1.
Programmable calculator
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Programmable calculators are calculators that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations under control of a stored program, much like a computer. The first programmable calculators such as the IBM CPC used punched cards or other media for program storage, hand-held electronic calculators store programs on magnetic strips, removable read-only memory cartridges, or in battery-backed read/write memory. Since the early 1990s, most of these flexible handheld units belong to the class of graphing calculators, before the mass-manufacture of inexpensive dot-matrix LCDs however, programmable calculators usually featured a one-line numeric or alphanumeric display. The Big Four manufacturers of programmable calculators are Casio, Hewlett-Packard, Sharp, all of the above have also made pocket computers in the past, especially Casio and Sharp. As they are used for graphing functions, the screens of these machines are pixel-addressable, programming capability appears most commonly in graphing calculators, as the larger screen allows multiple lines of source code to be viewed simultaneously. Many programs written for calculators can be found on the internet, users can download the programs to a personal computer, and then upload them to the calculator using a specialized link cable, infrared wireless link or through a memory card. Sometimes these programs can also be run through emulators on the PC, programming these machines can be done on the machine, on the PC side and uploaded as source code, or compiled on the PC side and uploaded as with Flash and some C/C++ implementations. Programmes, data, and so forth can also be exchanged amongst similar machines via the ports on the calculator used for PC connectivity. On-board programming tools which use non-native language implementations include the On-Board C Compiler for fx series Casio calculators, commonly available programs for calculators include everything from math/science related problem solvers to video games, as well as so-called demos. The companies themselves also have such as TIEducation. com with information. In the early days most programmable calculators used a simplified programming language. Calculators supporting such programming were Turing-complete if they supported both conditional statements and indirect addressing of memory, notable examples of Turing complete calculators were Casio FX-602P series, the HP-41 and the TI-59. Keystroke programming is used in mid-range calculators like the HP 35s. BASIC is a programming language commonly adapted to desktop computers. The most common languages now used in high range calculators are proprietary BASIC-style dialects as used by CASIO and these BASIC dialects are optimised for calculator use, combining the advantages of BASIC and keystroke programming. They have little in common with mainstream BASIC, the version for the Ti-89 and subsequent is more fully featured, including the full set of string and character manipulation functions and statements in standard Basic. A complete port of BBC Basic to the TI-83 subfamily of calculators is now available and it is installed via a cable or IrDA connection with a computer. RPL is a special Forth-like programming language used by Hewlett Packard in its high range devices, the first device with RPL calculator was the HP-28C released in 1987
2.
Graphing calculator
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A graphing calculator is a handheld calculator that is capable of plotting graphs, solving simultaneous equations, and performing other tasks with variables. Most popular graphing calculators are also programmable, allowing the user to create customized programs, typically for scientific/engineering, because they have large displays, graphing calculators also typically display several lines of text and calculations at the same time. Casio produced the first commercially available graphing calculator, the fx-7000G, sharp produced its first graphing calculator, the EL-5200, in 1986. Since then Sharps innovations include models with a touchscreen, Equation Editor, hewlett Packard followed in the form of the HP-28C. This was followed by the HP-28S, HP-48SX, HP-48S, models like the HP 50g or the HP Prime feature a computer algebra system capable of manipulating symbolic expressions and analytic solving. An unusual and powerful CAS calculator is the now obsolete year 2001 Casio Cassiopeia A-10 and A-11 stylus-operated PDAs, the HP series of graphing calculators is best known for its Reverse Polish notation / Reverse Polish Lisp interface, although the HP-49G introduced a standard expression entry interface as well. Texas Instruments has produced graphing calculators since 1990, the oldest of which was the TI-81, some of the newer calculators are similar, with the addition of more memory, faster processors, and USB connection such as the TI-82, TI-83 series, and TI-84 series. Other models, designed to be appropriate for students 10–14 years of age, are the TI-80, other TI graphing calculators have been designed to be appropriate for calculus, namely the TI-85, TI-86, TI-89 series, and TI-92 series. TI offers a CAS on the TI-89, TI-Nspire CAS and TI-92 series of calculators, TI calculators are targeted specifically to the educational market, but are also widely available to the general public. Some graphing calculators have a computer system, which means that they are capable of producing symbolic results. These calculators can manipulate algebraic expressions, performing such as factor, expand. In addition, they can give answers in exact form without numerical approximations, Calculators that have a computer algebra system are called symbolic or CAS calculators. Examples of symbolic calculators include the HP 50g, the HP Prime, the TI-89, the TI-Nspire CAS, student laboratory exercises with data from such devices enhances learning of math, especially statistics and mechanics. Some of the most notable and extensive community-driven graphing calculator archives are ticalc. org and it is simple to download games to a graphing calculator, as nearly all calculator program archives are free and open source. Even though handheld gaming devices fall in a price range. Nowadays graduate students and researchers have turned to advanced Computer Aided Math software for learning as well as experimenting, north America – high school mathematics teachers allow and even encourage their students to use graphing calculators in class. In some cases they are required, some of them are disallowed in certain classes such as chemistry or physics due to their capacity to contain full periodic tables. United Kingdom – a graphing calculator is allowed for A-level maths courses, however they are not required, similarly, at GCSE, all current courses include one paper where no calculator of any kind can be used, but students are permitted to use graphical calculators for other papers
3.
Texas Instruments
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Texas Instruments Inc. is an American technology company that designs and manufactures semiconductors, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide, Texas Instrumentss focus is on developing analog chips and embedded processors, which accounts for more than 85% of their revenue. TI also produces TI digital light processing technology and education technology products including calculators, microcontrollers, to date, TI has more than 43,000 patents worldwide. TI produced the worlds first commercial silicon transistor in 1950, Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit in 1958 while working at TIs Central Research Labs. TI also invented the hand-held calculator in 1967, and introduced the first single-chip microcontroller in 1970, in 1987, TI invented the digital light processing device, which serves as the foundation for the companys award-winning DLP technology and DLP Cinema. In 1990, TI came out with the popular TI-81 calculator which made them a leader in the calculator industry. In 1997, its business was sold to Raytheon, which allowed TI to strengthen its focus on digital solutions. Texas Instruments was founded by Cecil H. Green, J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott, McDermott was one of the original founders of Geophysical Service Inc. in 1930. McDermott, Green, and Jonsson were GSI employees who purchased the company in 1941, in November,1945, Patrick Haggerty was hired as general manager of the Laboratory and Manufacturing division, which focused on electronic equipment. By 1951, the L&M division, with its contracts, was growing faster than GSIs Geophysical division. The company was reorganized and initially renamed General Instruments Inc, because there already existed a firm named General Instrument, the company was renamed Texas Instruments that same year. From 1956 to 1961, Fred Agnich of Dallas, later a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, was the Texas Instruments president, Geophysical Service, Inc. became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments. Early in 1988 most of GSI was sold to the Halliburton Company, in 1930, J. Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott founded Geophysical Service, an early provider of seismic exploration services to the petroleum industry. In 1939, the company reorganized as Coronado Corp. an oil company with Geophysical Service Inc, on December 6,1941, McDermott along with three other GSI employees, J. Erik Jonsson, Cecil H. Green, and H. B. During World War II, GSI expanded their services to include electronics for the U. S. Army, Signal Corps, in 1951, the company changed its name to Texas Instruments, GSI becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of the new company. Texas Instruments also continued to manufacture equipment for use in the seismic industry, after selling GSI, TI finally sold the company to Halliburton in 1988, at which point GSI ceased to exist as a separate entity. Texas Instruments entered the electronics market in 1942 with submarine detection equipment. During the early 1980s, Texas Instruments instituted a quality program which included Juran training, as well as promoting statistical process control, Taguchi methods and Design for Six Sigma
4.
Calculator input methods
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There are various ways in which calculators interpret keystrokes. One can categorize calculators into two types, 1) single-step or immediate execution calculators and 2) expression or formula calculators. On a formula calculator one types in an expression and then presses Enter to evaluate the expression, there are various systems for typing in an expression, infix, postfix, natural display, etc. On an immediate execution calculator, the user presses a key for each operation, by pressing keys to all the intermediate results. Scientific calculators have buttons for brackets and these calculators can take order of operation into account, also for unary operations like √ or x2 the number is entered first then the operator. Simple four-function calculators, such as included with most operating systems. The first example has been given twice, the first version is for simple calculators, showing how it is necessary to rearrange operands in order to get the correct result. The second version is for scientific calculators, where operator precedence is observed, the immediate execution calculators are based on a mixture of infix and postfix notation, binary operations are infix but unary operations are postfix. Because operators are applied one at a time, the user must work out which button to use at each stage. Use memory buttons to ensure that operations are applied in the correct order, use the special buttons +/− and 1/x, that do not correspond to operations in the formula, for non-commutative operators. Mistakes can be hard to spot because, For the above reasons, the operation carried out when a button is pressed is not always the same as the button, but a previously entered operation. The simplest example of a problem when using an immediate execution calculator given by Professor Thimbleby is 4*. On an immediate execution calculator, depending on which keys are used, and the order in which they are pressed, also, among the calculators, there are differences in the way a given sequence of button presses is interpreted. The result can be, −1, If the subtraction button, −, is pressed after the multiplication, *, it is interpreted as a correction of the *, rather than a minus sign, so that 4 −5 is calculated. 20, If the change-sign button, +/−, is pressed before the 5, it interpreted as −5. −20, To get the answer, +/− must be pressed last. So +/− and addition have to be used rather than subtraction, when + is pressed, the multiplication is performed. 4×, The addition must be done first, so the calculation carried out is ×4, when * is pressed, the addition is performed
5.
Liquid-crystal display
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A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
6.
Dot matrix
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A dot matrix is a 2-dimensional patterned array, used to represent characters, symbols and images. Every type of modern technology uses dot matrices for display of information, including phones, televisions. They are also used in textiles with sewing, knitting, in printers, the dots are usually the darkened areas of the paper. In displays, the dots may light up, as in an LED, CRT, or plasma display, or darken, as in an LCD. As an impact printer, the term refers to low-resolution impact printers, with a column of 8,9 or 24 pins hitting an ink-impregnated fabric ribbon, like a typewriter ribbon. It was originally contrasted with both daisy wheel printers and line printers that used fixed-shape embossed metal or plastic stamps to mark paper. Impact printers survive where multi-part forms are needed, as the pins can impress dots through multiple layers of paper to make a carbonless copy, all types of electronic printers typically generate image data as a two-step process. External raster image processing was possible such as to print a graphical image, depending on the printer technology the dot size or grid shape may not be uniform. Some printers are capable of producing smaller dots and will intermesh the small dots within the larger ones for antialiasing. A dot matrix is useful for marking materials other than paper, in manufacturing industry, many product marking applications use dot matrix inkjet or impact methods. This can also be used to print 2D matrix codes, e. g. Datamatrix. Although the output of modern computers is generally all in the form of dot matrices, vector data encoding requires less memory and less data storage, in situations where the shapes may need to be resized, as with font typefaces. For maximum image quality using only dot matrix fonts, it would be necessary to store a separate dot matrix pattern for the different potential point sizes that might be used. Instead, a group of vector shapes is used to render all the specific dot matrix patterns needed for the current display or printing task. An LED matrix or LED display is a large, low-resolution form of dot-matrix display and it consists of a 2-D diode matrix with their cathodes joined in rows and their anodes joined in columns. By controlling the flow of electricity through each row and column pair it is possible to control each LED individually, by multiplexing, scanning across rows, quickly flashing the LEDs on and off, it is possible to create characters or pictures to display information to the user. By varying the rate per LED, the display can approximate levels of brightness. Multi-colored LEDs or RGB-colored LEDs permit use as an image display
7.
Motorola 68000
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The Motorola 68000 is a 32-bit CISC microprocessor with a 16-bit external data bus, designed and marketed by Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector. After 38 years in production, the 68000 architecture is still in use, the 68000 grew out of the MACSS project, begun in 1976 to develop an entirely new architecture without backward compatibility. It would be a higher-power sibling complementing the existing 8-bit 6800 line rather than a compatible successor, in the end, the 68000 did retain a bus protocol compatibility mode for existing 6800 peripheral devices, and a version with an 8-bit data bus was produced. However, the designers focused on the future, or forward compatibility. For instance, the CPU registers are 32 bits wide, though few self-contained structures in the processor itself operate on 32 bits at a time. The MACSS team drew heavily on the influence of minicomputer processor design, such as the PDP-11 and VAX systems, in the mid 1970s, the 8-bit microprocessor manufacturers raced to introduce the 16-bit generation. National Semiconductor had been first with its IMP-16 and PACE processors in 1973–1975, Intel had worked on their advanced 16/32-bit Intel iAPX432 since 1975 and their Intel 8086 since 1976. Arriving late to the 16-bit arena afforded the new processor more transistors, 32-bit macroinstructions, the original MC68000 was fabricated using an HMOS process with a 3.5 µm feature size. Formally introduced in September 1979, Initial samples were released in February 1980, Initial speed grades were 4,6, and 8 MHz.10 MHz chips became available during 1981, and 12.5 MHz chips by June 1982. The 16.67 MHz 12F version of the MC68000, the fastest version of the original HMOS chip, was not produced until the late 1980s, tom Gunter, retired Corporate Vice President at Motorola, is known as the Father of the 68000. The 68000 was used in Microsoft Xenix systems as well as an early NetWare Unix-based Server, the 68000 was used in the first generation of desktop laser printers including the original Apple Inc. In 1982, the 68000 received an update to its ISA allowing it to virtual memory and to conform to the Popek. The updated chip was called the 68010, a further extended version which exposed 31 bits of the address bus was also produced, in small quantities, as the 68012. To support lower-cost systems and control applications with smaller sizes, Motorola introduced the 8-bit compatible MC68008. This was a 68000 with an 8-bit data bus and an address bus. After 1982, Motorola devoted more attention to the 68020 and 88000 projects, several other companies were second-source manufacturers of the HMOS68000. These included Hitachi, who shrank the size to 2.7 µm for their 12.5 MHz version, Mostek, Rockwell, Signetics, Thomson/SGS-Thomson. Toshiba was also a maker of the CMOS 68HC000
8.
AAA battery
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An AAA or triple-A battery is a standard size of dry cell battery commonly used in low-drain portable electronic devices. A triple-A battery is a cell and measures 10.5 mm in diameter and 44.5 mm in length, including the positive terminal button. The positive terminal has a diameter of 3.8 mm. Alkaline AAA batteries weigh around 11.5 grams, while primary lithium AAA batteries weigh about 7.6 g, rechargeable nickel–metal hydride AAA batteries typically weigh 14–15 g. AAA batteries are most often used in electronic devices, such as TV remote controls, MP3 players. Devices that require the same voltage, but have a current draw, are often designed to use larger batteries such as the AA battery type. AA batteries have about three times the capacity of AAA batteries, with the increasing efficiency and miniaturization of modern electronics, many devices which previously were designed for AA batteries are being replaced by models that accept AAA Battery cells. As of 2007, AAA batteries accounted for 24% of alkaline battery sales in the United States. In Japan as of 2011, 28% of alkaline batteries sold were AAA. In Switzerland as of 2008, AAA batteries totaled 30% of primary battery sales and 32% of secondary battery sales
9.
TI-83 series
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The TI-83 series of graphing calculators is manufactured by Texas Instruments. The original TI-83 is itself a version of the TI-82. Released in 1996, it was one of the most popular graphing calculators for students, although it does not include as many calculus functions, applications and programs can be downloaded from certain websites, or written on the calculator. The Flash memory can also be used to store user programs, the TI-83 was redesigned twice, first in 1999 and again in 2001. The 1999 redesign introduced a very similar to the TI-73 and TI-83 Plus. The 2001 redesign introduced a different shape to the calculator itself, eliminated the glossy grey screen border. The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support, the TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly program on their computer, assemble it, the user would then execute the command Send (9prgmXXX, and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send backdoor with a less-hidden Asm command, the TI-83 Plus is a graphing calculator made by Texas Instruments, designed in 1999 as an upgrade to the TI-83. The TI-83 Plus is one of TIs most popular calculators and it uses a Zilog Z80 microprocessor running at 6 MHz, a 96×64 monochrome LCD screen, and 4 AAA batteries as well as backup CR1616 or CR1620 battery. A link port is built into the calculator in the form of a 2. 5mm jack. The main improvement over the TI-83, however, is the addition of 512 kB of Flash ROM, most of the Flash memory is used by the operating system, with 160 kB available for user files and applications. Another development is the ability to install Flash Applications, which allows the user to add functionality to the calculator, such applications have been made for math and science, text editing, organizers and day planners, editing spread sheets, games, and many other uses. Symbolic manipulation is not built into the TI-83 Plus and it can be programmed using a language called TI-BASIC, which is similar to the BASIC computer language. Programming may also be done in TI Assembly, made up of Z80 assembly, Assembly programs run much faster, but are more difficult to write. Thus, the writing of Assembly programs is often done on a computer and it uses 4 Triple A Batteries. The TI-83 Plus Silver Edition is a version of the TI-83 Plus calculator
