díthorba was killed. She won a battle against Díthorbas sons, who fled into the wilderness of Connacht. She married Cimbáeth, with whom she shared the kingship and she pursued Díthorbas sons alone, disguised as a leper, and overcame each of them in turn when they tried to have sex with her, tied them up, and carried the three of them bodily to Ulster. Macha ruled together with Cimbáeth for seven years, until he died of plague at Emain Macha, the Lebor Gabála synchronises her reign to that of Ptolemy I Soter. The chronology of Keatings Foras Feasa ar Éirinn dates her reign to 468–461 BC, Macha, daughter of Sainrith mac Imbaith, was the wife of Cruinniuc, an Ulster farmer. After Cruinniucs first wife died, she appeared at his house and, without speaking, as long as they were together Cruinniucs wealth increased. When he went to a festival organised by the king of Ulster, she warned him that she would stay with him so long as he did not mention her to anyone. However, during a race, he boasted that his wife could run faster than the kings horses
12.
Lugh
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Lugh or Lug is an important god of Irish mythology. A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Lugh is portrayed as a warrior hero. He is associated with skill, crafts and the arts as well as with oaths, truth and he is sometimes interpreted as a sun god, a storm god or a sky god. Lugh is also associated with the harvest festival of Lughnasadh. Lugh is known by the epithets Lámfada, possibly for his skill with a spear or sling, Ildánach, Samildánach, Lonnbéimnech, Macnia, as to ancestry, Lugh is given the matriname mac Ethlenn or mac Ethnenn and the patriname mac Cein. He is the grandson of the Fomorian, Balor, whom Lugh kills in the Battle of Mag Tuired. His foster-father is the sea god Manannán, Lughs son is the hero Cú Chulainn, who is believed to be an incarnation of Lugh. He wields a fiery spear, a sling stone. He also owns a boat named Scuabtuinne, a horse named Enbarr. He is a reflex of the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes, Lughs father is Cian of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and his mother is Ethniu, daughter of Balor, of the Fomorians. In Cath Maige Tuired their union is a dynastic marriage following an alliance between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomorians, in the Lebor Gabála Érenn Cian gives the boy to Tailtiu, queen of the Fir Bolg, in fosterage. In the Dindsenchas Lugh, the foster-son of Tailtiu, is described as the son of the Dumb Champion, a folktale told to John ODonovan by Shane ODugan of Tory Island in 1835 recounts the birth of a grandson of Balor who grows up to kill his grandfather. In this tale, Balor hears a prophecy that he will be killed by his own grandson. To prevent this he imprisons his daughter in the Tór Mór of Tory Island, cared for by twelve women. On the mainland, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh owns a cow who gives such abundant milk that everyone, including Balor. While the cow is in the care of Mac Cinnfhaelaidhs brother Mac Samthainn, Balor appears in the form of a little red-haired boy and tricks him into giving him the cow. Looking for revenge, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh calls on a leanan sídhe called Biróg, who transports him by magic to the top of Balors tower, in time she gives birth to triplets, which Balor gathers up in a sheet and sends to be drowned in a whirlpool. The messenger drowns two of the babies, but unwittingly drops one child into the harbour, where he is rescued by Biróg and she takes him to his father, who gives him to his brother, Gavida the smith, in fosterage
13.
Ferdiad
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Ferdiad, son of Damán, son of Dáire, of the Fir Domnann, is a warrior of Connacht in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. In the Táin Bó Cúailnge, Ferdiad finds himself on opposite sides to his best friend and foster-brother Cúchulainn, with whom he had trained in arms under the renowned warrior woman Scáthach. When Ailill and Medb, king and queen of Connacht, invade Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cúailnge, their progress is held up by Cúchulainn, who demands single combat. They fight in the ford for three days, first fighting with 8 swords, darts, and spears, then fighting with throwing-spears and lances and it is on the third day that Ferdiad starts to gain the upper hand. At this point, Cúchulainn calls to his charioteer, Laeg, for the Gáe Bolga, the Gáe Bolga is then removed from Ferdiads body by Laeg, and Cúchulainn mourns Ferdiads death, praising his strength and bravery, Ah, Ferdiad, betrayed to death. Our last meeting, oh, how sad, the ford where he died is named Áth Fhirdiad after him. Scholars believe that the fight between Cuchulainn and Ferdiad is an addition to the Táin, originating not earlier than the eleventh century. Ferdiad means man/warrior of the pair, but can also be read as Fear dia, as opposed to Cúchulainns position as a literal god-man
14.
Irish republicans
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Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
15.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
16.
Monastery
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A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
17.
Clonmacnoise
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The monastery of Clonmacnoise is situated in County Offaly, Ireland on the River Shannon south of Athlone. Clonmacnoise was founded in 544 by St. Ciarán, a man from Rathcroghan. Until the 9th century it had associations with the kings of Connacht. From the ninth until the eleventh century it was allied with the kings of Meath, many of the high kings of Tara and Connacht were buried here. In the modern day, the stands as a preserved ruin under the management of the Office of Public Works. An interpretive center and facilities for visitors have been built around the site, the graveyard surrounding the site continues to be in use and religious services are held regularly on the site in a modern chapel. This was a wooden structure and the first of many small churches to be clustered on the site. Diarmuid was to be the first Christian crowned High King of Ireland, in September 549, not yet thirty-three years of age, Ciarán died of a plague, and was reportedly buried under the original wooden church, now the site of the 9th-century stone oratory, Temple Ciarán. While he was there he prophesied about the debates in the churches of Ireland about the dating of Easter. Towards the close of the century a plague carried off a large number of its students. Clonmacnoises period of greatest growth came between the 8th and 12th centuries and it was attacked frequently during these four centuries, mostly by the English, the Irish, the Vikings and Normans. The Book of the Dun Cow a vellum manuscript dating to the 12th century, was written here, by the 12th century Clonmacnoise began to decline. The reasons were varied, but without doubt the most debilitating factor was the growth of the town of Athlone to the north of the site from the late-12th century. Athlone became the trading town for the midlands of Ireland. The influx of religious orders such as the Franciscans, Augustinians, Benedictines, Cluniacs. Irelands move from a framework to a diocesan one in the twelfth century similarly diminished the sites religious standing, as it was designated the seat of a small. In 1552 the English garrison at Athlone destroyed and looted Clonmacnoise for the final time, the monastery ruins were one of the stops on the itinerary of Pope John Paul II during his visit to Ireland in 1979. The site includes the ruins of a cathedral, seven churches, most of the churches have recently undergone comprehensive conservation works, mostly re-pointing, with the Nuns Church, currently under wraps while it too undergoes the same process
18.
Book of Leinster
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The Book of Leinster, is a medieval Irish manuscript compiled ca.1160 and now kept in Trinity College, Dublin, under the shelfmark MS H2.18. It was formerly known as the Lebor na Nuachongbála Book of Nuachongbáil, some fragments of the book, such as the Martyrology of Tallaght, are now in the collection of University College, Dublin. The manuscript is a work and more than one hand appears to have been responsible for its production. Internal evidence from the manuscript itself bears witness to Áeds involvement and his signature can be read on f. 32r, Aed mac meic Crimthaind ro scrib in leborso 7 ra thinoil a llebraib imdaib, an alternative theory was that by Eugene OCurry, who suggested that Finn mac Gormáin transcribed or compiled the Book of Leinster for Áed. The manuscript was produced by Aéd and some of his pupils over a period between 1151 and 1224. From annals recorded in the manuscript we can say it was written between 1151 and 1201, with the bulk of the work complete in the 1160s. As Terryglass was burnt down in 1164, the manuscript must have been finalised in another scriptorium, suggested locations include Stradbally and Clonenagh, the home of Uí Chrimthainn. Eugene OCurry suggested that the manuscript may have been commissioned by Diarmait Mac Murchada, king of Leinster, when Meiler fitz Henry established an Augustinian priory in Co. Laois, Oughaval was included in the lands granted to the priory, nothing certain is known of the manuscripts whereabouts in the next century or so after its completion, but in the 14th century, it came to light at Oughaval. It may have kept in the vicarage in the intervening years. However, it is now accepted that the manuscript was originally known as the Lebor na Nuachongbála. This was established by R. I. MS4821 and these extracts are attributed to the Book of Noghoval and were written at a time when Ware stayed at Ballina, enjoying the hospitality of Rory OMoore. His family, the OMoores, had been lords of Noghoval since the early 15th century if not earlier, bests suggestion is corroborated by evidence from Dublin, Royal Irish Academy MS B. iv. 2, also of the early 17th century, as Rudolf Thurneysen noted, the scribe copied several texts from the Book of Leinster, identifying his source as the Leabhar na h-Uachongbála, presumably for Leabhar na Nuachongbála. Third, in the 14th century, the Book of Leinster was located at Stradbally, the manuscript has 187 leaves, each approximately 13 by 9. A note in the manuscript suggests as many as 45 leaves have been lost, a diplomatic edition was published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in six volumes over a period of 29 years. The Book of Leinster, sometimes called the Book of Glendalough, Book of Leinster, ed. R. I. Best, Osborn Bergin, M. A. OBrien, Anne OSullivan
19.
Colophon (publishing)
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In publishing, a colophon is a brief statement containing information about the publication of a book such as the place of publication, the publisher, and the date of publication. A colophon may also be emblematic or pictorial in nature, colophons were formerly printed at the ends of books, but in modern works they are usually located at the verso of the title-leaf. The term colophon derives from the Late Latin colophōn, from the Greek κολοφών and it should not be confused with Colophon, an ancient city in Asia Minor, after which colophony, or rosin, is named. The term is applied to clay tablet inscriptions appended by a scribe to the end of an Ancient Near East text such as a chapter, book, manuscript. The colophon usually contained facts relative to the such as associated person, literary contents. Colophons and catch phrases helped the reader organize and identify various tablets, positionally, colophons on ancient tablets are comparable to a signature line in modern times. Bibliographically, however, they closely resemble the imprint page in a modern book. Examples of colophons in ancient literature may be found in the compilation The Ancient Near East, Supplementary Texts, colophons are also found in the Pentateuch, where an understanding of this ancient literary convention illuminates passages that are otherwise unclear or incoherent. An extensive study of the eleven colophons found in the book of Genesis was done by Percy John Wiseman. C. sometimes additional information, such as the name of a proofreader or editor, or other more-or-less relevant details, might be added. A colophon might also be emblematic or pictorial rather than in words, the normal position for a colophon was after the explicit. After around 1500 these data were transferred to the title page. Colophons sometimes contained book curses, as this was the one place in a medieval manuscript where a scribe was free to write what he wished, such curses tend to be unique to each book. In Great Britain colophons grew generally less common in the 16th century, in some parts of the world, colophons helped fledgling printers and printing companies gain social recognition. For example, in early modern Armenia printers used colophons as a way to gain power by getting their name out into the social sphere. Some commercial publishers took up the use of colophons, and began to include details in their books. Such colophons might identify the designer, the software used, the printing method, the printing company, the typeface used in the page design. Book publishers Alfred A. Knopf, the Folio Society and OReilly Media are notable for their substantial colophons, some web pages also have colophons, which frequently contain HTML, CSS, or usability standards compliance information and links to website validation tests. Jerusalem Colophon Union label Wiseman hypothesis
20.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
21.
Isidore of Seville
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He was influential in the inner circle of Sisebut, Visigothic king of Hispania. Like Leander, he played a prominent role in the Councils of Toledo, the Visigothic legislation that resulted from these councils influenced the beginnings of representative government. His fame after his death was based on his Etymologiae, an encyclopedia which assembled extracts of many books from classical antiquity that would have otherwise been lost. Isidore was probably born in Cartagena, Spain, a former Carthaginian colony, to Severianus, both Severianus and Theodora belonged to notable Hispano-Roman families of high social rank. His parents were members of a family who were instrumental in the political-religious manoeuvring that converted the Visigothic kings from Arianism to Catholicism. A younger brother, Saint Fulgentius of Cartagena, served as the Bishop of Astigi at the start of the new reign of the Catholic King Reccared and his sister, Saint Florentina, served God as a nun and allegedly ruled over forty convents and one thousand consecrated religious. This claim seems unlikely, however, given the few functioning monastic institutions in Iberia during her lifetime, Isidore received his elementary education in the Cathedral school of Seville. In this institution, the first of its kind in Iberia, a body of learned men including Archbishop Saint Leander of Seville taught the trivium and quadrivium, Saint Isidore applied himself to study diligently enough that he quickly mastered Latin, and acquired some Greek, and Hebrew. Two centuries of Gothic control of Iberia incrementally suppressed the ancient institutions, classic learning, the associated culture entered a period of long-term decline. The ruling Visigoths nevertheless showed some respect for the trappings of Roman culture. Arianism meanwhile took deep root among the Visigoths as the form of Christianity that they received, scholars may debate whether Isidore ever personally embraced monastic life or affiliated with any religious order, but he undoubtedly esteemed the monks highly. After the death of Saint Leander of Seville on 13 March 600 or 601, on his elevation to the episcopate, he immediately constituted himself as protector of monks. He used all available religious resources toward this end and succeeded, Isidore practically eradicated the heresy of Arianism and completely stifled the new heresy of Acephali at its very outset. Archbishop Isidore strengthened religious discipline throughout his See, Archbishop Isidore also used resources of education to counteract increasingly influential Gothic barbarism throughout his episcopal jurisdiction. His quickening spirit animated the educational movement centered on Seville, Saint Isidore introduced Aristotle to his countrymen long before the Arabs studied Greek philosophy extensively. In 619, Saint Isidore of Seville pronounced anathema against any ecclesiastic who in any way should molest the monasteries, through the enlightened statecraft of his two brothers, the Councils of Seville and Toledo emanated Visigothic legislation which influenced the beginnings of representative government. The Acts of the Council fully set forth the nature of Christ, countering the conceptions of Gregory, based on a few surviving canons found in the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, Saint Isidore is known to have presided over an additional provincial council around 624. The council dealt with a conflict over the see of Ecija, and wrongfully stripped bishop Martianus of his see and it also addressed a concern over Jews who had been forced to convert to Christianity by Sisebut failing to present their children for baptism
22.
Etymologiae
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Etymologiae, also known as the Origines and usually abbreviated Orig. is an etymological encyclopedia compiled by Isidore of Seville towards the end of his life. Isidore was encouraged to write the book by his friend Braulio, the Etymologies summarized and organized a wealth of knowledge from hundreds of classical sources, three of its books are derived largely from Pliny the Elders Natural History. Isidore acknowledges Pliny, but not his other principal sources, namely Cassiodorus, Servius and Solinus, the work contains whatever Isidore, an influential Christian bishop, thought worth keeping. Etymologiae covers a range of topics. Etymologiae was the most used textbook throughout the Middle Ages and it was so popular that it was read in place of many of the original classical texts that it summarized, so these ceased to be copied and were lost. It was cited by Dante Alighieri, who placed Isidore in his Paradiso, quoted by Geoffrey Chaucer, among the thousand-odd surviving manuscript copies is the 13th-century Codex Gigas, the earliest surviving manuscript, the Codex Sangallensis, preserves books XI to XX from the 9th century. Etymologiae was printed in at least ten editions between 1472 and 1530, after which its importance faded in the Renaissance, the first scholarly edition was printed in Madrid in 1599, the first modern critical edition was edited by Wallace Lindsay in 1911. Etymologiae is less known in modern times, though the Vatican considered naming its author Isidore the patron saint of the Internet. Scholars recognize its importance both for its preservation of texts and for the insight it offers into medieval thought. Isidore of Seville was born around 560 in Spain, under the rule of the Visigoths after the collapse of the Roman empire. His older brother, Leander, the abbot of a Seville monastery, supervised Isidores education, Leander was a powerful priest, a friend of Pope Gregory, and eventually he became bishop of Seville. Leander also made friends with the Visigothic kings sons, Hermenigild, in 586, Reccared became king, and in 587 under Leanders religious direction he became a Catholic, controlling the choice of bishops. Reccared died in 601, not long after appointing Isidore as bishop of Seville, Isidore helped to unify the kingdom through Christianity and education, eradicating the Arian heresy which had been widespread, and led National Councils at Toledo and Seville. Isidore had a friendship with king Sisebut, who came to the throne in 612, and with another Seville churchman, Braulio. Isidore was widely read, mainly in Latin with a little Greek, the classical encyclopedists had already introduced alphabetic ordering of topics, and a literary rather than observational approach to knowledge, Isidore followed those traditions. Isidore became well known in his lifetime as a scholar and he started to put together a collection of his knowledge, the Etymologies, in about 600, and continued to write until about 625. Etymologiae presents in abbreviated form much of that part of the learning of antiquity that Christians thought worth preserving, Etymologies, often very far-fetched, form the subject of just one of the encyclopedias twenty books, but perceived linguistic similarities permeate the work. An idea of the quality of Isidores etymological knowledge is given by Peter Jones, Isidores vast encyclopedia of ancient learning includes subjects from theology to furniture, and provided a rich source of classical lore and learning for medieval writers
23.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
24.
Penguin Classics
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Penguin Classics is an imprint published by Penguin Books, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House. They are published in varying editions throughout the world including in Australia, Canada, China, India, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The first Penguin Classic was E. V. Rieus translation of The Odyssey, published in 1946, Penguin Books has paid particular attention to the design of its books since recruiting German typographer Jan Tschichold in 1947. The early minimalist designs were modernised by Italian art director Germano Facetti, the new classics were known as Black Classics for their black covers, which also featured artwork appropriate to the topic and period of the work. This design was revised in 1985 to have pale yellow covers with a spine, colour-coded with a small mark to indicate language. In 2002, Penguin announced it was redesigning its entire catalogue, the redesign restored the black cover, adding a white stripe and orange lettering. The in-house text design department still exists, albeit smaller than formerly, and is managed by text designers Claire Mason and Lisa Simmonds. Recent design work includes the Penguin Little Black Classic series, Penguin Classics collaborated with Bill Amberg in 2008 in the design of six books. These books are bound in leather which was worked in a way that as the book is handled, the books also include their own leather bookmark, which is bound with the book title and author. It has been reported widely that the purpose for this approach by Penguin Classics is to target readers/collectors who would like a high-end book, within the broader category of Classics, Penguin has issued specialised series with their own designs. Some titles come with critical apparatus, Penguin 20th Century Classics, issued in the 1990s. They were folded into the Modern Classics imprint, presumably in 2000, 20th Century Classics feature full-page front cover art, with a light blue-and-white rear cover. These addenda were originally found in the Penguin Shakespeare editions of the 1930s, Popular Classics issued in the 1990s came with full cover art and a cream back, not unlike the Classics. Most Popular Classics reprinted in the 21st century have a plain and they were a response to Wordsworth Classics, a series of very cheap reprints which imitated Penguin in using black as its signature colour. The series echoes the style of the original Penguin Books, with smaller A-format size, the first 20 books were released in May 2016, and described by publishing director Simon Winder as a mix of the famous and the unjustly overlooked. In 2005, a collection of books in the series was sold on Amazon. com as The Penguin Classics Library Complete Collection. In 2005, the collection consisted of 1,082 different books, the collection weighed about 750 pounds and took about 77 linear feet of shelf space, laid end-to-end the books would reach about 630 feet. In 2008, Penguin Books published a complete annotated listing of all Penguin Classics titles in a paperback volume in the style of its Penguin Classics books
25.
Louis le Brocquy
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Louis le Brocquy was an Irish painter born in Dublin. His work received many accolades in a career spanned some seventy years of creative practice. The same year he married the Irish painter Anne Madden and left London to work in the French Midi, the artists work is represented in numerous public collections from the Guggenheim, New York to the Tate Modern, London. In Ireland, he is honoured as the first and only painter to be included during his lifetime in the Permanent Irish Collection of the National Gallery of Ireland. The Head Image, IMMA Series, with a contribution by Louis le Brocquy ‘The Human Head, Notes on painting, ISBN 0-946641-58-7 Madden le Brocquy, Anne, Louis le Brocquy, A Painter Seeing his Way,317 pp.118 duotones. Limited to 250 numbered copies, signed and numbered by the artist, bound in dark grey cloth, black Morocco spine, stamped in silver, housed in publishers matching slip-case, Kennys Bindery, Galway. ISBN 0-946641-29-3 Morgan, George, Louis le Brocquy, Procession, ISBN 0-907085-13-X London, Gimpel Fils, Louis le Brocquy, Watercolours,20 May –14 June 1947. Dublin, The Victor Waddington Galleries, Paintings and Tapestries by Louis le Brocquy, December 1951 Los Angeles, Esther Robles Gallery, Zürich, Galerie Leinhard, Louis le Brocquy, January 1961. London, Gimpel Fils, Louis le Brocquy,12 September –10 October 1961, Dublin, Municipal Gallery of Modern Art, Louis le Brocquy, A Retrospective Selection of Oil Paintings 1939 –1966,8 November –11 December 1966. Texts by Francis Bacon, Anne Crookshank Louis le Brocquy, Jacques Dupin The Paintings of 1964 –1966, belfast, Ulster Museum, Louis le Brocquy, A Retrospective Selection of Oil Paintings 1939 –1966,19 December –1 January 1967. ASIN, B0006CH5G4 Zürich, Gimpel & Hanover Galerie, Louis le Brocquy, texts by Anne Crookshank, Jacques Dupin, Herbert Read, Robert Melville. New York, Gimpel Weitzenhoffer, Louis le Brocquy,27 April –15 May 1971, st. Paul, Fondation Maeght, Louis le Brocquy,9 March –8 April 1973. Texts by Claude Esteban ‘Histoire Calcinée’, Jacques Dupin ‘Louis le Brocquy’, London, Gimpel Fils Gallery, Louis le Brocquy, 1–26 October 1974. Text by John Montague ‘The Later le Brocquy’, ASIN, B0007AJR34 Dublin, Dawson Gallery, Louis le Brocquy, Studies Towards an Image of W. B. Yeats,26 November –13 December 1975. Text by le Brocquy ‘Studies Towards an Image of W. B. Yeats’, Paris, Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville, Louis le Brocquy, A la Recherche de W. B. Yeats. Cent Portraits Imaginaires,15 October –28 November 1976, texts by Jacques Lassaigne, John Montague ‘Les visages de Yeats’, le Brocquy ‘A la recherche de Yeats’. Genoa, Galleria d’Arte San Marco dei Giustiniani, Genova, Louis le Brocquy, texts by le Brocquy ‘Studies towards an Image of James Joyce’, John Montague ‘Jawseyes’. ASIN, B0007BIC1G New York, Gimpel Weitzenhoffer, Louis le Brocquy, Studies Towards an Image of James Joyce, montreal, Waddington Galleries, Louis le Brocquy, Studies Towards an Image of James Joyce, November 1978
