1.
Scientific calculator
–
A scientific calculator is a type of electronic calculator, usually but not always handheld, designed to calculate problems in science, engineering, and mathematics. They have almost completely replaced slide rules in almost all traditional applications, there is also some overlap with the financial calculator market. A few have multi-line displays, with recent models from Hewlett-Packard, Texas Instruments, Casio, Sharp. By providing a method to enter an entire problem in as it is written on the page using simple formatting tools, the HP-35, introduced on February 1,1972, was Hewlett-Packards first pocket calculator and the worlds first handheld scientific calculator. Like some of HPs desktop calculators it used RPN, introduced at US$395, the HP-35 was available from 1972 to 1975. Texas Instruments, after the introduction of units with scientific notation, came out with a handheld scientific calculator on January 15,1974. TI continues to be a player in the calculator market. Casio and Sharp have also been major players, with Casios fx series being a common brand. Casio is also a player in the graphing calculator market
Scientific calculator
–
Casio FX-77, a
solar-powered scientific calculator from the 1980s using a single-line display
Scientific calculator
–
The
TI-84 Plus: A typical graphing calculator by Texas Instruments
Scientific calculator
–
A modern scientific calculator with a
dot matrix LCD display
2.
Texas Instruments
–
Texas Instruments Inc. is an American technology company that designs and manufactures semiconductors, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide, Texas Instrumentss focus is on developing analog chips and embedded processors, which accounts for more than 85% of their revenue. TI also produces TI digital light processing technology and education technology products including calculators, microcontrollers, to date, TI has more than 43,000 patents worldwide. TI produced the worlds first commercial silicon transistor in 1950, Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit in 1958 while working at TIs Central Research Labs. TI also invented the hand-held calculator in 1967, and introduced the first single-chip microcontroller in 1970, in 1987, TI invented the digital light processing device, which serves as the foundation for the companys award-winning DLP technology and DLP Cinema. In 1990, TI came out with the popular TI-81 calculator which made them a leader in the calculator industry. In 1997, its business was sold to Raytheon, which allowed TI to strengthen its focus on digital solutions. Texas Instruments was founded by Cecil H. Green, J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott, McDermott was one of the original founders of Geophysical Service Inc. in 1930. McDermott, Green, and Jonsson were GSI employees who purchased the company in 1941, in November,1945, Patrick Haggerty was hired as general manager of the Laboratory and Manufacturing division, which focused on electronic equipment. By 1951, the L&M division, with its contracts, was growing faster than GSIs Geophysical division. The company was reorganized and initially renamed General Instruments Inc, because there already existed a firm named General Instrument, the company was renamed Texas Instruments that same year. From 1956 to 1961, Fred Agnich of Dallas, later a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, was the Texas Instruments president, Geophysical Service, Inc. became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments. Early in 1988 most of GSI was sold to the Halliburton Company, in 1930, J. Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott founded Geophysical Service, an early provider of seismic exploration services to the petroleum industry. In 1939, the company reorganized as Coronado Corp. an oil company with Geophysical Service Inc, on December 6,1941, McDermott along with three other GSI employees, J. Erik Jonsson, Cecil H. Green, and H. B. During World War II, GSI expanded their services to include electronics for the U. S. Army, Signal Corps, in 1951, the company changed its name to Texas Instruments, GSI becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of the new company. Texas Instruments also continued to manufacture equipment for use in the seismic industry, after selling GSI, TI finally sold the company to Halliburton in 1988, at which point GSI ceased to exist as a separate entity. Texas Instruments entered the electronics market in 1942 with submarine detection equipment. During the early 1980s, Texas Instruments instituted a quality program which included Juran training, as well as promoting statistical process control, Taguchi methods and Design for Six Sigma
Texas Instruments
–
Entrance to Texas Instruments North Campus facility in Dallas, Texas.
Texas Instruments
–
Texas Instruments operated this
Convair 240 on experimental work in the 1980s fitted with a modified extended nose section
Texas Instruments
–
A Bolt-117, the first
laser-guided bomb built by Texas Instruments.
Texas Instruments
–
An
AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon.
3.
List of Hewlett-Packard products
–
The following is a partial list of products manufactured under the Hewlett-Packard brand. See the HP EliteBook article for more details, exclusive Compaq brand of notebooks A series of multimedia notebooks. Some models had the HP developed QuickPlay software which enabled booting to a linux based DVD/Music player held on a separate partition. Despite the ProLiant name on some of HPs entry level servers, they are based on former HP tc series servers and these are in a tower form factor. HP ML110 G6 HP ML115 G6 HP ML150 G6 These are in a rack mount form factor, Compaq ProLiant ML310 Compaq ProLiant ML330 Compaq ProLiant ML350 Note that e indicates essential and p indicates performance variants. Compaq ProLiant ML370 Compaq ProLiant ML570 ProLiant ML570 G2 These are in a rack mount form factor, storageWorks Command View TL HP Storage Essentials OpenView Storage Area Manager ProCurve Networking by HP is the networking division of HP. HP Halo, a high-end immersive telepresence system, was sold to Polycom on June 1,2011, HP External Hard Drive HP Portable Hard Drive HP USB flash Drive 16 gb List of Palm OS devices List of Dell PowerEdge Servers
List of Hewlett-Packard products
–
A HP G61 Notebook.
List of Hewlett-Packard products
–
ProLiant DL380 G5
4.
Slide rule
–
The slide rule, also known colloquially in the United States as a slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer. The slide rule is used primarily for multiplication and division, and also for functions such as exponents, roots, logarithms and trigonometry, though similar in name and appearance to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not ordinarily used for measuring length or drawing straight lines. Slide rules exist in a range of styles and generally appear in a linear or circular form with a standardized set of markings essential to performing mathematical computations. Slide rules manufactured for specialized fields such as aviation or finance typically feature additional scales that aid in calculations common to those fields, at its simplest, each number to be multiplied is represented by a length on a sliding ruler. As the rulers each have a scale, it is possible to align them to read the sum of the logarithms. The Reverend William Oughtred and others developed the rule in the 17th century based on the emerging work on logarithms by John Napier. Before the advent of the calculator, it was the most commonly used calculation tool in science. In its most basic form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers and these common operations can be time-consuming and error-prone when done on paper. More elaborate slide rules allow other calculations, such as roots, exponentials, logarithms. Scales may be grouped in decades, which are numbers ranging from 1 to 10. Thus single decade scales C and D range from 1 to 10 across the width of the slide rule while double decade scales A and B range from 1 to 100 over the width of the slide rule. Numbers aligned with the marks give the value of the product, quotient. The user determines the location of the point in the result. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point in more formal calculations, addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule. Most slide rules consist of three strips of the same length, aligned in parallel and interlocked so that the central strip can be moved lengthwise relative to the other two. The outer two strips are fixed so that their relative positions do not change. Some slide rules have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip, still others on one side only. A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not adjacent to other or
Slide rule
–
A typical ten-inch student slide rule (Pickett N902-T simplex trig).
Slide rule
–
Cursor on a slide rule.
Slide rule
–
This slide rule is positioned to yield several values: From C scale to D scale (multiply by 2), from D scale to C scale (divide by 2), A and B scales (multiply and divide by 4), A and D scales (squares and square roots).
Slide rule
5.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
United States dollar
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
United States dollar
–
Federal Reserve Notes
United States dollar
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
United States dollar
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
6.
Light-emitting diode
–
A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
Light-emitting diode
–
Blue, pure green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases
Light-emitting diode
–
A bulb-shaped modern retrofit
LED lamp with aluminium
heat sink, a light
diffusing dome and
E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on
mains voltage
Light-emitting diode
–
Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of
SiC recreates
H. J. Round 's original experiment from 1907.
Light-emitting diode
–
LED display of a
TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size
7.
LED
–
A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
LED
–
Blue, pure green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases
LED
–
A bulb-shaped modern retrofit
LED lamp with aluminium
heat sink, a light
diffusing dome and
E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on
mains voltage
LED
–
Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of
SiC recreates
H. J. Round 's original experiment from 1907.
LED
–
LED display of a
TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size
8.
Nine-volt battery
–
The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, in its most common form was introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular shape with rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at the top. This type is used in walkie talkies, clocks and smoke detectors. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once common, have not been manufactured in many due to their mercury content. Designations for this format include NEDA1604 and IEC 6F22 or MN1604 6LR61, the size, regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated PP3 - a designation originally reserved solely for carbon-zinc - or in some countries, E or E-block. Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1. 5V LR61 cells enclosed in a wrapper and these cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with six cells in a stack. Primary lithium types are made with 3 cells in series, in 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the US. In Switzerland in 2008, 9-volt batteries totalled 2% of primary battery sales, other nine-volt batteries of different sizes exist, such as the British Ever Ready PP series and certain lantern batteries. The battery has both terminals in a connector on one end. The smaller circular terminal is positive, and the hexagonal or octagonal terminal is the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the connector itself, the same snap-style connector is used on other battery types in the Power Pack series. Battery polarization is normally obvious since mechanical connection is only possible in one configuration. A problem with this style of connector is that it is easy to connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire. Because of this hazard, 9-volt batteries should be kept in the original packaging until they are going to be used, an advantage is that several nine-volt batteries can be connected to each other in series to provide higher voltages. Early transistorized radios and other equipment needed a suitable miniature battery. Early transistor radios required a 22 1⁄2 volt battery, fortunately a suitable miniature battery was already marketed for hearing aids. The PP3 appeared when portable transistorised radio receivers became common, and is called a transistor battery by some manufacturers
Nine-volt battery
–
A Duracell PP3 9-volt battery
Nine-volt battery
–
Collage of images showing the opening of a 9-volt battery to reveal six LR61 size cells, which are similar to the LR8D425 AAAA cells often used in medical equipment.
Nine-volt battery
–
Alkaline battery showing rectangular cell construction.
Nine-volt battery
–
Three different kinds of 9-volt primary battery internals. (Left to Right) Rectangular cell zinc-carbon, rectangular cell alkaline, cylindrical cell alkaline.
9.
Logarithm
–
In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. That means the logarithm of a number is the exponent to which another fixed number, in simple cases the logarithm counts factors in multiplication. For example, the base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3, the logarithm of x to base b, denoted logb, is the unique real number y such that by = x. For example, log2 =6, as 64 =26, the logarithm to base 10 is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the e as its base, its use is widespread in mathematics and physics. The binary logarithm uses base 2 and is used in computer science. Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations and they were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, and others to perform computations more easily, using slide rules and logarithm tables. The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the function in the 18th century. Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to tiny scopes, for example, the decibel is a unit quantifying signal power log-ratios and amplitude log-ratios. In chemistry, pH is a measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and they describe musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting. In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation, the logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The discrete logarithm is another variant, it has uses in public-key cryptography, the idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation, that is, raising a number to a power. For example, the power of 2 is 8, because 8 is the product of three factors of 2,23 =2 ×2 ×2 =8. It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3, the third power of some number b is the product of three factors equal to b. More generally, raising b to the power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors equal to b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so that b n = b × b × ⋯ × b ⏟ n factors, exponentiation may be extended to by, where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number. For example, b−1 is the reciprocal of b, that is, the logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b, a positive real number not equal to 1, is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x
Logarithm
–
John Napier (1550–1617), the inventor of logarithms
Logarithm
–
The
graph of the logarithm to base 2 crosses the
x axis (horizontal axis) at 1 and passes through the points with
coordinates (2, 1), (4, 2), and (8, 3). For example, log 2 (8) = 3, because 2 3 = 8. The graph gets arbitrarily close to the y axis, but
does not meet or intersect it.
Logarithm
–
The logarithm keys (lo g for base-10 and ln for base- e) on a typical scientific calculator
Logarithm
–
A
nautilus displaying a logarithmic spiral
10.
Trigonometry
–
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies, Trigonometry is also the foundation of surveying. Trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle triangles, thus the majority of applications relate to right-angle triangles. One exception to this is spherical trigonometry, the study of triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, Trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part of hyperbolic geometry. Trigonometry basics are often taught in schools, either as a course or as a part of a precalculus course. Sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles into 360 degrees, the ancient Nubians used a similar method. In 140 BC, Hipparchus gave the first tables of chords, analogous to modern tables of sine values, in the 2nd century AD, the Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy printed detailed trigonometric tables in Book 1, chapter 11 of his Almagest. Ptolemy used chord length to define his trigonometric functions, a difference from the sine convention we use today. The modern sine convention is first attested in the Surya Siddhanta and these Greek and Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic mathematicians. By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, at about the same time, Chinese mathematicians developed trigonometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them. At the same time, another translation of the Almagest from Greek into Latin was completed by the Cretan George of Trebizond, Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th-century northern Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explain its basic concepts. Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for maps of large geographic areas. Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his Trigonometria in 1595, gemma Frisius described for the first time the method of triangulation still used today in surveying. It was Leonhard Euler who fully incorporated complex numbers into trigonometry, the works of the Scottish mathematicians James Gregory in the 17th century and Colin Maclaurin in the 18th century were influential in the development of trigonometric series. Also in the 18th century, Brook Taylor defined the general Taylor series, if one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any triangle add up to 180 degrees. The two acute angles therefore add up to 90 degrees, they are complementary angles, the shape of a triangle is completely determined, except for similarity, by the angles. Once the angles are known, the ratios of the sides are determined, if the length of one of the sides is known, the other two are determined. Sin A = opposite hypotenuse = a c, Cosine function, defined as the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse
Trigonometry
–
Hipparchus, credited with compiling the first
trigonometric table, is known as "the father of trigonometry".
Trigonometry
–
All of the
trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O.
Trigonometry
–
Sextants are used to measure the angle of the sun or stars with respect to the horizon. Using trigonometry and a
marine chronometer, the position of the ship can be determined from such measurements.
11.
TI SR-50
–
The SR-50 was Texas Instruments first scientific pocket calculator with trigonometric and logarithm functions. It enhanced their earlier SR-10 and SR-11 calculators, introduced in 1973, which had featured scientific notation, squares, square root, and reciprocals, the SR-50 was introduced in 1974 and sold for US$170. It competed with the Hewlett-Packard HP-35, the SR-50 measured 5-3/4 inches long by 3-1/8 inches wide by 1-3/16 inches high and was powered by a rechargeable NiCad battery pack, built from three soldered AA cells. It had 40 keys, and flat sliding switches for degrees/radians, the SR-50 had a red LED display with a signed ten-digit mantissa plus a signed two-digit exponent for floating point numbers. Internally, calculations were performed with a 13-digit mantissa, providing much greater accuracy than the 10-digit precision of most scientific calculators of the time. After the leading sign, digits consisted of a seven-segment display plus decimal point, a blinking display indicated an error, such as a calculation error or an overflow or underflow condition. Like most scientific calculators, the SR-50 used ordinary infix notation, as opposed to the postfix Reverse Polish Notation employed by its competitor, the Hewlett Packard HP-35. The SR-50 followed the order of operations by performing unary operations immediately, and multiplication, division, root. As an example, the keypresses to calculate 3 x log +5 was entered almost as written and this is because the calculator would execute the log function before performing the multiplication operation, and complete the multiplication operation before executing the addition operation. An unusual feature of the SR-50 was that its functions included the hyperbolic functions sinh, cosh, and tanh and their inverses. The user invoked the hyperbolic functions by entering the function argument and then pressing the hyp key, followed by the sin, cos, the inverse hyperbolic functions were accessed by first pressing the arc and hyp keys and then pressing the sin, cos, or tan key. Hyperbolic trig arguments were always assumed to be in radians regardless of the setting of the mode switch. The SR-50 had very fast trig functions and was a calculator to use in contests involving pocket calculators. The SR-50 was followed by the advanced model SR-51. The SR-51 had the physical dimensions but added a 2nd function for most buttons. Most notable among the functions were the ability to enter x, y pairs. The later and lighter versions SR-50A and SR-51II and SR-51III were based on smaller ICs and battery packs, a further update resulted in the programmable model SR-52 in late 1975. It was thicker and longer and could perform 224 program steps recorded on magnetic cards, the card was pulled through the reader by an electric motor
TI SR-50
–
The SR-50.
TI SR-50
–
TI SR-52 on display at the
Musée Bolo, EPFL, Lausanne.
12.
Bracket
–
A bracket is a tall punctuation mark typically used in matched pairs within text, to set apart or interject other text. The matched pair may be described as opening and closing, or left, forms include round, square, curly, and angle brackets, and various other pairs of symbols. Chevrons were the earliest type of bracket to appear in written English, desiderius Erasmus coined the term lunula to refer to the rounded parentheses, recalling the shape of the crescent moon. Some of the names are regional or contextual. Sometimes referred to as angle brackets, in cases as HTML markup. Occasionally known as broken brackets or brokets, ⸤ ⸥, ｢ ｣ – corner brackets ⟦ ⟧ – double square brackets, white square brackets Guillemets, ‹ › and « », are sometimes referred to as chevrons or angle brackets. The characters ‹ › and « », known as guillemets or angular quote brackets, are actually quotation mark glyphs used in several European languages, which one of each pair is the opening quote mark and which is the closing quote varies between languages. In English, typographers generally prefer to not set brackets in italics, however, in other languages like German, if brackets enclose text in italics, they are usually set in italics too. Parentheses /pəˈrɛnθᵻsiːz/ contain material that serves to clarify or is aside from the main point, a milder effect may be obtained by using a pair of commas as the delimiter, though if the sentence contains commas for other purposes, visual confusion may result. In American usage, parentheses are considered separate from other brackets. Parentheses may be used in writing to add supplementary information. They can also indicate shorthand for either singular or plural for nouns and it can also be used for gender neutral language, especially in languages with grammatical gender, e. g. he agreed with his physician. Parenthetical phrases have been used extensively in informal writing and stream of consciousness literature, examples include the southern American author William Faulkner as well as poet E. E. Cummings. Parentheses have historically been used where the dash is used in alternatives, such as parenthesis) is used to indicate an interval from a to c that is inclusive of a. That is, [5, 12) would be the set of all numbers between 5 and 12, including 5 but not 12. The numbers may come as close as they like to 12, including 11.999 and so forth, in some European countries, the notation [5, 12[ is also used for this. The endpoint adjoining the bracket is known as closed, whereas the endpoint adjoining the parenthesis is known as open, if both types of brackets are the same, the entire interval may be referred to as closed or open as appropriate. Whenever +∞ or −∞ is used as an endpoint, it is considered open
Bracket
–
Move up
13.
Junior High
–
A middle school is an educational stage, which exists in some countries, and takes place between primary school and high school. The concept, regulation and classification of schools, as well as the ages covered. In Afghanistan, middle school consists of grades 6,7 and 8, besides there is a change in the scenario. In Albania, middle school is included in the education which lasts 9 years. In Algeria, a middle school includes grades 6 through 10, most regions of Australia do not have middle schools, as students go directly from primary school to secondary school. The first middle school established in Australia was The Armidale School, Schools have since followed this trend, such as The Kings School. The Northern Territory has introduced a three tier system featuring Middle Schools for years 7–9 and high school year 10–12, many schools across Queensland have introduced a Middle School tier within their schools. The middle schools cover the grades/years 5 to 8, in Brazil, middle school is a mandatory stage that precedes High School called Ensino Fundamental II consisting of grades 6 to 9, ages 11 to 14. In Canada, the middle school and junior high school are both used, depending on which grades the school caters to. Another common model is grades 5–8, alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools include only grades 7–9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from school to secondary school. Quebec uses a system that is different from those of the other provinces. The Secondary level has five grades, starting after Elementary Grade 6 and these are called Secondary I to Secondary V. In the Peoples Republic of China, middle school has two stages, junior stage and senior stage, some middle schools have both stages while some have either of them. Other students may avoid the exam, based on their talents, like athletics. In the Czech Republic after completing the elementary school a student may apply for high school. Students have the opportunity to enroll in school from Grade 5 or Grade 7 of elementary school. Thus they can spend five years in school, followed by eight in high school
Junior High
–
Indian Middle School children in uniform,
Hnahthial,
Mizoram,
India
Junior High
–
Students of
Nan Hua High School, a secondary school in Singapore, in the school hall
14.
High school (United States)
–
The United States historically had a demand for general skills rather than specific training/apprenticeships. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of education followed by four years of high school. At the turn of the 20th Century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entrance to fewer than 5 percent of the population in preparation for college, most were expected to be ready for a job or a family after junior high school. The first public schools started around the 1830s and 40s within the wealthier areas of similar income levels. There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, the shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, there was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools. In 1954 the Supreme Court case Brown v. By 1955, in 1965 the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum and it emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The bill also aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing every child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education, after 1980, the growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down. Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new Charter schools developed during the 1980s and were embraced by the American Federation of Teachers in 1988. These would be legally and financially autonomous public school free from state laws and district regulations. Minnesota was the first state to pass a school law in 1991. By 2009 charter schools were operating in 41 states and 59% of these had waiting lists, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Standards-based education has been embraced in most states which changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, by 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to ensure that all graduates had achieved these standards. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs, the U. S. government may also propose, but cannot enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally lie beyond its jurisdiction. Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum, the level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in. Many states require that courses in the areas of English, science, social studies. The majority of high schools require four English credits to graduate, generally, three science courses are required
High school (United States)
–
Winnebago Lutheran Academy, a private,
Lutheran high school of the
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS)
High school (United States)
–
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in
Calhan, Colorado
High school (United States)
–
West Orange-Stark High School, a college preparatory high school in
Texas
15.
LCD
–
A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
LCD
–
LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular.
LCD
–
Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
LCD
–
18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch LCD TV
LCD
–
A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. (The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small, click on the image for more detail.)
16.
Toshiba
–
Toshiba Corporation, commonly known as Toshiba and stylized as TOSHIBA, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Toshiba was founded in 1938 as Tokyo Shibaura Electric K. K. through the merger of Shibaura Seisaku-sho, the company name was officially changed to Toshiba Corporation in 1978. Toshiba is organized into four groupings, the Digital Products Group, the Electronic Devices Group, the Home Appliances Group and the Social Infrastructure Group. It is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices, the Osaka Securities Exchange, Toshiba is the seventh largest semiconductor manufacturer in the world. Toshiba was founded in 1939 by the merger of Shibaura Seisakusho, Shibaura Seisakusho had been founded as Tanaka Seisakusho by Tanaka Hisashige in July 1875 as Japans first manufacturer of telegraph equipment. In 1904, it was renamed Shibaura Seisakusho, Tokyo Denki was founded as Hakunetsusha in 1890 and had been Japans first producer of incandescent electric lamps. It later diversified into the manufacture of consumer products and in 1899 had been renamed Tokyo Denki. The merger of Shibaura and Tokyo Denki created a new company called Tokyo Shibaura Denki and it was soon nicknamed Toshiba, but it was not until 1978 that the company was officially renamed Toshiba Corporation. The group expanded rapidly, driven by a combination of growth and by acquisitions, buying heavy engineering. In 1977, Toshiba acquired the Brazilian company Semp, subsequently forming Semp Toshiba through the combination of the two companies South American operations, the Toshiba-Kongsberg scandal involved a subsidiary of Toshiba and the Norwegian company Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk. Senator John Heinz of Pennsylvania said What Toshiba and Kongsberg did was ransom the security of the United States for $517 million, the contract ended in 2008, ending seven years of OEM production with Orion. In December 2004, Toshiba quietly announced it would discontinue manufacturing traditional in-house cathode ray tube televisions, in 2006, Toshiba terminated production of in-house plasma TVs. To ensure its competitiveness in the flat-panel digital television and display market. Before World War II, Toshiba was a member of the Mitsui Group zaibatsu, today Toshiba is a member of the Mitsui keiretsu, and still has preferential arrangements with Mitsui Bank and the other members of the keiretsu. Membership in a keiretsu has traditionally meant loyalty, both corporate and private, to members of the keiretsu or allied keiretsu. This loyalty can extend as far as the beer the employees consume, in July 2005, BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse Electric Company, then estimated to be worth $1.8 billion. In late 2007, Toshiba took over from Discover Card as the sponsor of the top-most screen of One Times Square in New York City and it displays the iconic 60-second New Years countdown on its screen, as well as messages, greetings, and advertisements for the company. In January 2009, Toshiba acquired the HDD business of Fujitsu, Toshiba announced on 16 May 2011, that it had agreed to acquire all of the shares of the Swiss-based advanced-power-meter maker Landis+Gyr for $2.3 billion
Toshiba
–
The Current Toshiba Global Headquarters in
Minato, Tokyo,
Japan
Toshiba
Toshiba
–
The Toshiba pavilion at
Expo '85.
Toshiba
–
The Toshiba research and development facility in
Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
17.
Exponent
–
Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving two numbers, the base b and the exponent n. The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base, Some common exponents have their own names, the exponent 2 is called the square of b or b squared, the exponent 3 is called the cube of b or b cubed. The exponent −1 of b, or 1 / b, is called the reciprocal of b, when n is a positive integer and b is not zero, b−n is naturally defined as 1/bn, preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m. The definition of exponentiation can be extended to any real or complex exponent. Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a variety of algebraic structures. The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line, archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents, 10a 10b = 10a+b, necessary to manipulate powers of 10. In the late 16th century, Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents, early in the 17th century, the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie, there, the notation is introduced in Book I. Nicolas Chuquet used a form of notation in the 15th century. The word exponent was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel, samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696. In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the square, cube, zenzizenzic, sursolid, zenzicube, second sursolid. Biquadrate has been used to refer to the power as well. Some mathematicians used exponents only for greater than two, preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication. Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as ax + bxx + cx3 + d, another historical synonym, involution, is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning. In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable and it is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions, since in those the exponents must be constant. With this introduction of transcendental functions, Euler laid the foundation for the introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y = ex. The expression b2 = b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side-length b is b2, the expression b3 = b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side-length b is b3. The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together, for example,35 =3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 ⋅3 =243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5
Exponent
–
Graphs of y = b x for various bases b: base 10 (green), base e (red), base 2 (blue), and base 1 / 2 (cyan). Each curve passes through the point (0, 1) because any nonzero number raised to the power of 0 is 1. At x = 1, the value of y equals the base because any number raised to the power of 1 is the number itself.
18.
D-pad
–
Like early video game joysticks, the vast majority of D-pads are digital, in other words, only the directions provided on the D-pad buttons can be used, with no intermediate values. However, combinations of two directions do provide diagonals and many modern D-pads can be used to provide eight-directional input if appropriate, although digital D-pads offer less flexibility than analog sticks, they can easily be manipulated with very high accuracy. They are also far less demanding in maintenance and do not protrude very far from the controller, making them ideal for consoles such as the Game Boy, DS. D-pads have appeared on other kinds of equipment, including A/V remote controls, calculators, PDAs, smartphones. A precursor to the D-pad was the four buttons used in arcade games such as UPLs Blockade. A precursor to the standard D-pad on a game console was used by the Intellivision. The Intellivisions unique controller featured the first alternative to a joystick on a home console, similar directional buttons were also used on the Atari Game Brain, the unreleased precursor to the Atari 2600, and on some early dedicated game consoles such as the VideoMaster Star Chess game. Nintendos known cross design was developed in 1982 by Gunpei Yokoi for their Donkey Kong handheld game and this particular design was patented and later earned a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award. In 1984, the Japanese company Epoch created a game system called the Epoch Game Pocket Computer. It featured a D-pad, but it was not popular for its time, all major video game consoles since have had a D-pad of some shape on their controllers. To avoid infringing on Nintendos patent, most controller manufacturers use a cross in a shape for the D-pad. Sega coined the term D button to describe the pad, using the term describing the controllers for the Sega Genesis in instruction manuals. Arcade games, however, have continued using joysticks. Modern consoles, beginning with the Nintendo 64, provide both a D-pad and a compact thumb-operated analog stick, depending on the game, one type of control may be more appropriate than the other. In many cases with games that use a thumbstick, the D-pad is used as a set of buttons, all four usually centered on a kind of task. Even without a stick, some software uses the D-pads eight-directional capabilities to act as eight discrete buttons. Jam Sessions for the Nintendo DS, for example, uses the D-pad to select music chords during play, many, though not all, such designs include a trigger button in the center of the button arrangement, usually labeled Enter, OK, or the like. Some older devices do not have d-pads as such, but simple single-axis, on some remotes, the d-pad can also be used to control a robot using a signal-compatible receiver
D-pad
–
A
Famicom controller. The D-pad (cross shape on left) first came to prominence on the controller for the Famicom.
19.
Dot matrix
–
A dot matrix is a 2-dimensional patterned array, used to represent characters, symbols and images. Every type of modern technology uses dot matrices for display of information, including phones, televisions. They are also used in textiles with sewing, knitting, in printers, the dots are usually the darkened areas of the paper. In displays, the dots may light up, as in an LED, CRT, or plasma display, or darken, as in an LCD. As an impact printer, the term refers to low-resolution impact printers, with a column of 8,9 or 24 pins hitting an ink-impregnated fabric ribbon, like a typewriter ribbon. It was originally contrasted with both daisy wheel printers and line printers that used fixed-shape embossed metal or plastic stamps to mark paper. Impact printers survive where multi-part forms are needed, as the pins can impress dots through multiple layers of paper to make a carbonless copy, all types of electronic printers typically generate image data as a two-step process. External raster image processing was possible such as to print a graphical image, depending on the printer technology the dot size or grid shape may not be uniform. Some printers are capable of producing smaller dots and will intermesh the small dots within the larger ones for antialiasing. A dot matrix is useful for marking materials other than paper, in manufacturing industry, many product marking applications use dot matrix inkjet or impact methods. This can also be used to print 2D matrix codes, e. g. Datamatrix. Although the output of modern computers is generally all in the form of dot matrices, vector data encoding requires less memory and less data storage, in situations where the shapes may need to be resized, as with font typefaces. For maximum image quality using only dot matrix fonts, it would be necessary to store a separate dot matrix pattern for the different potential point sizes that might be used. Instead, a group of vector shapes is used to render all the specific dot matrix patterns needed for the current display or printing task. An LED matrix or LED display is a large, low-resolution form of dot-matrix display and it consists of a 2-D diode matrix with their cathodes joined in rows and their anodes joined in columns. By controlling the flow of electricity through each row and column pair it is possible to control each LED individually, by multiplexing, scanning across rows, quickly flashing the LEDs on and off, it is possible to create characters or pictures to display information to the user. By varying the rate per LED, the display can approximate levels of brightness. Multi-colored LEDs or RGB-colored LEDs permit use as an image display
Dot matrix
–
Dot matrix pattern woven into fabric in 1858, using
punched cards on a
Jacquard loom.
Dot matrix
–
"Bling Bling": Dot matrix-style
skywriting.
20.
Graphing calculator
–
A graphing calculator is a handheld calculator that is capable of plotting graphs, solving simultaneous equations, and performing other tasks with variables. Most popular graphing calculators are also programmable, allowing the user to create customized programs, typically for scientific/engineering, because they have large displays, graphing calculators also typically display several lines of text and calculations at the same time. Casio produced the first commercially available graphing calculator, the fx-7000G, sharp produced its first graphing calculator, the EL-5200, in 1986. Since then Sharps innovations include models with a touchscreen, Equation Editor, hewlett Packard followed in the form of the HP-28C. This was followed by the HP-28S, HP-48SX, HP-48S, models like the HP 50g or the HP Prime feature a computer algebra system capable of manipulating symbolic expressions and analytic solving. An unusual and powerful CAS calculator is the now obsolete year 2001 Casio Cassiopeia A-10 and A-11 stylus-operated PDAs, the HP series of graphing calculators is best known for its Reverse Polish notation / Reverse Polish Lisp interface, although the HP-49G introduced a standard expression entry interface as well. Texas Instruments has produced graphing calculators since 1990, the oldest of which was the TI-81, some of the newer calculators are similar, with the addition of more memory, faster processors, and USB connection such as the TI-82, TI-83 series, and TI-84 series. Other models, designed to be appropriate for students 10–14 years of age, are the TI-80, other TI graphing calculators have been designed to be appropriate for calculus, namely the TI-85, TI-86, TI-89 series, and TI-92 series. TI offers a CAS on the TI-89, TI-Nspire CAS and TI-92 series of calculators, TI calculators are targeted specifically to the educational market, but are also widely available to the general public. Some graphing calculators have a computer system, which means that they are capable of producing symbolic results. These calculators can manipulate algebraic expressions, performing such as factor, expand. In addition, they can give answers in exact form without numerical approximations, Calculators that have a computer algebra system are called symbolic or CAS calculators. Examples of symbolic calculators include the HP 50g, the HP Prime, the TI-89, the TI-Nspire CAS, student laboratory exercises with data from such devices enhances learning of math, especially statistics and mechanics. Some of the most notable and extensive community-driven graphing calculator archives are ticalc. org and it is simple to download games to a graphing calculator, as nearly all calculator program archives are free and open source. Even though handheld gaming devices fall in a price range. Nowadays graduate students and researchers have turned to advanced Computer Aided Math software for learning as well as experimenting, north America – high school mathematics teachers allow and even encourage their students to use graphing calculators in class. In some cases they are required, some of them are disallowed in certain classes such as chemistry or physics due to their capacity to contain full periodic tables. United Kingdom – a graphing calculator is allowed for A-level maths courses, however they are not required, similarly, at GCSE, all current courses include one paper where no calculator of any kind can be used, but students are permitted to use graphical calculators for other papers
Graphing calculator
–
A typical graphing calculator by
Texas Instruments
Graphing calculator
–
Casio
fx-7000G; The world's first graphing calculator
Graphing calculator
–
TI-89 Titanium, capable of doing Symbolic Manipulation, Computer Algebra System (CAS)
Graphing calculator
–
Graphing calculators are sometimes used for
gaming.
21.
TI-83
–
The TI-83 series of graphing calculators is manufactured by Texas Instruments. The original TI-83 is itself a version of the TI-82. Released in 1996, it was one of the most popular graphing calculators for students, although it does not include as many calculus functions, applications and programs can be downloaded from certain websites, or written on the calculator. The Flash memory can also be used to store user programs, the TI-83 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a very similar to the TI-73 and TI-83 Plus. The 2001 redesign introduced a different shape to the calculator itself, eliminated the glossy grey screen border. The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support, the TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly program on their computer, assemble it, the user would then execute the command Send (9prgmXXX, and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send backdoor with a less-hidden Asm command, the TI-83 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments, designed in 1999 as an upgrade to the TI-83. The TI-83 Plus is one of TIs most popular calculators and it uses a Zilog Z80 microprocessor running at 6 MHz, a 96×64 monochrome LCD screen, and 4 AAA batteries as well as backup CR1616 or CR1620 battery. A link port is built into the calculator in the form of a 2. 5mm jack. The main improvement over the TI-83, however, is the addition of 512 kB of Flash ROM, most of the Flash memory is used by the operating system, with 160 kB available for user files and applications. Another development is the ability to install Flash Applications, which allows the user to add functionality to the calculator, such applications have been made for math and science, text editing, organizers and day planners, editing spread sheets, games, and many other uses. Symbolic manipulation is not built into the TI-83 Plus and it can be programmed using a language called TI-BASIC, which is similar to the BASIC computer language. Programming may also be done in TI Assembly, made up of Z80 assembly, Assembly programs run much faster, but are more difficult to write. Thus, the writing of Assembly programs is often done on a computer and it uses 4 Triple A Batteries. The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is a version of the TI-83 Plus calculator
TI-83
–
The TI-83 Plus (second version of TI-83)
TI-83
–
TI-83, original design - black
TI-83
–
TI-83 Plus Silver Edition
22.
Calculator
–
An electronic calculator is a small, portable electronic device used to perform operations ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid state electronic calculator was created in the 1960s, building on the history of tools such as the abacus. It was developed in parallel with the computers of the day. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor and they later became used commonly within the petroleum industry. Modern electronic calculators vary, from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers and they became popular in the mid-1970s. By the end of decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations, some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, as of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information, by 2007, this diminished to less than 0. 05%. Modern 2016 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations, most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button, however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Large-sized figures and comma separators are used to improve readability. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display, fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions can be difficult to recognize in decimal form, as a result, Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic types of these only one number at a time. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas, some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers, the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power sources of calculators are, batteries, solar cells or mains electricity, some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off. Crank-powered calculators were also common in the computer era
Calculator
–
An electronic pocket calculator with a
LCD seven-segment display, that can perform arithmetic operations.
Calculator
–
A modern scientific calculator with a
dot matrix LCD display.
Calculator
–
Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents.
Calculator
–
An office calculating machine with a paper printer.
23.
Zilog Z80
–
The Z80 CPU is an 8-bit based microprocessor. It was introduced by Zilog in 1976 as the companys first product. The Z80 was conceived by Federico Faggin in late 1974 and developed by him and his employees at Zilog from early 1975 until March 1976. With the revenue from the Z80, the company built its own chip factories, the Zilog Z80 was a software compatible extension and enhancement of the Intel 8080 and, like it, was mainly aimed at embedded systems. In the early 1980s, the Z80 was the most commonly used CPU of all time, Zilog licensed the Z80 to the US-based Synertek and Mostek, that had helped them with initial production, as well as to a European second source manufacturer, SGS. The design was copied also by several Japanese, East European and Russian manufacturers and this enabled the Z80 to gain acceptance in the world market since large companies like NEC, Toshiba, Sharp, and Hitachi, started to manufacture the device. The Z80 came about when physicist Federico Faggin left Intel at the end of 1974 to found Zilog with Ralph Ungermann, at Fairchild Semiconductor, and later at Intel, Faggin had been working on fundamental transistor and semiconductor manufacturing technology. He also developed the design methodology used for memories and microprocessors at Intel and led the work on the Intel 4004. Masatoshi Shima, the logic and transistor level-designer of the 4004. By March 1976, Zilog had developed the Z80 as well as an accompanying assembler based development system for its customers, and by July 1976, early Z80s were manufactured by Synertek and Mostek, before Zilog had its own manufacturing factory ready, in late 1976. Masatoshi Shima designed most of the microarchitecture as well as the gate and transistor levels of the Z80 CPU, assisted by a number of engineers. CEO Federico Faggin was actually involved in the chip layout work. Faggin worked 80 hours a week in order to meet the tight schedule given by the financial investors, a non maskable interrupt which can be used to respond to power down situations and/or other high priority events. Two separate register files, which could be switched, to speed up response to interrupts such as fast asynchronous event handlers or a multitasking dispatcher. Although they were not intended as extra registers for general code, less hardware required for power supply, clock generation and interface to memory and I/O Single 5-volt power supply. A built-in DRAM refresh mechanism that would otherwise have to be provided by external circuitry, a special reset function which clears only the program counter so that a single Z80 CPU could be used in a development system such as an in-circuit emulator. The Z80 took over from the 8080 and its offspring, the 8085, in the processor market, perhaps a key to the initial success of the Z80 was the built-in DRAM refresh, and other features which allowed systems to be built with fewer support chips. For the original NMOS design, the specified upper frequency limit increased successively from the introductory 2.5 MHz, via the well known 4 MHz
Zilog Z80
–
One of the first Z80 microprocessors manufactured; the date stamp is from June 1976.
Zilog Z80
–
Die of one of the many clones of the Z80A
microprocessor. Total die size is 4950×4720 µm using a 5 µm technology node process.
Zilog Z80
–
A May 1976 advertisement for the Zilog Z-80 8-bit microprocessor
Zilog Z80
–
Mostek 's Z80: MK3880
24.
TI-73 series
–
The TI-73 series is a series of graphing calculators made by Texas Instruments, all of which have identical hardware. The original TI-73 graphing calculator was designed in 1998 as a replacement for the TI-80 for use at a middle school level. Its primary advantage over the TI-80 is its 512 KB of flash memory, other advantages over the TI-80 are the TI-73s standard sized screen, the addition of a link port,25 KB of RAM, and a faster 6 MHz Zilog Z80 processor. The TI-73 also uses the standard 4 AAA batteries with a backup battery. Later, the TI-73 Explorer was remodeled to resemble the TI-84 Plus graphing calculator more closely, due to lack of demand in middle schools, the TI-73 and TI-73 Explorer have not been huge sellers for TI and are not carried by most retail stores. Originally the TI-73 could only run programs written in TI-BASIC, although that has changed in recent years, in 2005 an assembly shell called Mallard was released for the TI-73. Mallard allows the user to run programs written in assembly language, as with the TI-82 and the TI-85 before, a hacked backup file is downloaded containing the assembly shell
TI-73 series
–
Ti-73
25.
TI-81
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The TI-81 is the first graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments. It was designed in 1990 for use in algebra and precalculus courses, the TI-81 is powered by a Zilog Z80 microprocessor, like those used in almost every other Texas Instruments graphing calculator. However, the runs at only 2 MHz whereas the other Z80-powered Texas Instruments calculators run at a speed of at least 6 MHz. It contained 2400 bytes of RAM, the TI-81s user interactions are provided by its so-called Equation Operation System. This is comparable to the interface provided by the more recent TI-82, TI-83, in late 2009 an exploit was found that can be used to execute machine code on the TI-81, using manual input of code instead of sending programs using a link cable. As with its successors, the TI-81 is powered by four AAA batteries, some TI-81 units omit the backup battery, if the AAA batteries of one of these units are changed one at a time and quickly, the memory contents are still retained. Texas Instruments distributes software which emulates the TI-81 and its Equation Operating System on a computer using MS-DOS or DOSBox. Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators ticalc. org – The largest archive of TI programs available
TI-81
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A 1994 TI-81 showing graphs
26.
TI-82
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The TI-82 is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments. The TI-82 was designed in 1993 as a stripped down, more user friendly version of the TI-85 and it was the direct predecessor of the TI-83. It shares with the TI-85 a 6 MHz Zilog Z80 microprocessor, like the TI-81, the TI-82 features a 96x64 pixel display, and the core feature set of the TI-81 with many new features. The TI-82 is powered by the processor that powered its cousin, the TI-85. This was an improvement over the TI-81s 2 MHz Z80 processor, in addition, the available RAM was increased more than tenfold – from 2400 bytes to 28734 bytes. Carried over from the TI-81 is the TI-82s power source – four AAA batteries, the TI-82 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a very similar to the TI-73, TI-83 Plus. It introduced a more contoured body and eliminated the sloped screen that has been common on TI graphing calculators since the TI-81. The 2001 redesign introduced a different shape to the calculator, eliminated the glossy screen border. An enhanced version of the TI-82, the TI-82 STATS, was first released in 2002 in Europe, there are several improvements, most notably the statistical features as the name would suggest. In addition, it featured numerical differentiation and integration, together with numbers, financial functions. In specification terms, it is identical to the TI-83. org – The largest archive of TI programs available
TI-82
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TI-82, original design
27.
TI-83 series
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The TI-83 series of graphing calculators is manufactured by Texas Instruments. The original TI-83 is itself a version of the TI-82. Released in 1996, it was one of the most popular graphing calculators for students, although it does not include as many calculus functions, applications and programs can be downloaded from certain websites, or written on the calculator. The Flash memory can also be used to store user programs, the TI-83 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a very similar to the TI-73 and TI-83 Plus. The 2001 redesign introduced a different shape to the calculator itself, eliminated the glossy grey screen border. The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support, the TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly program on their computer, assemble it, the user would then execute the command Send (9prgmXXX, and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send backdoor with a less-hidden Asm command, the TI-83 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments, designed in 1999 as an upgrade to the TI-83. The TI-83 Plus is one of TIs most popular calculators and it uses a Zilog Z80 microprocessor running at 6 MHz, a 96×64 monochrome LCD screen, and 4 AAA batteries as well as backup CR1616 or CR1620 battery. A link port is built into the calculator in the form of a 2. 5mm jack. The main improvement over the TI-83, however, is the addition of 512 kB of Flash ROM, most of the Flash memory is used by the operating system, with 160 kB available for user files and applications. Another development is the ability to install Flash Applications, which allows the user to add functionality to the calculator, such applications have been made for math and science, text editing, organizers and day planners, editing spread sheets, games, and many other uses. Symbolic manipulation is not built into the TI-83 Plus and it can be programmed using a language called TI-BASIC, which is similar to the BASIC computer language. Programming may also be done in TI Assembly, made up of Z80 assembly, Assembly programs run much faster, but are more difficult to write. Thus, the writing of Assembly programs is often done on a computer and it uses 4 Triple A Batteries. The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is a version of the TI-83 Plus calculator
TI-83 series
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The TI-83 Plus (second version of TI-83)
TI-83 series
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TI-83, original design - black
TI-83 series
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TI-83 Plus Silver Edition
28.
TI-84 Plus series
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The TI-84 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments which was released in early 2004. There is no original TI-84, only the TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition models, the TI-84 Plus is an enhanced version of the TI-83 Plus. The key-by-key correspondence is relatively the same, but the 84 features some improved hardware, the Archive is about 3 times as large, and CPU about 2.5 times as fast. A USB port and built-in clock functionality were also added, the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition was released in 2004 as an upgrade to the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition. Like the TI-83 Plus Silver Edition, it features a 15 MHz Zilog Z80 processor and 24 kB user available RAM, the chip has 128 kB, but TI has not made an OS that uses all of it. Newer calculators have a RAM chip that is only 48 kB, all calculators with the letter H or later as the last letter in the serial code have fewer ram pages, causing some programs to not run correctly. There is 1.5 MB of user-accessible Flash ROM, like the standard TI-84 Plus, the Silver Edition includes a built-in USB port, a built-in clock, and assembly support. It uses 4 AAA batteries and a button cell battery. The TI-84 Plus Silver Edition comes preloaded with a variety of applications and these programs are also available for the TI-84 Plus, but some must be downloaded separately from TIs website. It is manufactured by Kinpo Electronics, TI offers a special yellow version of the TI-84 Plus, inscribed with the words School Property, for schools to loan out to students. This special design was produced in effort to combat theft, owners can buy other interchangeable colored face-plates and slide-cases online. A kickstand-style slide case and other accessories are also available, although graphing calculators have been called inexpensive in education reform research, the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition costs $139.00 as of 2013 on the TI online store. This calculator has been discontinued in favor of the TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition, in 2011, TI launched for the French market a miniaturized version of the TI-84 Plus, the TI-84 Pocket. fr. In 2012, TI launched for the Asian market a version of the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition. The TI-84 Plus C Silver Edition was first publicly referenced in October 2012 in a tweet from TI and it has a high-resolution 320x240-pixel color screen, a modified version of the 2. 55MP operating system, a rechargeable battery and keystroke compatibility with existing math and programming tools. It has the standard 2. 5mm I/O linkport and a mini-USB port, more details about the calculators math and programming features were published when TI began distributing review models in February 2013, and even more when the calculator was released in 2013. The TI-84 Plus CE was publicly previewed by TI Education in January 2015, the calculators OS5. x is incompatible with the TI-84 Plus C Silver Editions hardware. The calculator has 154KB of user-accessible RAM and 3. 0MB of Archive memory and it uses the eZ80 processor from Zilog, making all Z80 assembly programs from previous 84 Plus series calculators incompatible
TI-84 Plus series
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TI-84 Plus
TI-84 Plus series
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TI-84 Plus Silver Edition
TI-84 Plus series
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TI-84 Plus CSE
TI-84 Plus series
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TI-84 Plus CE
29.
TI-85
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The TI-85 is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments based on the Zilog Z80 microprocessor. Designed in 1992 as TIs second graphing calculator, it was replaced by the TI-86, the TI-85 was significantly more powerful than the TI-81, as it was designed as a calculator primarily for use in engineering and calculus courses. Texas Instruments had included a version of BASIC on the device to allow programming, each calculator came with a cable to connect calculators. Another cable known as the TI-Graph Link was also sold, along with appropriate software and these cables made it possible to save programs and make backups. Enthusiasts analyzed memory backups and discovered that entries in the calculators CUSTOM menu pointed at specific memory locations, with this knowledge, a hack was devised where a special string could be inserted into the backup at the proper location to allow the calculator to execute assembly language programs. These programs could run faster than their BASIC counterparts and be much more efficient in terms of memory usage. This development made the TI-85 the first TI graphing calculator that could execute assembly programs, programs written in assembly would be stored as string expressions and accessed through the CUSTOM menu. Games such as Tetris and Boulder Dash are available, as are programs with more practical uses, total memory capacity was about 32 kilobytes, with 28226 bytes available for use. The assembly language shell ZShell is also available for the TI-85, probably in response to the widespread use of assembly programs, TI officially introduced assembly access in later models, such as the TI-83 and TI-86, along with expanded memory. The TI-86 is very similar to the TI-85, sharing the same resolution, processor. CalcG. org - Very organized and large archive of games, TI-85 Graphical Demo - An interesting graphical demo programmed for a TI-85
TI-85
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TI-85
30.
TI-86
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The TI-86 is a programmable graphing calculator introduced in 1997 and produced by Texas Instruments. The TI-86 uses the Zilog Z80 microprocessor and it is partially backwards-compatible with its predecessor, the TI-85. The TI-86 can be thought of as the tier among various Texas Instruments calculators directly above the TI-83, the calculator also handles vectors, matrices and complex numbers better than the TI-83. One drawback, however, is that the package on the TI-83 range doesnt come preloaded on the TI-86. However, it can be downloaded from the Texas Instruments program archive, the Guide - the largest set of tutorials for TI-86 assembly programming Texas Instruments Program Archive Complete Disassembly of a TI-86
TI-86
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TI-86
