1.
Airline codes
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This is a list of airline codes. The table lists IATAs two-character airline designators, ICAOs three-character airline designators, IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are two-character codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association to the worlds airlines. The standard is described in IATAs Standard Schedules Information Manual and the codes themselves are described in IATAs Airline Coding Directory, Airline designator codes follow the format xx, i. e. two alphanumeric characters followed by an optional letter. Although the IATA standard provides for three-character airline designators, IATA has not used the third character in any assigned code. This is because some legacy computer systems, especially the central reservations systems, have failed to comply with the standard, the codes issued to date comply with IATA Resolution 762, which provides for only two characters. These codes thus comply with the current airline designator standard, there are three types of designator, unique, numeric/alpha and controlled duplicate. IATA airline designators are used to identify an airline for commercial purposes in reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills, a flight designator is the concatenation of the airline designator, xx, and the numeric flight number, n, plus an optional one-letter operational suffix. Therefore, the format of a flight designator is xxn. After an airline is delisted, IATA can make the code available for reuse after six months, controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely to overlap, so that the same code is shared by two airlines. The controlled duplicate is denoted here, and in IATA literature, an example of this is the code 6Y, which refers to both Mid Airlines, a charter airline in Sudan, and Med Airways, a charter airline in Lebanon. IATA also issues an accounting or prefix code and this number is used on tickets as the first three characters of the ticket number. The IATA codes originally based on the ICAO designators which were issued in 1947 as two-letter airline identification codes and these codes are unique by airline, unlike the IATA airline designator codes. The designators are listed in ICAO Document 8585, Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, ICAO codes have been issued since 1947. The ICAO codes originally based on a two-letter-system and were identical to the codes used by IATA. After an airline joined IATA its existing ICAO-two-letter-code was taken over as IATA code, so in the 1970s the abbreviation BA was the ICAO code and the IATA code of British Airways while non-IATA-airlines like Court Line used their 2-letter-abbreviation as ICAO code only. In the early 1980s ICAO introduced the current three-letter-system due to the number of airlines. It became the new standard system in November 1987. Other designators, particularly starting with Y and Z, are reserved for government organizations
2.
Airline hub
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Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
3.
Focus city
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In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
4.
KLM
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KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, legally Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N. V. is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. KLM is headquartered in Amstelveen, with its hub at nearby Amsterdam Airport Schiphol and it is part of the Air France–KLM group, and is a member of the SkyTeam airline alliance. KLM was founded in 1919, it is the oldest airline in the still operating under its original name and had 32,505 employees as of 2013. KLM operates scheduled passenger and cargo services to approximately 130 destinations, in 1919, a young aviator lieutenant named Albert Plesman sponsored the ELTA aviation exhibition in Amsterdam. The exhibition was a success, after it closed several Dutch commercial interests intended to establish a Dutch airline. In September 1919, Queen Wilhelmina awarded the yet-to-be-founded KLM its Royal predicate, Plesman became its first administrator and director. The first KLM flight took place on 17 May 1920, KLMs first pilot, Jerry Shaw, flew from Croydon Airport, London, to Amsterdam. The flight was using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel De Haviland DH-16, registration G-EALU. In 1920, KLM carried 440 passengers and 22 tons of freight, in April 1921, after a winter hiatus, KLM resumed its services using its own pilots, and Fokker F. II and Fokker F. III aircraft. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services, KLMs first intercontinental flight took off on 1 October 1924. The final destination was Jakarta, Java, in the Dutch East Indies, in September 1929, regular scheduled services between Amsterdam and Batavia commenced. Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, this was the worlds longest-distance scheduled service by airplane. By 1926, it was offering flights to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Brussels, Paris, London, Bremen, Copenhagen, in 1930, KLM carried 15,143 passengers. The Douglas DC-2 was introduced on the Batavia service in 1934, the first experimental transatlantic KLM flight was between Amsterdam and Curaçao in December 1934 using the Fokker F. XVIII Snip. The first of the airlines Douglas DC-3 aircraft were delivered in 1936, KLM was the first airline to serve Manchesters new Ringway airport, starting June 1938. When Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, a number of KLM aircraft—mostly DC-3s, five DC-3s and one DC-2 were taken to England. During the war, these aircraft and crew members flew scheduled flights between Bristol and Lisbon under BOAC registration. Some KLM aircraft and their crews ended up in the Australia-Dutch East Indies region, after the end of the Second World War in August 1945, KLM immediately started to rebuild its network
5.
Airline alliance
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An airline alliance is an aviation industry arrangement between two or more airlines agreeing to cooperate on a substantial level. Alliances may provide marketing branding to facilitate travelers making inter-airline codeshare connections within countries and this branding may involve unified aircraft liveries of member aircraft. In 2015, Star Alliance was the largest with 23% of total scheduled traffic in RPK, followed by SkyTeam with 20. 4% and Oneworld with 17. 8%, benefits can consist of, An extended network, often realised through codeshare agreements. Many alliances started as only codeshare networks, cost reduction from sharing of, sales offices maintenance facilities operational facilities, e. g. catering or computer systems. Operational staff, e. g. ground handling personnel, at check-in, investments and purchases, e. g. in order to negotiate extra volume discounts. Traveler benefits can include, lower prices due to lowered operational costs for a given route, more departure times to choose from on a given route. Shorter travel times as a result of optimised transfers, a wider range of airport lounges shared with alliance members faster mileage rewards by earning miles for a single account on several different carriers. Round-the-world tickets, enabling travelers to fly over the world for a low price. Airline alliances may also create disadvantages for the traveler, such as, less frequent flights, for instance, if two airlines separately fly three and two times a day respectively on a shared route, their alliance might fly less than 5 times a day on the same route. This might be especially true between hub cities for each airline, E. g. flights between Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The ability of an airline to join an alliance may be restricted by laws, competition law issues must also be considered in some countries. The first airline alliance was formed in the 1930s, when Panair do Brasil, the first large alliance began in 1989, when Northwest Airlines and KLM agreed to large-scale codesharing. Normally landing rights are granted for a number of flights per week to a fixed destination. Each adjustment requires negotiations, often between governments rather than between the companies involved, in return, the United States granted antitrust immunity to the alliance between Northwest Airlines and KLM. Other alliances would struggle for years to overcome the barriers and lack of antitrust immunity. The Star Alliance was founded in 1997, which brought competing airlines to form Oneworld in 1999, in 2010 Richard Branson, chairman of the Virgin Group, announced his intention to form a fourth alliance among Virgin branded airlines. Then in September 2011, Branson said that Virgin would join one of the existing alliances, in December 2012, Delta Air Lines purchased Singapore Airlines 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic for £224 million. On February 14,2013, it was announced that American Airlines and US Airways would merge, retaining the American Airlines name, US Airways participation in the Star Alliance lapsed
6.
SkyTeam
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Founded in June 2000, SkyTeam was the last of the three major airline alliances to be formed, the first two being Star Alliance and Oneworld. As of March 2014, SkyTeam consists of 20 carriers from five continents and it also operates a cargo alliance named SkyTeam Cargo, which partners ten carriers, all of them SkyTeam members. Its centralised management team, SkyTeam Central, is based at the World Trade Center Schiphol Airport on the grounds of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Haarlemmermeer, Netherlands. In terms of passengers, with 665.4 million carried passengers, SkyTeam has grown and is now the largest alliance in the world ahead of Star Alliance. In 2004, the alliance had its biggest expansion when Continental Airlines, Northwest Airlines, garuda Indonesia entered the alliance in March 2014. As of March 2014, SkyTeam flies to more than 1,000 destinations in 178 countries and operates some 15,700 daily flights with a fleet of over 4,400 aircraft. The alliance and its members have a workforce of 459,781, furthermore. On 22 June 2000, representatives of Aeroméxico, Air France, Delta Air Lines and these became the four founding carriers of SkyTeam. Upon its formation, SkyTeam would offer its customers a total of 6,402 daily flights to 451 destinations in 98 countries, in September 2000, the alliance established a cargo alliance, SkyTeam Cargo. The groups inaugural members were Aeromexpress, Air France Cargo, Delta Air Logistics, the following month, the newly established airline alliance announced its intentions to incorporate CSA Czech Airlines as the 5th member in April the following year. The alliance saw the joining of CSA Czech Airlines on 25 March 2001, Alitalia entered SkyTeam on 27 July the same year, on 30 September 2001, the alliance received KLMs application for membership, following the airlines plans to create a leading airline group with Air France. In 2003, Deltas subsidiary, Delta Express, was replaced by Song and that same year, SkyTeam also launched an improved website focused on providing passengers with more information, increased interactivity and other resources. On 24 May 2004, Aeroflot, the carrier and principal airline of Russia. The event took place in Kremlin following the airlines application earlier in the year for membership, SkyTeam expressed that Aeroflot has not met the consortiums standards, but that the airlines large hub networks made it ideal for the alliance, and made up for its deficiencies. On 28 August, China Southern Airlines, the largest carrier in the Peoples Republic of China, on 13 September, Continental Airlines, KLM and Northwest Airlines joined the alliance. Their simultaneous entry was the largest expansion event in airline alliance history, every associate adopted a frequent-flyer program of a full member, Copa Airlines already used Continentals OnePass, Kenya Airways and Air Europa used Air France–KLMs Flying Blue. Following a 23-month joining process since May 2004, Aeroflot joined on 14 April 2006 and it was the first Russian airline to be associated with any airline alliance. Aeroflot has increased its operational standards, passing International Air Transport Associations Operational Safety Audit, Deltas subsidiary Song continued to operate as Delta Air Lines
7.
Otopeni
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Otopeni is a town in Ilfov County, Romania, some 15 km north of Bucharest along the road to Ploiești. It has 13,861 inhabitants, of which 99. 0% are Romanians, one village, Odăile, is administered by the town. Henri Coandă International Airport is located inside Otopeni, the head office of the airline TAROM is located inside the International Departures Terminal in the airport. In addition the office of Țiriac Air is in Otopeni. The oldest discovered human settlements in the region are very old, in an overlay was discovered another settlement are dated to the 10th century. By charter of 14 February 1587, Mihnea Turcitu - voivode of Romanian - gave Holy Trinity Monastery half to the village of Islazul and half to the village of Hodopeni mills and gypsies. On 20 May 1620, Maria, great Baneasa, Holy Trinity monastery was given half the village Hodopeni with Rumani, given by Master Villa. Historian Giurăscu Constantin believes that Hodopeni name of the village, comes from an Hodopa or Hodoba. At the end of the 19th century, Otopeni town was part of Dambovitsa county Ilfov province, the commune operated a school with 29 students and two churches. The village chambers was then part of town Bucoveni, with 125 inhabitants, Otopeni was transformed into a city as part of Nicolae Ceaușescus Systematization plan. It replaced the houses with four-story high apartment buildings. The mayor of Otopeni is Constantin Silviu Gheorghe, from the National Liberal Party, the Otopeni Local Council has 17 councillors, even though before the 2008 local elections, it only had 15. It is considered to be a safe Liberal district, currently having the party composition
8.
Ilfov County
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Ilfov is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be rural, but, after the fall of communism, many of the countys villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns. The gentrification of the county is continuing, with towns in Ilfov, such as Otopeni. It has a population of 364,241, the population density is 230.09 per km². 40% of the population commutes and works in Bucharest, although, in recent years, many industrial plants were built outside Bucharest, in Ilfov county. It has a growth of about 4%. Romanians -96. 05% Others -3. 95% The county has an area of 1,583 km², the main rivers that pass through the county are, Dâmbovița River, Colentina River and Gruiu River. Several lakes can be found in Ilfov county, notably Lake Cernica, Lake Snagov, the base occupation used to be the agriculture. Also all the roads and railways leaving Bucharest pass through the county. The county has a surface covered with forests and also due to its lakes, it is a frequent week-end. The thick forests were useful for retreat during the age because they were not easy to cross on horseback. In fact, the name of the forest means the Forests of the Vlachs, the county was named after the Ilfov River and it appears for the first time in a 1482 donation act of voivode Vlad Călugărul to the monastery of Snagov. In earliest documents, it was known as Elhov, the name is of Slavic origin, being derived from елха, elha and possessive suffix -ov, referring to a river which flowed through an alder forest. The county has 8 towns and 32 communes, the largest settlements by population are Voluntari, Pantelimon, Buftea and Popești-Leordeni. These are the settlements with more than 20.000 residents. At the 2011 census, 43% of the population was defined as urban. Vountari is the largest settlement, with a population of 42.944 at the 2011 census and it has experienced rapid population growth in recent years. Despite this, Voluntari did have a population of 30,000 at that time, Buftea is associated with the cinema of Romania, as the film studios MediaPro Pictures are located in Buftea. Otopeni was transformed into a town under the communist regime, as part of Nicolae Ceaușescus systematization policy, before 1972, Ilfov County used to be one of the largest counties of Romania, but parts of it were added to neighbouring counties and nowadays it is the smallest
9.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
10.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
11.
Earnings before interest and taxes
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In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
12.
Flag carrier
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The term also refers to any carrier that is or was owned by a government, even long after their privatization when preferential rights or privileges continue. Flag carriers may be known as such due to maritime law requiring all aircraft or ships to display the flag of the country of their registry. A flag carrier may also be known as an airline or a national carrier. The first definition is rooted in the fact that pursuant to Article 17 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation aircraft have the nationality of the state in which they are registered. U. S. law requires American air carriers to operate aircraft registered in the United States and most countries have similar laws. Article 3 of Tokyo Convention declares that The State of registration is competent to exercise jurisdiction over “offenses, the American definition of U. S. -flag air carrier service contained in 48 CFR47. 403-1. is based on this first definition. The U. S. requirements under the Fly America Act, are consistent with requiring that Title 18 of the United States Code would protect U. S. government employees on flights to foreign countries. The second and more broadly used definition of flag carrier is a legacy of the time when countries established state-owned airline companies, governments then took the lead due to the high capital costs of establishing and running airlines. However, not all such airlines were government-owned, Pan Am, TWA, Cathay Pacific, Union de Transports Aériens, Canadian Pacific Air Lines and Olympic Airlines were all privately owned. Most of these were considered to be flag carriers as they were the national airline. The heavily regulated aviation industry also meant aviation rights are negotiated between governments, denying airlines the right to an open market. Some countries also establish flag carriers such as Israels El Al or Lebanons Middle East Airlines for nationalist reasons, or to aid the countrys economy, in many cases, governments would directly assist in the growth of their flag carriers typically through subsidies and other fiscal incentives. The establishment of competitors in the form of other locally registered airlines may be prohibited, in the last two decades, however, many of these airlines have since been corporatized as a public company or a state-owned enterprise, or completely privatized. One of the features of such agreements is the right of a country to designate multiple airlines to serve routes with the result that there is no single flag carrier. The chart below lists airlines considered to be a carrier, based on current or former state ownership. International Air Transport Association US Maritime Administration
13.
Airline
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An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body, Airlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, the largest airline currently is American Airlines Group. DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the worlds first airline and it was founded on November 16,1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1,1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, the four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands KLM, Colombias Avianca, Australias Qantas, and the Czech Republics Czech Airlines. The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, using a fleet of former military Airco DH. 4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger. On 25 August 1919, the company used DH. 16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract, six Royal Air Force Airco DH. 9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force, the first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919, in its first year, the D. L. R. Operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a length of nearly 1000 miles. Network was more than 3000 km long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden, the Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was awarded a Royal predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, in 1921, KLM started scheduled services
14.
Romanian language
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Romanian is a Romance language spoken by around 24 million people as a native language, primarily in Romania and Moldova, and by another 4 million people as a second language. It has official status in Romania and the Republic of Moldova and it is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Latin Union. Romanian is a part of the Balkan-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin separated from the Western Romance during the 5th–8th centuries. To distinguish it within that group in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. Eastern Romance languages, like the branches of Romance languages, descend from Vulgar Latin. These vestiges of military usage are unique to Romanian in its language family. s. o, sat village, șes plain, a supune, tindă veranda, țară homeland a. s. o. This linguistic evidence challenges the Roeslerian theory, the vestiges from sermo castrensis particularize the Romanian language in the neolatin area, together with its isolated history. e. With Rom. māgurā and Alb. magulë etc, the Roman Empire withdrew from Dacia in 271–272 AD, leaving it to the Goths. The history of Eastern Romance between the 3rd century and the development of Proto-Romanian by the 10th century, when the area came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, is unknown. It is a matter of debate whether Proto-Romanian developed among Romanized people who were left behind in Dacia by the Roman withdrawal or among Latin-speakers in the Balkans south of the Danube, during the Middle Ages, Romanian became influenced by the Slavic languages and to some degree by Greek. Romanian remains unattested throughout the Middle Ages, and only enters the record in the early 16th century. The use of the denomination Romanian for our language and use of the demonym Romanians for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. In 1534, Tranquillo Andronico notes, Valachi nunc se Romanos vocant, francesco della Valle writes in 1532 that Romanians are calling themselves Romans in their own language, and he subsequently quotes the expression, Știi Românește. After travelling through Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania Ferrante Capecci accounts in 1575 that the population of these regions call themselves românești. Pierre Lescalopier writes in 1574 that those who live in Moldavia, Wallachia, the Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lebel writes in 1542 that Vlachi se numeau între ei Romuini and the Polish chronicler Stanislaw Orzechowski notes in 1554 that în limba lor walachii se numesc romini. In Palia de la Orăștie stands written «, că văzum cum toate limbile au și înfluresc întru cuvintele slăvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbă nu avem. și le-au dăruit voo fraților români. », nevertheless, the oldest extant document written in Romanian remains Neacșus letter and was written using Cyrillic letters. There are no records of any documents written in Romanian from before 1521
15.
Government of Romania
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The Government of Romania forms one half of the executive branch of the government of Romania. It is headed by the Prime Minister of Romania, and consists of the ministries, various subordinated institutions and agencies, the seat of the Romanian Government is at Victoria Palace in Bucharest. The Government is appointed by the President of Romania on the basis of the vote of confidence granted to the Government by the Parliament of Romania, the current government is led by Sorin Grindeanu. A member of the Social Democratic Party, he was nominated by the leader of the party, Liviu Dragnea, two days later, President Klaus Iohannis officially appointed him Prime Minister-designate. He assumed office on 4 January 2017, if no such majority exists, the President consults all the parties represented in Parliament. Once nominated, the candidate establishes a list of members and a government platform, the 10-day interval is not a strict deadline, rather it represents the time period deemed optimal to establish a competent legal Government. The expiry of this allows the President to revoke the candidate and designate a new one. Once the candidate has formed a list and a program, he can ask for the Parliaments vote of confidence, the Parliament debates upon the matter in joint sitting, and can only reject proposals twice in a span of 60 days. If Parliament fails to approve a candidate within this time period, should the Parliament grant its vote of confidence, the proposed political platform becomes official, and the full list of Government must be confirmed by the President. The Government is then sworn in and begins its term, the Government is organized and functions in accordance with the Constitution, based on Government Program approved by Parliament. To achieve the goals stipulated in the Government Program, the Romanian Government performs the functions of strategizing, regulating, administering, representing and exercising the state authority, the role of the Government is sanctioned by the Constitution and by relevant laws. The Government answers exclusively to Parliament, both through compulsory information of Parliament and through questions, interpellations and inquiry committees, a Chamber of Parliament may carry a simple motion with regards to the subject matter of an interpellation. In extreme cases, the Parliament may vote a motion of censure, withdrawing its confidence, through a special habilitation law, the Government may be enabled to issue ordinances, which have the same legal force as ordinary laws. Ordinances are a form of legislative delegation, and may require approval in Parliament if the law states so. The Constitution of Romania provides for two types of members, namely ministers and the Prime Minister. The statute of additional members is established by organic law, current legislation establishes the positions of deputy prime minister, state minister and ministers delegated with special tasks. State minister is a position, the holder of which coordinates the activity of various ministries under the direction of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the leader of Government and coordinates its activity, the Prime Ministers office itself consists of the Prime Ministers Cabinet, the body of his state-secretaries and state-counselors, and the Prime Ministers Registry
16.
Airmail stamp
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An airmail stamp is a postage stamp intended to pay either an airmail fee that is charged in addition to the surface rate, or the full airmail rate, for a piece of mail to be transported by air. Airmail stamps should not be confused with airmail etiquettes, which are affixed to mail as an instruction to the authority that the mail should be transmitted by air. With aviation developments, several countries started to experiment with flights, initially flights were unofficial, but some flights such as the 1877 Buffalo balloon flight, carried mail, to which stamp-like labels were affixed. At the beginning airmail letters cost more than surface mail, the first stamp depicting an aeroplane was a US 20-cent parcel post stamp issued on 1 January 1913 but not intended for airmail duty, the set of 12 showed transportation and delivery methods. Four years later a stamp was issued in Italy. Some other examples are the use of stamps, telegraph stamps, postage due stamps. Airmail stamps have been issued for extra services, such as registered airmail, express airmail, airmail fieldpost, in the 1920s and 1930s, when many countries issued airmail stamps to publicise their new airmail routes, a new branch of stamp collecting started. This led to an expansion that includes the collection of covers, Airmail items from the early days are expensive due to the popularity of this collecting area. Specialised catalogues and albums are produced for collectors of airmail stamps, many airmail stamps feature aviation themes that are an area of topical stamp collecting. The first official postage stamp to be issued for a flight was in May 1917 when Poste italiane overprinted their existing special delivery stamps. One pane of 100 stamps were found to have an error, known as the Inverted Jenny. The error is one of the most well known airmail stamps, for example, as noted above the privately produced 5¢ Buffalo balloon stamps were used on June 18,1877, for a balloon flight from Nashville to Gallatin, Tennessee. The Vin Fiz Flyer, an airplane, also carried semi-official stamps on its 1911 flight across the United States. Aerophilately Airmail stamps of Denmark Art Deco stamps List of United States airmail stamps Notes Sources Hornung, the Illustrated Encyclopedia of Stamp Collecting. Feltham, English, The Hamlyn Publishing Group, further reading Gomez, James, Ariel Books Staff. Buffalo balloon stamp on cover Collecting airmail stamps American Air Mail Society U. S. Air Mail Stamps American Air Mail Society
17.
BAC One-Eleven
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The British Aircraft Corporation One-Eleven, also known as the BAC-111 or BAC 1-11, was a British short-range jet airliner used during the 1960s and 1970s. It was the second jet airliner to enter service, following the French Sud Aviation Caravelle. The aircraft was produced under license in Romania during the 1980s as the Rombac One-Eleven. The One-Eleven was intended to replace the earlier turboprop-powered Vickers Viscount on short-range routes, the One-Eleven made it to market ahead of rivals such as the Douglas DC-9-10, which gave it a temporary edge on the market. As of 2013, two remain in service as testbeds for Northrop-Grumman. Several aircraft manufacturers raced to release their own passenger jets, including those aimed at the short-haul market, in July 1956, British European Airways published a paper calling for a second generation jet airliner to operate beside their existing turboprop designs. This led to a variety of designs all of the major players in the British aerospace industry. Hunting Aircraft started design studies on a replacement for the successful Vickers Viscount. Around the same time, Vickers started a development of a 140-seat derivative of its VC10 project. Many other aviation firms had produced their own designs. In 1960 Hunting, under British government pressure, merged with Vickers-Armstrongs, Bristol, the newly formed BAC decided that the Hunting project had merit, but that there would be little market for a 30-seat jet airliner. The design was reworked into the BAC107, a 59-seat airliner powered by two 7,000 pounds-force Bristol Siddeley BS75 turbofan engines, BAC also continued development of the larger, 140-seat VC-11 development of the Vickers VC10 which it had inherited. Other competing internal projects, such as the Bristol Type 200, were abandoned following the absorption of Hunting into BAC. The revised design was redesignated the BAC111, with BAC abandoning the VC11 project to concentrate on the more promising One-Eleven, test flying was conducted by Squadron Leader Dave Glaser. On 9 May 1961 the One-Eleven was publicly launched when British United Airways placed the first order for ten One-Eleven 200s, on 20 October Braniff International Airways in the United States ordered six. Mohawk Airlines sent representatives to Europe seeking out a new aircraft to bring them into the jet era, other orders followed from Kuwait Airways for three, and Central African Airways for two. Braniff subsequently doubled their order to 12, while Aer Lingus ordered four, Western Airlines ordered ten aircraft but later cancelled. The CAB also stopped Frontier Airlines and Ozark Air Lines from ordering One-Elevens, although allowing Ozark to order the similar Douglas DC-9, the CAB had also unsuccessfully tried to block Mohawks orders
18.
Heathrow Airport
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Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
19.
Tupolev Tu-154
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The Tupolev Tu-154 is a three-engine medium-range narrow-body airliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured by Tupolev. It was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as a transport by the air forces of several countries. With a cruising speed of 900 kilometres per hour the Tu-154 is one of the fastest civilian aircraft in use and has a range of 5,280 kilometres. Since 1968 there have been 39 fatal incidents involving the Tu-154, most of which were caused either by factors unrelated to the aircraft, following a crash in 2016 all Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft in Russia were grounded. However, the Tu-154 is still being used as of January 2017, the Tu-154 was developed to meet Aeroflots requirement to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, the Antonov An-10 and the Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. A takeoff distance of 2,600 metres at maximum weight was also stipulated as a requirement. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry chose the Tu-154 as it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design, the first project chief was Sergey Yeger, in 1964, Dmitryi S. Markov assumed that position. In 1975, the lead role was turned over to Aleksandr S. Shengardt. The Tu-154 first flew on 4 October 1968, the first deliveries to Aeroflot were in 1970 with freight services beginning in May 1971 and passenger services in February 1972. There was still limited production of the 154M model as of January 2009 despite previous announcements of the end of production in 2006,1025 Tu-154s have been built,214 of which were still in service as of 14 December 2009. The last serial Tu-154 was delivered to the Russian Defense Ministry on 19 February 2013 from the Aviakor factory, equipped with upgraded avionics, a VIP interior, the factory has four unfinished hulls in its inventory which can be completed if new orders are received. The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the Boeing 727, but it is larger than its American counterpart. Both the 727 and the Tu-154 use an S-duct for the middle engine, the original model was equipped with Kuznetsov NK-8-2 engines, which were replaced with Soloviev D-30KU-154 in the Tu-154M. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a relatively high thrust-to-weight-ratio which give excellent performance and this became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew. The flight deck is fitted with conventional dual yoke control columns, Flight control surfaces are hydraulically operated. The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on Boeing. The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in a layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout. The layout can be modified to what is called a winter version where some seats are taken out, the passenger doors are smaller than on its Boeing and Airbus counterparts
20.
Vienna International Airport
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Vienna International Airport is the international airport of Vienna, the capital of Austria, located in Schwechat,18 km southeast of central Vienna and 57 km west of Bratislava. It is the countrys biggest airport and serves as the hub for Austrian Airlines and it is capable of handling wide-body aircraft up to the Airbus A380. The airport features a network of European destinations as well as long-haul flights to Asia. During 2015, the airport handled 23.4 million passengers, in 1954, the Betriebsgesellschaft was founded, and the airport replaced Aspern as Viennas principal aerodrome. There was just one runway, which in 1959 was expanded to measure 3,000 m, the erection of the new airport building starting in 1959. In 1972 another runway was built, in 1982 the airport was connected to the national motorway network. In 1986 the enlarged arrivals hall was opened, and in 1988 Pier East with 8 jetbridges, Flughafen Wien AG, one of the few publicly traded airport operators in Europe, was privatised in 1992. The state of Lower Austria and the City of Vienna each hold 20% of the shares, the shares are part of the Austrian Traded Index. In 1992, the new Terminal 1 was opened and a year later the area around the plaza in the transit area of the B, C and D gates. In 1996 Pier West with 12 jetbridges got in operation, in 2006 the 109 m tall control tower started operating. It allows a free overview of the airport area and offers a night laser show. From 2004–2007 an Office Park had been erected offering 69,000 m2 of rentable space, a VIP- and general aviation-terminal, including a separated apron, opened in 2006. To accommodate future growth, in 1998 Vienna Airport published a plan that outlined expansion projects until 2015. These projects included a new park, railway station, cargo center, general aviation center, air traffic control tower, terminal. Additionally, the called for streamlined security control. The centerpiece of the enlargement was the new terminal, dubbed Skylink during its construction, in 2002, the airports management estimated that building the new terminal will cost €401.79 million. However, costs skyrocketed and in 2009 stood at an estimated €929.5 million, on June 5,2012, the new Austrian Star Alliance Terminal was opened, which enables the airport to handle up to 30 million passengers per year. Construction started in 2004 and was suspended due to projected cost increases in 2009, the maximum planned costs totaled less than €770 million
21.
Potez 15
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The Potez 15 was a French single-engine, two-seat observation biplane designed as a private venture by Louis Coroller and built by Potez and under licence in Poland. The plane was designed in the beginning of the 1920s by Henry Coroller in Potez works and it was a development of a fighter SEA IV built by Société dEtudes Aéronautiques, a former firm of Henry Potez and Coroller. A prototype was flown in October 1921 and shown at Paris Air Show that year and it was conventional biplane with a fixed tailskid landing gear and a nose-mounted 276 kW Lorraine 12D engine. The engine was replaced by a 224 kW Renault 12Fe. After a successful evaluation, the aircraft was ordered by the Aéronautique Militiare as a reconnaissance aircraft, the first planes were manufactured and delivered in late 1923. Series-built planes were powered with Lorraine-Dietrich 12Db inline engine, the plane was built in two main military variants, Potez 15 A2 reconnaissance plane and Potez 15 B2 bomber-reconnaissance plane. A single prototype of a floatplane variant Potez XV HO2 was built, there was also an export variant Potez XVII of 1923, built for Bulgaria only, with the same LD 12Db engine. Already in 1923, Poland bought a licence for the Potez 15 and started to manufacture them in Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów, a development of Potez 15 was Potez 27, Primary user of Potez 15s was the French Air Force, from late 1923. Main user became the Polish Air Force with 110 aircraft bought and 135 manufactured in Poland, in the Polish Air Force, they were used from late 1924. Their withdrawal from combat units started in 1927, then they were used for training until mid-1930s,120 aircraft were sold to Romania,12 to Spain, and eight to Denmark. Six Potez XVIIs were sold to Bulgaria,25 Potez XV A2 were used in Yugoslavia. These shared the engine, fuselage, undercarriage and tailfin of the Potez 15, combining them with the wings and stabilizers from a newer design, wooden construction biplane with fixed landing gear. The fuselage was framed, with metal covering for front engine section, plywood covering for the midsection, rectangular two-spar wings, plywood and canvas covered, of equal span. Crew of two, sitting in tandem in open cockpits, pilot in front, observer in the rear, conventional fixed landing gear, with a common straight axle and a rear skid. Engine in front, two barrel-type water Lamblin radiators below the fuselage, between the landing gear, the pilot had one fixed 7.7 mm Vickers machine gun with an interrupter gear, the observer had twin 7.7 mm Lewis Guns on a ring mounting. Potez XV Production variant powered by a 400 hp Lorraine-Dietrich 12Db V-12 engine, Potez XV HO2 A 2-seat observation floatplane variant powered by a 400 hp Lorraine-Dietrich 12Db V-12 engine. Potez XVII Modified variant for Bulgaria, six built.7 m Wingspan,12.68 m Height,3.9 m/s Armament 1 ×7.7 mm Vickers machine gun, fixed in front 2 ×7
22.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
23.
Bucharest
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Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than 60 km north of the Danube River, Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459. It became the capital of Romania in 1862 and is the centre of Romanian media, culture and its architecture is a mix of historical, interbellum, communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the citys elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of Little Paris. Although buildings and districts in the city centre were heavily damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic, in 2016, the historical city centre was listed as endangered by the World Monuments Watch. According to the 2011 census,1,883,425 inhabitants live within the city limits, the urban area extends beyond the limits of Bucharest proper and has a population of about 1.9 million people. Adding the satellite towns around the area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.27 million people. According to Eurostat, Bucharest has an urban zone of 2,183,091 residents. According to unofficial data, the population is more than 3 million, Bucharest is the sixth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits, after London, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, and Paris. Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and is one of the industrial centres. The city has big convention facilities, educational institutes, cultural venues, traditional shopping arcades, the Romanian name București has an uncertain origin. Tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur, who was a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, in Romanian, the word stem bucurie means joy, and it is believed to be of Dacian origin. Other etymologies are given by scholars, including the one of an Ottoman traveler, Evliya Çelebi. A native or resident of Bucharest is called a Bucharester, Bucharests history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements in antiquity until its consolidation as the national capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the Citadel of București in 1459, it became the residence of the famous Wallachian prince Vlad III the Impaler, the Ottomans appointed Greek administrators to run the town from the 18th century. A short-lived revolt initiated by Tudor Vladimirescu in 1821 led to the end of the rule of Constantinople Greeks in Bucharest, the Old Princely Court was erected by Mircea Ciobanul in the mid-16th century. Under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the residence of the royal court
24.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
25.
Airco DH.9
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The Airco DH.9 - also known after 1920 as the de Havilland DH.9 - was a British bomber used in the First World War. A single-engined biplane, it was a development of Aircos earlier, highly successful DH.4 and was ordered in large numbers for Britains Royal Flying Corps. The subsequently-developed DH. 9A had a powerful and reliable American Liberty L-12 engine. The DH.9 was designed by de Havilland for the Aircraft Manufacturing Company in 1916 as a successor to the DH.4 and it used the wings and tail unit of the DH.4 but had a new fuselage. This enabled the pilot to sit closer to the gunner/observer and away from the engine and fuel tank. Based on the estimates for the DH.9, and the similarity to the DH.4. The prototype first flew at Hendon in July 1917, unfortunately, the BHP engine proved unable to reliably deliver its expected power, with the engine being derated to 230 hp in order to improve reliability. This had an effect on the aircrafts performance, especially at high altitude. This meant that the DH.9 would have to fight its way through enemy fighters, while attempts were made to provide the DH. 9A to transform the aircraft. To boost the rate of production, quantity orders for the DH.9 were also placed with Alliance, G & J. Weir, Short Brothers, Vulcan, Waring & Gillow and National Aircraft Factories No.1 and No.2. The DH. 9s performance in action over the Western Front was a disaster, with losses incurred. Between May and November 1918, two squadrons on the Western Front lost 54 shot down, and another 94 written off in accidents, captain John Stevenson Stubbs managed 11 aerial victories in a DH9, including the highly unusual feat of balloon busting with one. The last combat use by the RAF was in support of the campaign against Mohammed Abdullah Hassan in Somalia during January—February 1920. Surprisingly, production was allowed to continue after the end of the war into 1919, following the end of the First World War, large numbers of surplus DH. 9s became available at low prices and the type was widely exported. The South African Air Force received 48 DH. 9s, and used them extensively, several South African aircraft were re-engined with Bristol Jupiter radial engines as the Mpala, serving until 1937. Because of the number of surplus DH. 9s available after the war many were used by air transport companies. They provided a useful load carrying capability and were inexpensive, early air services between London, Paris and Amsterdam were operated by DH. 9s owned by Aircraft Transport and Travel. A number of different conversions for use were carried out
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
28.
Aurel Vlaicu International Airport
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Bucharest Aurel Vlaicu Airport is located in Băneasa district, Bucharest, Romania,8.5 km north of the city center. Named after Aurel Vlaicu, a Romanian engineer, inventor, airplane constructor and early pilot, it was Bucharests only airport until 1965, when the Otopeni Airport was opened to civilian use. Until March 2012, when it was converted into an airport, Aurel Vlaicu International was the second airport in Romania in terms of air traffic. The first flights in the Băneasa area took place in 1909 and they were carried out by the French pilot, in 1912 the first flight school in Romania was opened on Băneasa airfield. This makes Băneasa airport the oldest continuously operating airport in Eastern Europe, in 1920, the airport headquartered the first aviation company in Romania, and one of the earliest in the world, the CFRNA, the precursor of the Romanian national airline, TAROM. In 1923 the CFRNA built the facilities for aircraft maintenance in Băneasa. The current terminal building was designed in the late 1940s and opened in 1952, at that time it was considered one of the finest architectural features of Bucharest. The building consists of a dome with three distinct wings which represents an airplane propeller with three blades. During the communist period, Băneasa Airport was TAROMs domestic hub, in the early 2000s, TAROM moved all of its activities to Otopeni. The first low cost airline established at BBU was Blue Air in 2004, from January 2007 many other European low fare airlines started new routes from Bucharest BBU to popular European destinations. In 2007 the airport was closed from 10 May to 19 August for renovation works, all flights during this period were moved to Henri Coandă International Airport. Renovations included commercial areas, restaurants, a VIP lounge and a 300 space car park, the runway and lighting systems were also completely overhauled. In March 2012, Băneasa was converted into an airport 100% dedicated to air traffic. The low-cost traffic was transferred to Henri Coandă International Airport, the building is a late 1940s design, and was not built to cope with more than 600,000 passengers per year and departures every 25 minutes. As such in the few years before 2012 when the airport was closed to scheduled flights. The building cannot be expanded, because of its status as a city landmark, as of 25 March 2012, all commercial flight operations have been moved to Bucharest Henri Coandă Airport. Now, Aurel Vlaicu International Airport handles only charter flights and private jets, from as low as 20 to 30 passengers per month in 2001–2002, BBU handled 119,000 passengers in 2004, and 2,398,911 passengers in 2011. The airport is situated 8 km north of Bucharest city centre and is accessible by RATB buses 131,335 and Airport Express 783, RATB tramway 5 and taxi
29.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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John F. Kennedy International Airport
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John F. Kennedy International Airport is a major international airport located near South Ozone Park in the borough of Queens in New York City, United States,12 miles southeast of Lower Manhattan. Over ninety airlines operate out of the airport, with non-stop or direct flights to destinations in all six inhabited continents, the airport features six passenger terminals and four runways. It serves as a hub for American Airlines and Delta Air Lines and is the operating base for JetBlue Airways. In the past, JFK served as a hub for Eastern, National, Pan Am, John F. Kennedy International Airport was originally Idlewild Airport after the Idlewild Beach Golf Course that it displaced. It was built to relieve LaGuardia Airport, which was overcrowded soon after opening in 1939. Construction began in 1943, and about $60 million was spent of governmental funding. In March 1948 the New York City Council changed the name to New York International Airport, Anderson Field, the Port Authority leased the JFK property from the City of New York in 1947 and maintains this lease today. The first airline flight from JFK was on July 1,1948, the Port Authority cancelled foreign airlines permits to use LaGuardia, forcing them to move to JFK during the next couple of years. JFK opened with six runways and a seventh under construction, runways 1L and 7L were held in reserve and never came into use as runways. Runway 31R is still in use, runway 31L opened soon after the rest of the airport and is still in use, runway 1R closed in 1957, runway 4 opened June 1949 and runway 4R was added ten years later. A smaller runway 14/32 was built after runway 7R closed and was used through 1990 by general aviation, STOL and smaller commuter flights. The Avro Jetliner was the first jetliner to land at JFK on April 18,1950, later in 1957 the USSR sought approval for two Tupolev Tu-104 flights carrying diplomats to JFK, the Port Authority did not allow them, saying noise tests had to be done first. The airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, then-mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. proposed the renaming. The Port of New York Authority originally planned a single 55-gate terminal, architect Wallace Harrison then designed a master plan under which each major airline at the airport would be given its own space to develop its own terminal design. This scheme made construction more practical, made terminals more navigable, the revised plan met airline approval in 1955, with seven terminals initially planned—five for individual airlines, one developed for 3 airlines and an international arrivals building. The International Arrivals Building, or IAB, was the first new terminal at the airport, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and opening in December 1957. Stretching nearly 700 meters parallel to runway 7R where Terminal 4 is now, it had finger piers at right-angles to the building allowing more aircraft to park. United Airlines opened Terminal 7, a Skidmore design similar to the IAB, Eastern Airlines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 a month later, it was demolished in 1995
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Eastern Bloc
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The Eastern Bloc was the group of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside Central and Eastern Europe. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a socialist island, Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a secret protocol in September 1939. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet-annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property, the international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal. In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union, from the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germanys Ostland. Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front, from 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wont try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country, Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany, after resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new primary task would be to prepare elections. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for war booty, which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, as a young communist was told in East Germany, its got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control. Moscow-trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation, elimination of the bourgeoisies social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as reforms rather than socioeconomic transformations, the bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly. Crucial departments such as responsible for personnel, general police, secret police
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Lisunov Li-2
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The Lisunov Li-2, originally designated PS-84, was a license-built version of the Douglas DC-3. It was produced by Factory #84 in Moscow-Khimki and, after evacuation in 1941, the project was directed by aeronautical engineer Boris Pavlovich Lisunov. The Soviet Union received its first DC-2 in 1935, although a total of 18 DC-3s had been ordered on 11 April 1936, the government of the USSR purchased 21 DC-3s for operation by Aeroflot before World War II. A production license was awarded to the government of the USSR on 15 July 1936, Lisunov spent two years at the Douglas Aircraft Company, between November 1936 and April 1939 translating the design. One of the engineers who accompanied him to Douglas was Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev, design work and production were undertaken at State Aviation Factory 84 in Khimki. The Soviet version was given the designation PS-84 - Passazhirskiy Samolyot 84, customary units to suit Soviet standards. No small task for Vladimir Myasishchev to accomplish, the Russian standard design practice also usually mandated fully shuttered engines in order to cope with the extreme temperatures. A slightly shorter span was incorporated but many of the alterations were less evident. The passenger door was moved to the side of the fuselage. The structural reinforcement included slightly heavier skins necessitated since the metric skin gauges were not exact duplicates of the American alloy sheet metal. Standard Russian metric hardware was different and the various steel substructures such as engine mounts and landing gear, wheels, later modifications allowed the provision of ski landing gear in order to operate in remote and Arctic regions. The first PS-84s began to emerge from the GAZ-84 production line by 1939, by the time Germany invaded the USSR on 22 June 1941,237 PS-84s had been built at GAZ-84, all in civil passenger configuration. After a monumental struggle, the factory was producing PS-84s again by January 1942, some military versions of the Li-2 also had bomb racks and a dorsal turret, unlike the military C-47 development of the DC-3. The PS-84 had flown with Aeroflot primarily as a passenger transport before World War II, when Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941 many of the PS-84s were taken into military use and redesignated the Lisunov Li-2 in 1942. The military models were equipped with a 7.62 mm ShKAS machine gun, the aircraft were used for transport, partisan supply, bombing, and as ambulance aircraft. A version designated Li-2VV had a nose for extra defensive armament. Smaller bombs could be carried inside the fuselage and thrown out of the hatch by the crew. A total of 4,937 aircraft were produced of all Li-2 variants between 1940 and 1954 and it saw use in Eastern Europe until the 1960s
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Ilyushin Il-14
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The Ilyushin Il-14 was a Soviet twin-engine commercial and military personnel and cargo transport aircraft that first flew in 1950, and entered service in 1954. Il-14 was also manufactured in East Germany by VVB Flugzeugbau, in Czechoslovakia as the Avia 14, the Ilyushin Il-14 was typically replaced by the Antonov An-24 and Yakovlev Yak-40. The Il-14 was developed as a replacement for the widespread Douglas DC-3 and its Soviet built version, a development of the earlier Ilyushin Il-12, the Il-14 was intended for use in both military and civil applications. The Il-12 had major problems with poor engine-out behaviour, also, it had less payload capability than was originally planned. The development into the Il-14 was a vast improvement over the Il-12, with a new wing and it was powered by two 1,400 kW Shvetsov ASh-82T-7 radial piston engines. These changes greatly improved performance in engine-out conditions. Total production of the Il-14 was 1,345 aircraft,1,065 in Moscow from 1956 to 1958, licensed production of 80 in East Germany by VEB Flugzeugwerke Dresden from 1956 to 1959 and 203 in Czechoslovakia by Avia, Prague, from 1956 to 1960. It was rugged and reliable, and thus was used in rural areas with poor quality airfields. The type was used by the East German aircraft industry as a test aircraft for the horizontal stabilizer of the Baade 152. Il-14, Twin-engined passenger, cargo transport aircraft, il-14FK / 14FKM, Aerial photography version. Il-14LIK-1 / LIK-2, Navigation aid calibration version, Il-14M, Stretched Il-14P, fitted with a lengthened fuselage, 14-36 seat. Il-14PS / S, VIP versions, based on Il-14P, Avia 14, Ilyushin Il-14Ms built by Avia under licence in Czechoslovakia. Avia 14S, VIP transport aircraft with six seats and a six-seat couch. Avia 14 Super, 1960-model with a cabin for 32,36, or 42 passengers. VEB 14P, Ilyushin Il-14Ps built by VVB Flugzeugbau under licence in East Germany, VEB 14T, VEB 14Ps converted to military transports. The Il-14 operated in the Soviet Union until the 1980s and early 90s, however, the unlicensed Chinese built Y-6 remained in the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force as a trainer until the late 1980s. There are no current military operators of the Ilyushin Il-14,26 were supplied to the Afghan Air Force from 1955 onwards. By 1979, the force was reduced to 10, equipping a single squadron,11 have been operated by the Albanian Air Force from 1957
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Ilyushin Il-18
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The Ilyushin Il-18 is a large turboprop airliner that first flew in 1957 and became one of the best known and durable Soviet aircraft of its era. The Il-18 was one of the worlds principal airliners for several decades and was widely exported, due to the aircrafts airframe durability, many examples achieved over 45,000 flight hours and the type remains operational in both military and civilian capacities. The Il-18s successor was the long range Il-62 jet airliner, Two Soviet aircraft shared the designation Ilyushin Il-18. The first Il-18 was an airliner of 1946 but after a year of test flights that programme was abandoned. The two aircraft designs were developed as the Ilyushin Il-18 and the Antonov An-10 and the chosen was the Kuznetsov NK-4 rather than the Ivchenko AI-20. The Il-18 design had started in 1954 before the directive was issued, the design was for a four-engined low-wing monoplane with a circular pressurised fuselage and a conventional tail. The forward retracting tricycle landing gear had four wheels fitted on the main leg bogies, a new feature at the time was the fitting of a weather radar in the nose and it was the first soviet airliner to have an automatic approach system. The aircraft has two doors on the port-side before and after the wing and two overwing emergency exits on each side. The prototype SSSR-L5811 was rolled out in June 1957 and after ground-testing it began taxi test, on 4 July 1957 the prototype first flew from Khodynka. On 10 July 1957 the aircraft was flown to Moscow-Vnukovo Airport to be presented to a Soviet government commission, also present was the prototype Antonov An-10 and the Tupolev Tu-114. The Il-18 type was formally named Moskva and this was painted on the fuselage, the Moscow Machinery Plant No.30 located at Khodynka, near where the Ilyushin design office and the prototype had been built, was chosen to manufacture the aircraft. During 1957 the plant began to reduce its production of the Ilyushin Il-14, the Il-18A was only different from the prototype in minor details, mainly internal configuration to increase the seating from 75 to 89. The first Il-18B flew on 30 September 1958 powered by the AI-20, from April 1961 a TG-18 Auxiliary Power Unit was fitted for ground starting rather than the bank of lead-acid batteries. Some aircraft were modified to allow the APU to be run in flight, with experience of the earlier aircraft a further improvement was the Il-18V variant. The Il-18V was structurally the same but the interior was re-designed including moving the galley, the first Il-18V appeared in December 1959 and was to continue into production until 1965 after 334 had been built. Specialised variants of the aircraft appeared, including aircraft modified for flight calibration. Military variants also appeared including the anti-submarine Ilyushin Il-38, the first Il-18, initially equipped with Kuznetsov NK-4 engines, flew on 4 July 1957. On 17 September 1958 the aircraft first flew with the new Ivchenko AI-20 engines, vladimir Kokkinaki was the test pilot
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Ilyushin Il-62
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The Ilyushin Il-62 is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jet airliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turbo-prop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, being one of four pioneering long-range designs, it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations. Over 30 nations operated the Il-62 with over 80 examples exported and others having been leased by Russian-sphere, the Il-62M variant became the longest-serving model in its airliner class. Special VIP and other conversions were developed and used as head-of-state transport by some 14 countries. Expensive to operate compared to new generation airliners, the number in service was reduced after the 2008 recession. The Il-62s successors include the wide-bodied Il-86 and Il-96, both of which were made in numbers and neither of which was widely exported. The official specification required that the airliner, designated Il-62, must carry 165 economy-class passengers over a distance of 4,500 km or 100 first class passengers over 6,700 km, the Il-62 replaced the fast turboprop Tu-114 on long range routes. As the Tu-114 was just entering service when the Il-62 was on the board, Ilyushin had time for an unhurried design, test. This was useful, since the Il-62 did call for significant development, in the case of Ilyushin, the configuration was dictated by TsAGI, the Soviet Unions aerospace agency, since Ilyushins design bureau lacked the resources to engage in configuration studies. This layout allowed the design to be optimised for aerodynamic efficiency. In addition, the engines reduced engine noise in the cabin. These advantages are balanced by a number of drawbacks, the wing structure, without wing mounted engines to relieve the wing bending moment, needed to be heavier, as did the rear fuselage structure, which had to carry the engines. In addition, aerodynamic wash from the blankets the tail when the nose is pitched up leading the aircraft into a condition known as deep stall. Early aircraft display an evolution from thin or thick kinked leading inboard edges to the ultimate thick, the characteristic dog-tooth also moved until fixed before production began. The prototype was grossly underpowered as its intended NK-8 engines were not ready, the prototype with AL-7PB engines first flew on 3 January 1963 but crashed after clipping a perimeter fence during a maximum weight testing flight of the development program. The production Il-62 was powered by the originally intended rear-mounted Kuznetsov NK-8-4 engines, the first Il-62 powered with NK-8 engines first flew in 1964. The Il-62M variant has more powerful and quieter Soloviev D-30KU engines, beneath the skin, the Il-62M has simpler and lighter single-slotted flaps and incremental aerodynamic improvements. Most important of these was the addition of spoilerons and the ability to use reverse thrust in flight during the final approach so as to shorten the landing run
36.
Antonov An-24
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The Antonov An-24 is a 44-seat twin turboprop transport/passenger aircraft designed in 1957 and manufactured in the Soviet Union by the Antonov Design Bureau. As of 2014,133 units were still in airline service and it was designed to replace the veteran piston Ilyushin Il-14 transport on short to medium haul trips, optimised for operating from rough strips and unprepared airports in remote locations. Various projects were envisaged such as a four jet short/medium haul airliner, the main production line was at the Kiev-Svyatoshino aircraft production plant which built 985, with 180 built at Ulan Ude and a further 197 An-24T tactical transport/freighters at Irkutsk. Production in the USSR was shut down by 1978, Production continues at Chinas Xian Aircraft Industrial Corporation which makes licensed, reverse-engineered and redesigned aircraft as the Xian Y7, and its derivatives. Manufacture of the Y7, in form, has now been supplanted by the MA60 derivative with western engines and avionics, to improve performance and economy. An-24A Airliner project powered by Kuznetsov NK-4 turboprops, discontinued when the NK-4 was cancelled, an-24A Production 50-seat airliners built at Kiev with the APU exhaust moved to the tip of the starboard nacelle. An-24ALK Several An-24s were converted for navaids calibration tasks, with one An-24LR Toros re-designated An-24ALK after conversion and this aircraft was fitted with a photo-theodolite and powerful light sources for the optical sensors. An-24AT A1962 project for a Tactical transport with rear loading ramp, an-24AT-RD The An-24AT tactical transport project with two turbojet boosters pod-mounted under the outer wings and a wider loading ramp. An-24AT-U A projected Tactical transport from 1966 with three or five PRD-63 JATO bottles, wider cargo ramp and provision for up to three brake parachutes, some aircraft were delivered with four extra fuel bladders in the wing centre-section. An-24LR Toros At least two An-24Bs converted to carry the Toros SLAR either side of the fuselage, for ice reconnaissance, guiding icebreakers, convoys. An-24LR Nit One An-24B was converted to with Nit SLAR in large pods along the fuselage sides. An-24PRT The production search and rescue aircraft based on the An-24RT, an-24PS A single An-24B aircraft converted for search and rescue duties, rejected after acceptance trials in favour of a derivative of the An-24RT. An-24RT Similar to the AN-24T, fitted with a turbojet engine. An-24RT A few An-24T and An-24RT aircraft converted to Communications relay aircraft, sometimes referred to as An-24Rt to differentiate from the An-24RT. An-24RV Turbojet boosted export version, similar to the An-24V but fitted with a 1, an-24ShT A tactical Airborne Command Post for use by commanders, also capable of forming ground based communications and HQ. An-24T Tactical transport version, rejected due to poor performance during acceptance testing. An-24T A tactical transport version with a loading hatch, cargo winch. An-24T Troyanda From the 1960s the Soviet Union was faced with nuclear submarine threats that were virtually undetectable with the technology available, to assist in the development of advanced optical, chemical, sonic, infra-red and electromagnetic detection systems, several aircraft were built or modified as test-beds
221 million € (2017)
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