1.
Herald of arms
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A herald, or, more correctly, a herald of arms, is an officer of arms, ranking between pursuivant and king of arms. The title is applied more broadly to all officers of arms. Heralds were originally sent by monarchs or noblemen to convey messages or proclamations—in this sense being the predecessors of the modern diplomats. In the Hundred Years War, French heralds challenged King Henry V to fight, like other officers of arms, a herald would often wear a surcoat, called a tabard, decorated with the coat of arms of his master. It was possibly due to their role in managing the tournaments of the Late Middle Ages that heralds came to be associated with the regulation of the coats of arms. Heralds have been employed by kings and large landowners, principally as messengers and ambassadors, Heralds were required to organise, announce and referee the contestants at a tournament. This science of heraldry became increasingly important and further regulated over the years, thus the primary job of a herald today is to be an expert in coats of arms. In the United Kingdom heralds are still called upon at times to read proclamations publicly, there are active official heralds today in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Canada, and the Republic of South Africa. In England and Scotland most heralds are full-time employees of the sovereign and are called Heralds of Arms in Ordinary, temporary appointments can be made of Heralds of Arms Extraordinary. These are often appointed for a major state occasions, such as a coronation. In addition, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has created the position of Herald of Arms Emeritus, with which to honor long-serving or distinguished heraldists
2.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
3.
Heraldry
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The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
4.
Livery
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Often, elements of the heraldry relating to the individual or corporate body feature in the livery. Alternatively, some kind of an emblem or badge, or a distinctive colour, is featured. The word itself derives from the French livrée, meaning dispensed, handed over. Most often it would indicate that the wearer of the livery was a servant, dependant, follower or friend of the owner of the livery, or, in the case of objects, that the object belonged to them. In the late medieval phenomenon of bastard feudalism, livery badges worn by the retainers of great lords, sometimes in effect private armies, in the 14th century, livery referred to an allowance of any kind, but especially clothes provided to servants and members of the household. Such things might be kept in a livery cupboard, during the 14th century, specific colours denoting a great person began to be used for both his soldiers and his civilian followers, and the modern sense of the term began to form. Usually two different colours were used together, but the ways in which they were combined varied with rank, often the colours used were different each year. As well as embroidered badges, metal ones were sewn on to clothing, municipalities and corporations copied the behaviour of the great households. The grandest of these is the livery collar, william, Lord Hastings the favourite of King Edward IV of England had a Coller of gold of K. Edwards lyverys valued at the enormous sum of £40 in an inventory of 1489. This would have similar to the collars worn by Hastings sister and her husband Sir John Donne in the Donne Triptych by Hans Memling. Lords gave their servants lead or pewter badges to sew onto their clothes, in the 15th century European royalty sometimes distributed uniform suits of clothes to courtiers, as the House of Fugger, the leading bankers, did to all employees. This practice later contracted to the provision of standardized clothing to male servants, the term most notably referred to the embroidered coats, waistcoats, knee breeches and stockings in 18th-century style, worn by footmen on formal occasions in grand houses. Plainer clothing in dark colours and without braiding was worn by footmen, chauffeurs, for reasons of economy the employment of such servants, and their expensive dress, died out after World War I except in royal households. Most European royal courts still use their state liveries on formal occasions and these are generally in traditional national colours, and are based on 18th century clothing with fine gold embroidery. Only male royal servants normally wear livery, knee breeches are worn, normally with white silk stockings, one exception being the Spanish court which prescribes red. At the British royal court red state livery are still worn by pages, footmen, coachmen, the state livery worn by footmen includes foils. The scarlet coats are handmade, and embroidered in gold braid with the cypher of the monarch. Gold buttons and other trimmings are of designs and patterns which date from the 18th century, unlike the tailor-made uniform clothing issued to full-time royal staff, the seldom-worn full-state dress reserved for court pages is not bespoke
5.
Officer of Arms
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Traditionally in England, officers of arms are of three ranks, kings of arms, heralds of arms, and pursuivants of arms. Such appointments are also made in Scotland, where four private officers of arms exist. These appointments are all purely advisory, lord Lyon and the Lyon Clerk are appointed by the crown, and, with the Crowns authority, Lyon appoints the other Scottish officers. The officers of arms in ordinary who form the College of Arms in England are members of the royal household, the officers of arms in Scotland are also members of the royal household. In the Republic of Ireland, matters armorial and genealogical come within the authority of an officer designated the Chief Herald of Ireland, in the Netherlands, officers of arms do not exist as permanent functions. Private heraldry is not legislated, and state heraldry and the heraldry of the nobility is regulated by the High Council of Nobility, during the royal inauguration ceremony however, two Kings of Arms and two or four Heralds of Arms have figured. These were usually members of the High Council of Nobility, during the inaugurations of Wilhelmina and Juliana, the Kings of Arms wore nineteenth-century style court dress, whereas the Heralds wore tabards. All officers carried rods and wore chains of office, in the inauguration of Queen Beatrix in 1980, the ceremonial office was held by members of the resistance, Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema being the elder King of Arms. Like most other participants in the pageant the officers of arms were no longer wearing ceremonial dress, the senior King of Arms proclaims the King to be inaugurated after he or she has sworn allegiance to the constitution. The Heralds step outside the New Church in Amsterdam, where the ceremony is held
6.
Apron
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An apron is a functional accessory that layers over ones outfit to protect ones clothes and skin from incidental stains and marks. As a top layer that covers the front body, the apron is worn as a uniform, adornment. Apron styles adapt to the tastes of the times to suite the values, the practical, fashionable sentimental nature of the apron has made it a cherished accessory for centuries. Because aprons provide comfort, protection and a sense of preparedness—the apron will always be a garment for people who work, clean, entertain. Because the apron is a top layer, the apron will continue to be worn as a fashion accessory both inside—and outside—the home, aprons were used by both the Native Indians and the pilgrims when America was first colonized—and have been well worn in America ever since. The apron fell out of favor in the 1960s after its rise to celebrity in the 50’s when it became the symbol for family. As women started looking outside the home for satisfaction and work, people started doing their work without an apron entirely or they choose to wear a bib apron. The bib apron remains the dominate apron on the market and is offered in a multitude of variations, colors, detailing, simple, functional aprons were already a staple by the time the Pilgrims docked on the shore of Plymouth Rock. American Indians wore aprons for both practical and ceremonial purposes, early female settlers wore plain, long white aprons. Later, Quaker women wore long and colorful silk aprons, as cities in New England grew, more elaborate options began to appear. The “Hooverette” or “Hoover apron” emerged in the 1910s, named after the man in charge of the U. S. Food Administration at the time and this wraparound apron was popular into the 1920s when fancy half-aprons became fashionable. Stores began selling patterns and kits to make and adorn aprons, aprons of this period followed the silhouette of dapper fashions—long, with no waist line. Women working outside the home wore whatever protective garments their jobs required, including coveralls, smocks, at home, they worked in full-length aprons with hefty pockets and a cinched waistline that were often decorated with buttons, pockets and contrasting colors. Aprons became plain during the Great Depression, since fabric was scarce, women would make aprons out of Flour Sacks and feed sacks to protect their clothing. Pinafore aprons, or “pinnies” as they were called, began to gain popularity. Dorothy famously wore a blue and white gingham pinafore in The Wizard of Oz, post-war family values made the apron the symbol of home, family, mother and wife. As Sewing machines and cloth became available, aprons—both commercial and homemade—became the uniform of the professional housewife, magazines from the 1940s and 50s feature apron-adorned women in nearly every advertisement that is related to housework or cooking. Aprons were a feature for irons, kitchen appliances, food products
7.
Personal protective equipment
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Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearers body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks. PPE is needed there are hazards present. PPE has the limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source. Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment and this can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can help to ensure safe. Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, the hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of protective equipment may not lead to more contamination. Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, there are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, the filtration may be either passive or active. Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source and this type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus
8.
High-visibility clothing
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High-visibility clothing, a type of personal protective equipment, is any clothing worn that has highly reflective properties or a colour that is easily discernible from any background. Yellow waistcoats worn by emergency services are a common example, occupational wearers of clothing with high-visibility features include railway and highway workers, airport workers, or other places where workers are near moving vehicles or in dark areas. Some cyclists wear high-visibility clothing when riding amongst motor vehicles, hunters may be required to wear designated high-visibility clothing to prevent accidental shooting. Experimental use of high-visibility clothing began in 1964 on the Scottish Region of British Railways, train drivers operating in these areas were asked their opinion as to the effectiveness of the jackets. Following trials, high-visibility clothing was issued to engineering and other working on the electrified lines of BRs London Midland Region in 1965. It was thought to be more important due to the speeds of the newly electrified WCML route from Euston to Manchester, Liverpool. The first version was worn as a jerkin and was visible at, half a mile in normal weather conditions. The specifications for high visibility clothing suitable for use on railways in the United Kingdom are published by the Rail Safety and this dominant culpability of the driver of the other vehicle. Emphasizes the special need for high contrast conspicuity for the motorcycle, traffic risks to the cyclist are similar to those faced by motorcyclists, with the main differences being that bicycling speeds are typically lower, and the bicyclist wears less protective gear. In a 2009 study, Most UK cyclists and almost all motorists believed that high-visibility clothing would increase cyclists visibility, a Cochrane Systematic Review of research evidence for the effectiveness of visibility aids was carried out by Kwan and Mapstone in 2006. The authors found 42 studies which suggested that fluorescent clothing could increase the distance at which drivers could detect and then recognise. The same review found evidence that retro-reflective materials worn by cyclists at night had an effect on driver perceptions. A2012 British case-control study showed a non-significant increase in the odds of a crash for users of reflective conspicuity aids whilst cycling, the number of conspicuity aids used was positively associated with an increase in collision crash odds but a non-significant reduction in the likelihood of hospitalisation. These results show a large safety effect in simulated or experimental conditions and this apparent contradiction may arise because of a form of risk compensation. Cyclists using conspicuity aids might be overestimating the level of protection conspicuity aids actually confer when used whilst cycling in traffic, since April 2013, New York City regulations require commercial cyclists, such as restaurant delivery persons or bike messengers, to wear high visibility clothing while riding. Various ISO member bodies have published standards for high-visibility clothing to be worn as personal protective equipment. The American National Standards Institute published standard 107 for high-visibility clothing in 1999, the standard defines three classes of successively more-visible garments, to protect workers exposed to successively higher levels of risk from motor vehicles and heavy equipment. The International Safety Equipment Association developed the standard, with revisions in 2004 and 2010, the standard specifies three classes of activities and the minimum quantity of fluorescent and retroreflective material to be worn in each class
9.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
10.
Quarter (heraldry)
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Quartering in heraldry is a method of joining several different coats of arms together in one shield by dividing the shield into equal parts and placing different coats of arms in each division. Typically, a quartering consists of a division into four equal parts, however, in most traditions there is no limit on the number of divisions allowed, and the records of the College of Arms include a shield of 323 quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton. These 323 quarterings include numerous repeated attributed arms assigned to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier, another example of a shield of many quarterings is the coat of arms of the Powys-Lybbe family, which contains 64 quarterings. Different rules apply in Scottish heraldry, and may apply in other jurisdictions like Canada. The arms of the Queen of the United Kingdom are arms of dominion, however, the vast majority of quarterly coats of arms display arms which are claimed by descent, in other words, they join together coats of arms of the ancestors of the bearer of the arms. Strict rules apply, both as to what arms may be displayed by way of quarterings, and the order in which they may be displayed. An exception is made, however, if the female who breaks the line of descent is a heraldic heiress—a woman who has no brothers. Such a woman is entitled to transmit her fathers arms to her own children, if her father was himself entitled to one or more quarterings, these will pass to his daughters children as quarterings as well. Quarterings are displayed in the order in which they are acquired by a family by marriage, the larger the number of quarterings, the smaller the space available for each coat of arms, so that most families entitled to many quarterings make a selection of those they ordinarily use. The Duke of Norfolk, for example, uses only four quarterings, in Scotland in some cases the plain unquartered coat is the more prized, as entitlement to its use can indicate who is chief of the name and arms and holds the headship of a clan. For example, Flora Fraser, Lady Saltoun of Abernethy has arms as chief of Fraser — the plain coat of azure, the Powys-Lybbe family appear, likewise, to usually use only the quarterings of Powys and Lybbe. Division of the field Ottfried Neubecker
11.
Denys brass, Olveston
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The Denys monumental brass in Olveston Church, Gloucestershire, dates from 1505, and is one of only about 80 Monumental brasses of Gloucestershire surviving today. It was erected following the death of Sir Walter Denys in 1505, the Denys family were at various times lords of the manors of Alveston, Earthcott Green, Siston and Dyrham in Gloucestershire. The armourials are as follows, Top left, Denys, Top right, Russell. Bottom L, 1st, Denys, 2nd, Russell, 3rd, Gorges, 4th, bottom R, 1st, Denys, 2nd, Russell, 3rd, Gorges, 4th, prob. Danvers. Armorials repeated on tabard fronts and sleeves, Maurice Denys the father to L in Dexter position of honour. Russell was his heiress-mother, Gorges a former Russell heiress, on the R. is Sir Walter Denys, the son, with the arms of his co-heiress 2nd. Wife, Agnes Danvers, in the 4th, Denys,3 leopards faces jessant-de-lys, over all a bend engrailled. Cantilupe arms, reversed for difference, are borne as the official arms of the See of Hereford, in honour of St. Thomas de Cantilupe, Bishop of Hereford. Russell, Sir Gilbert Denys of Siston had married c.1404, wife, Margaret Russell, eldest da. and later co-heiress of Sir Maurice Russell of Dyrham. Argent, on a chief gules 3 bezants. She was the mother of Maurice Denys, son Theobald II Russell inherited from his uncle Ralph IV de Gorges, 2nd. Baron, the former Gorges estates and changed his name to Gorges, adopting their arms, the armorials of Gorges are of interest. Yet there was a dispute in 1347 when these lozengy arms were claimed by John de Warbelton against Theobald II Russell de Gorges. Instead of adopting completely new arms, Theobald merely added a red chevron as a difference, blazoned Lozengy or and azure and these arms are known as Gorges Modern. DanversMaurice Denyss 2nd. Wife, and Sir Walters mother, was Agnes Danvers, co-heiress of Sir Robert Danvers, the arms blazoned in the 4th. Q. on Sir Walters tabard appear as A chevron between 3 roses, yet the arms given by Burkes 1884 for this family are quite different Argent, on a bend gules 3 martlets vert legged or. The arms of Danvers of Warwick however are closer to those here, Gules. On the other hand, if the arms are all correct, there are lacunae in the literature. BelowHer lyeth buryed in ye midde, whiche sir walter denys decessed the first day of the moneth of Septembre in the xxi yere of the reigne of kyng henry the vii whose soules Jhesu pardon amen
12.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
13.
Armour
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Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships and armoured fighting vehicles, a second use of the term armour describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry and their weapons came to be referred to collectively as armour, the word armour began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a mail, defensive covering worn in combat, the word originates from the Old French armure, itself derived from the Latin armatura meaning arms and/or equipment, with the root armare meaning arms or gear. Armour has been used throughout recorded history and it has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with rudimentary leather protection and evolving through mail and metal plate into todays modern composites. For much of history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology. Its production was influential in the revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy. Armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms, significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper, also, modern militaries usually do not equip their forces with the best armour available because it would be prohibitively expensive. The samurai warriors of feudal Japan utilised many types of armour for hundreds of years up to the 19th century, Japanese lamellar armour passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, armour did not always cover all of the body, sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was protected by means of a large shield. Examples of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs, in East Asia many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures including, scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates were also used, the Chinese, during that time used partial plates for important body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, in pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros. Mail, sometimes called chainmail, made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC and its invention is credited to the Celts, the Romans were thought to have adopted their design. Gradually, small plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces, the coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat
14.
Surcoat
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A surcoat initially was an outer garment commonly worn in the Middle Ages by both men and women. It can either refer to a coat worn over other clothes or the outermost garment itself, the name derives from French meaning over the coat, a long, loose, often sleeveless coat reaching down to the feet. The surcoat displayed the device of the knight thus identifying him, indeed, some historians cite this as one of the reasons behind the spread of heraldry across medieval Europe. During the 13th century, knights began to add plates of armour to their surcoats, by the mid-fourteenth century it was replaced with the jupon, a much shorter item, often padded for supplementary protection. In the 15th century, once suits of plate armour became common, the period in the history of armour development, in which surcoats became increasingly rare, is referred to as the surcoatless period. Tabard Nunn, Joan, Fashion in costume, 1200-2000, New Amsterdam Books,2000, ISBN 1-56663-279-X
15.
Effigy
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An effigy is a representation of a specific person in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional medium. The use of the term is restricted to certain contexts in a somewhat arbitrary way, recumbent effigies on tombs are so called. Likenesses of religious figures in sculpture are not normally called effigies and it is common to burn an effigy of a person as an act of protest. The word first appeared in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French, from the Latin effigies and this spelling was originally used in English for singular senses, even a single image was the effigies of. In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century, the word occurs in Shakespeares As You Like It of 1600, where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation. The best known British example of a caricature effigy is the figure of the 1605 Gunpowder Plotter Guy Fawkes, found in charge of gunpowder to blow up the King in the House of Lords. On November 5, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night, his effigy, typically made of straw, in many parts of the world, there are traditions of large caricature effigies of political or other figures carried on floats in parades at festivals. Political effigies serve a similar purpose in political demonstrations and annual community rituals such as that held in Lewes. In Lewes, models of important or unpopular figures in current affairs are burned on Guy Fawkes Night, in Oriental Orthodox Christianity, populace used to burn an effigy of Judas, just before Easter. Now it is considered a custom and there are currently no attempts at revival. Caricature effigies, in Greek skiachtro, are still in use to prevent birds from eating mature fruit and they were shown lying on the coffin at the funeral, and then often displayed beside or over the tomb. The figures were dressed in the clothes of the deceased, only the face, from the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1680, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, nelsons effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Pauls Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Pauls. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed an attraction for admirers of Nelson. In the field of numismatics, effigy has been used to describe the image or portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict “the ruler’s effigy”. It can also be the case that the monarchs reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current, in the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed in effigy as a symbolic act
16.
Monumental brass
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The Earl of Moray had been assassinated, and his monumental brass carries the Moray arms and figures representing Religion and Justice. The fine memorials of the house of Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen and Freiberg are the most artistic. Among the 13th-century examples existing in German churches are the memorials of Yso von Welpe, Prince-Bishop of Verden. Many fine Flemish specimens exist in Belgium, especially at Bruges, the majority of extant memorial brasses are now found in England, where it is calculated that there may be about 4,000 still remaining in various churches. They are most abundant in the counties, and this fact has been frequently adduced in support of the opinion that they were of Flemish manufacture. Flemish brasses can be found in England, but they are not common, the Flemish examples have the figures engraved in the centre of a large plate, the background filled in with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription placed round the edge of the plate. The English examples have the cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in the slab. This is not a distinction, however, as figure-brasses of Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in England. Scarcely any of the brasses which now exist in England can be referred to the first half of the 13th century. The full-sized brass of Sir John dAubernon at Stoke dAbernon in Surrey has the decorations of the filled in with a species of enamel. A well-known 13th-century example is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington, about half a dozen examples of this stylistic feature are known. The 14th-century brasses are more numerous, and present a remarkable variety in their details. The finest specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell in the church of Acton Burnell, in the 15th century the design and execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, and his wife Margaret, an interesting monumental brass of John Rudying dated 1481 in the Church of St Andrew in Biggleswade shows the figure of Death about to strike Archdeacon Rudying with a spear. It is only in the 16th century that the engraved representations become portraits, previous to that period the features were invariably represented conventionally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were added. A large number of brasses in England are palimpsests, the back of an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent memorial. Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode at Hedgerley, on being removed from its position, was discovered to have been previously the memorial of Thomas Totyngton, abbot of St Edmundsbury. The abbey was surrendered to Henry VIII in 1539, so that before the year was out the work of spoliation had begun
17.
Giovanni Arnolfini
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The Arnolfini were a powerful family in Lucca, involved in the politics and trade of the small but wealthy city, which specialised in weaving expensive cloth. He became wealthy trading in silk and other fabrics, tapestries and other objects, although in later years he seems to have suffered business reverses. His fame arises because he is the most likely candidate, out of a number of male Arnolfinis, to have been the subject of two portraits by Jan van Eyck, the famous Flemish painter. These are, The Arnolfini Portrait of Giovanni and his wife, dated 1434 and now in London and he was presumably born in Lucca, where his parents lived, but neither the place nor the date are documented. Since there was no fixed age for this, it gives no clue as to his date of birth. In the next few years Giovanni di Nicolao worked with a very successful Italian merchant, Marco Guidiccioni, records of some of his dealings with the Ducal court have survived, but these were probably only part of his business activities. Other sales to the Court are recorded, although he may have been acting on behalf of Guidiccioni. In 1426 he married Costanza Trenta, who is at first sight not the wife in the portrait and she was also from Lucca, and her aunt Ginevra Cavalcanti was married to Lorenzo de Medici, brother of Cosimo de Medici. On the other hand, Margaret Koster has recently proposed that the portrait may be a memorial one, including an image of Costanza. In 1442 he signed an agreement whereby, for a moderate fee and he was permitted to practise the small burgesss crafts, but whether he ever did is unknown. In 1446 and 1452 he is documented as an arbitrator in disputes between other Lucchese merchants over property, these are his last appearances in the documentary record, the double portrait remained in Flanders, which suggests that Giovanni died there. There is no evidence of a further marriage, but one has been assumed by art historians. The appearance of the woman in the double portrait perhaps suggests she was Flemish, a slightly younger first cousin of Giovanni, called Giovanni de Arrigo Arnolfini, also came to live in Bruges and was even more successful than Giovanni de Nicolao. Jane or Jeanne Arnolfini is documented further until her death in Bruges in 1480
18.
Arnolfini Portrait
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The Arnolfini Portrait is a 1434 oil painting on oak panel by the Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck. It forms a double portrait, believed to depict the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife. According to Ernst Gombrich in its own way it was as new, a simple corner of the real world had suddenly been fixed on to a panel as if by magic. For the first time in history the artist became the perfect eye-witness in the truest sense of the term, the portrait has been considered by Erwin Panofsky and some other art historians as a unique form of marriage contract, recorded as a painting. The painting was bought by the National Gallery in London in 1842, van Eyck used the technique of applying layer after layer of thin translucent glazes to create a painting with an intensity of both tone and colour. The glowing colours also help to highlight the realism, and to show the material wealth, the medium of oil paint also permitted van Eyck to capture surface appearance and distinguish textures precisely. He also rendered the effects of direct and diffuse light by showing the light from the window on the left reflected by various surfaces. It has been suggested that he used a glass in order to paint the minute details such as the individual highlights on each of the amber beads hanging beside the mirror. It is indeed tempting to call this the first genre painting – a painting of everyday life – of modern times, the painting is generally in very good condition, though with small losses of original paint and damages, which have mostly been retouched. Infrared reflectograms of the show many small alterations, or pentimenti, in the underdrawing. The couple are shown in an room with a chest. The window has six interior wooden shutters, but only the top opening has glass, with clear bulls-eye pieces set in blue, red and green stained glass. The two figures are very richly dressed, despite the season both their outer garments, his tabard and her dress, are trimmed and fully lined with fur, the furs may be the especially expensive sable for him and ermine or miniver for her. He wears a hat of plaited straw dyed black, as worn in the summer at the time. His tabard was more purple than it now and may be intended to be silk velvet. Underneath he wears a doublet of patterned material, probably silk damask and her dress has elaborate dagging on the sleeves, and a long train. Her blue underdress is also trimmed with white fur, the interior of the room has other signs of wealth, the brass chandelier is large and elaborate by contemporary standards, and would have been very expensive. It would probably have had a mechanism with pulley and chains above, there is also no sign of a fireplace, nor anywhere obvious to put one
19.
National Gallery, London
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The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the century to 1900. The Gallery is a charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Culture, Media. Its collection belongs to the public of the United Kingdom and entry to the collection is free of charge. It is among the most visited art museums in the world, after the Musée du Louvre, the British Museum, unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein, after that initial purchase the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, notably Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which comprise two-thirds of the collection. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition, the present building, the third to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins from 1832 to 1838. Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, wilkinss building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space, the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, an extension to the west by Robert Venturi, the current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi. The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe, great Britain, however, did not emulate the continental model, and the British Royal Collection remains in the sovereigns possession today. In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature, the MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this invaluable treasure and suggested that it be housed in a noble gallery. The twenty-five paintings from that now in the Gallery, including NG1, have arrived by a variety of routes. This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school, Dulwich College, the collection opened in Britains first purpose-built public gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery, in 1814. The British Institution, founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs, the members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually, while an art school was held in the summer months. However, as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre, some resented the Institution. One of the Institutions founding members, Sir George Beaumont, Bt, in 1823 another major art collection came on the market, which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein. Angerstein was a Russian-born émigré banker based in London, his collection numbered 38 paintings, including works by Raphael, on 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis, a Whig politician, proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection. The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumonts offer, which came with two conditions, that the government buy Angersteins collection, and that a building was to be found
20.
Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
21.
Velvet
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Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel. By extension, the word velvety means smooth like velvet, Velvet can be made from either synthetic or natural fibers. Velvet is woven on a loom that weaves two thicknesses of the material at the same time. The two pieces are cut apart to create the pile effect, and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. This complicated process meant that velvet was expensive to make before industrial power looms became available, Velvet is difficult to clean because of its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods make cleaning more feasible. Velvet pile is created by warp or vertical yarns and velveteen pile is created by weft or fill yarns, Velvet can be made from several different kinds of fibers, traditionally, the most expensive of which is silk. Much of the velvet sold today as silk velvet is actually a mix of rayon, Velvet made entirely from silk is rare and usually has market prices of several hundred US dollars per yard. Cotton is also used to make velvet, though this results in a less luxurious fabric. Velvet can also be made from such as linen, mohair. A cloth made by the Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo from raffia is often referred to as Kuba velvet. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly from polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, a small percentage of spandex is sometimes added to give the final material a certain amount of stretch. Because of its softness and appearance as well as its high cost of production. Velvet was introduced to Baghdad during the rule of Harun al-Rashid by Kashmiri merchants, in the Mamluk era, Cairo was the worlds largest producer of velvet. Much of it was exported to Venice, Al-Andalus and the Mali Empire, musa I of Mali, the ruler of the Mali Empire, visited Cairo on his pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Arab velvet makers accompanied him back to Timbuktu, later Ibn Battuta mentions how Suleyman, the ruler of Mali, wore a locally produced complete crimson velvet caftan on Eid. During the reign of Mehmed II, assistant cooks wore blue-coloured dresses, conical hats, king Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed in velveto in 1399. Chiffon velvet, Very lightweight velvet on a silk or rayon chiffon base. Ciselé, Velvet where the pile uses cut and uncut loops to create a pattern, crushed, This type of velvet can be produced by pressing the fabric down in different directions
22.
Sable
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The sable is a marten species, a small carnivorous mammal inhabiting forest environments, primarily in Russia from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, northern Mongolia. Its habitat also leans the borders of eastern Kazakhstan, China, North and South Korea and its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia. It has historically been hunted for its highly valued dark brown or black fur, while hunting of wild animals is still common in Russia, most fur in the market is now commercially farmed. The name sable appears to be of Slavic origin and to have entered most Western European languages via the medieval fur trade. The English and Medieval Latin word sabellum comes from the Old French sable or saible, the term has become a generic description for some black-furred animal breeds, such as sable cats or rabbits, and for the colour black in heraldry. Males measure 38–56 centimetres in length, with a tail measuring 9–12 centimetres. Females have a length of 35–51 centimetres, with a tail length of 7. 2–11.5 centimetres. The winter pelage is longer and more luxurious than the summer coat, different subspecies display geographic variation in fur colour, fur color ranges from light to dark brown, with individual fur color being lighter ventrally and darker on the back and legs. Japanese sables in particular are marked with black on their legs, individuals also display a light patch of fur on their throat which may be gray, white, or a pale yellow. The fur is softer and silkier than that of American martens, sables greatly resemble pine martens in size and appearance, but have more elongated heads, longer ears and proportionately shorter tails. Their skulls are similar to those of martens, but are larger. Sables inhabit dense forests dominated by spruce, pine, larch, cedar and they defend home territories that may be anything from 4 to 30 square kilometres in size, depending on the local terrain and availability of food. However, when resources are scarce they may move considerable distances in search of food, sables live in burrows near riverbanks and in the thickest parts of woods. These burrows are made more secure by being dug among tree roots. They are good climbers of cliffs and trees and they are primarily crepuscular, hunting during the hours of twilight, but become more active in the day during the mating season. Their dens are well hidden, and lined by grass and shed fur, but may be temporary, especially during the winter, sables are omnivores, and their diet varies seasonally. In the summer, they eat large numbers of hares and other small mammals, in winter, when they are confined in their retreats by frost and snow, they feed on wild berries, rodents, hares, and even small musk deer. They also hunt ermine, small weasels and birds, sometimes, sables follow the tracks of wolves and bears and feed on the remains of their kills
23.
The Queen's College
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The Queens College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford, England. The college was founded in 1341 by Robert de Eglesfield in honour of Queen Philippa of Hainault, the college is distinguished by its predominantly neoclassical architecture, which includes buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor. In 2014, the college had an endowment of £206.1 million, the college was founded during the 14th century by Robert de Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa of Hainault, hence its name. The colleges coat of arms is that of the founder, it slightly from his familys coat of arms. The current coat of arms was adopted by dEglesfield because he was unable to use his familys arms, the frontage of the college was designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor, part of a substantial rebuilding in the 18th century during which the library was built. The medieval foundations, however, remain beneath the current 18th-century structure, in 2012, the college had net assets of £201.4 million. The college has had an association with the north of England, in part because of its founder. This connection was reinforced for many years until recently by the large number of Hastings Scholarships given to men from 20 schools in Yorkshire. Graduate students from the universities of Bradford, Hull, Leeds, Sheffield, the college is named for its first patroness, Queen Philippa of Hainault. Established in January 1341 under the name of the Hall of the Queens scholars of Oxford, an Act of 1585 sought to end this confusion by providing that it should be called by the one name the Queens College, in practice the definite article is usually omitted. The full name of the College, as indicated in its reports, is The Provost. Queens College in Cambridge positions its apostrophe differently and has no article, in April 2012, as part of the celebrations of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II, a series of commemorative stamps were released featuring A-Z pictures of famous British landmarks. The Queens Colleges front quad was used on the Q stamp, alongside other landmarks such as the Angel of the North on A, the college has one of the best-stocked college libraries in Oxford. The current lending library consists of around 50,000 volumes, the Upper Library has been a focal point for the College ever since its construction at the end of the 17th century. Unlike many other rooms in Oxford libraries, the Upper Library remains as a silent reading room for students open during staffed hours. The open cloister below the Upper Library was enclosed in the 19th century to form the Lower Library, the college has one of the largest and most diverse collections of rare books in Oxford. The chapel is noted for its Frobenius organ in the west gallery and it was installed in 1965, replacing a Rushworth and Dreaper organ from 1931. The earliest mention of an organ is 1826, the Chapel Choir has been described as Oxfords finest mixed-voice choir and continues to perform termly concerts, with recent examples including Handels Messiah and Bachs St. John Passion
24.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
25.
Scapular
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The scapular is a Christian garment suspended from the shoulders. There are two types of scapular, the monastic and devotional scapular, although both forms may simply be referred to as scapular, as an object of popular piety, it serves to remind the wearer of their commitment to live a Christian life. The monastic scapular appeared first, perhaps as early as the 7th century in the Order of Saint Benedict and it is a somewhat large length of cloth suspended both front and back from the shoulders of the wearer, often reaching to the knees. It may vary in shape, color, size and style, monastic scapulars originated as aprons worn by medieval monks, and were later extended to habits for members of religious organizations, orders or confraternities. Monastic scapulars now form part of the habit of monks and nuns in many Christian orders, the devotional scapular is a much smaller item and evolved from the monastic scapular. These may also be worn by individuals who are not members of a monastic order, the Anglican Communion considers them sacramentals. The devotional scapular typically consists of two pieces of cloth, wood or laminated paper, a few inches in size. These are joined by two bands of cloth and the places one square on the chest, rests the bands one on each shoulder. In many cases, both forms of the scapular come with a set of promises for the faithful who wear them, some of the promises are rooted in tradition, and others have been formally approved by religious leaders. For Roman Catholics, for instance, over the centuries several popes have approved specific indulgences for scapulars, the scapular may have emerged from an apron-like piece of cloth worn by monks. Item 55 of the Rule of Saint Benedict, dating to the 7th century refers to the use of the scapular, in the Western Church the key elements of a monks habit eventually became the tunic, the cincture, the scapular and the hood. A nuns costume included the tunic, the scapular and the head veil, today, the monastic scapular is part of the garb, the habit, of many Christian religious orders, of both monks and nuns. It is an outer garment about the width of the chest and it hangs down in the front and back almost to the feet, but is open on the sides. It is related to the worn in the Eastern tradition. Historically, the scapular was at times referred to as scutum, as it was laid over the head. A specific aspect of the use of the monastic scapular from its earliest days was obedience, the term yoke of Christ signified obedience and removing a scapular was like removing the yoke of Christ, i. e. rebelling against authority. For instance, the Carmelite constitution of 1281 prescribed that the Scapular should be worn to bed under penalty of serious fault, and the constitution of 1369 included automatic excommunication for a Carmelite saying mass without a scapular. In some cases the monastic scapular was used to distinguish the rank or level of the wearer within a religious order, in these cases, the great habit was simply distinguished from the little habit by the addition of a scapular decorated with the instruments of the Passion
26.
Thomas Hawley
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Thomas Hawley was a long-serving officer of arms at the College of Arms in London. He began his career of service as a groom porter to Queen Margaret of Scotland from her marriage in 1503 until 1508. Although he may have been made Rose Blanche Pursuivant in the reign of King Henry VII, King Henry VIII appointed Hawley to be Rouge Croix Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary by letters patent dated 26 August 1509. It was in this capacity that he journeyed with the Earl of Surrey on the campaign of 1513 against King James IV of Scotland, Hawley was captured and detained as a prisoner before the Battle of Flodden, but released before the fighting actually started. On 1 November 1514 he was created Carlisle Herald in recognition of his services in Scotland. The king also granted him an annuity of 20 marks, as Carlisle, Hawley also performed the ceremonial and other duties of an officer of arms. In 1530 he was appointed the deputy to Thomas Benolt, Clarenceux King of Arms, in this capacity, he undertook a heraldic visitation of London churches on Benolts behalf. He was charged to reforme all false armorye & Armes devysed without auctoritie and his record of the occasion is the earliest existing account of a heraldic visitation. After several more trips to Scotland, Hawley was made Norroy King of Arms by patent dated 15 June 1534. Hawley continued a dispute with Garter Principal King of Arms over the privileges of their offices. On 19 May 1536 Hawley was appointed Clarenceux King of Arms, visitation commissions were issued to Hawley in 1541,1552, and 1555, but it is not certain if these were acted on. Hawley died at his house in the Barbican, London on 22 August 1557 and he was buried two days later in an elaborate ceremony at St Giles Cripplegate. Paul, Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland,98,119,123,325,337,373, the Records and Collections of the College of Arms. Heralds and Heraldry in the Middle Ages, 9–10,98,102, 118–119, 139–143, 150–175. Heralds of England, a History of the Office and College of Arms, a Catalogue of Manuscripts in the College of Arms Collections. A History of the College of Arms,119,122,128,130,143, 151–153
27.
Clarenceux King of Arms
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Clarenceux King of Arms, historically often spelled Clarencieux, is an officer of arms at the College of Arms in London. Clarenceux is the senior of the two kings of arms and his jurisdiction is that part of England south of the River Trent. The office almost certainly existed in 1420, and there is a degree of probability that there was a Claroncell rex heraldus armorum in 1334. There are also some references to the southern part of England being termed Surroy. The title of Clarenceux is supposedly derived from either the Honour of the Clare earls of Gloucester, or from the Dukedom of Clarence. With minor variations, the arms of Clarenceux have, from the fifteenth century. The current Clarenceux King of Arms is Patric Dickinson LVO
28.
John Stow
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John Stow was an English historian and antiquarian, best known for his Survey of London. John Stow was born in about 1525 in the City parish of St Michael, Cornhill and his father, Thomas Stow, was a tallow chandler. In about 1560 he started upon his work, the Survey of London. An inventory was made of all the books at his home, especially those in defence of papistry, a second attempt to incriminate him was made in 1570 also without success. In about 1570 he moved to the parish of St Andrew Undershaft in the Ward of Lime Street and this was followed in 1565 by his Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles which was reprinted several times, with slight variations, during his lifetime. Grenvilles Library is believed to have had a first-edition of Stows Summarie, Stows 1567 edition makes mention in its frontispiece of a rival publication by Richard Grafton, a dispute which later magnified. Editions amended by Edmund Howes appeared in 1615 and 1631, in the Chronicle of England 1590 Stow writes, To The Honorable Sir John Hart, Lord Maior. At the request of Archbishop Parker he compiled a farre larger volume, a history of Britain, but circumstances were unfavourable to its publication and the manuscript was lost. Additions to the published works of Chaucer were twice made through Stows own painful labours in the edition of 1561, referred to above. A number of Stows manuscripts are in the Harley Collection in the British Library and he published a second revised edition in 1603. The edition of 1598 was reprinted, edited by William John Thoms, in 1842, in 1846, an edition based on that of 1598, edited by Henry Morley, was published in 1889, and has been reprinted on several occasions since. A critical edition, based on that of 1603 and edited in two volumes by C. L. Kingsford, was published in 1908, and republished with additional notes in 1927 and this remains the standard scholarly edition. A more popular single-volume edition was published in Everymans Library, with an introduction by H. B, wheatley, in 1912, and has been frequently reprinted. Whilst such royal approval was welcome it reaped dividend too slowly for Stow to enjoy any substantial benefit during his lifetime, Stow died on 5 April 1605, and was buried in the Church of St Andrew Undershaft on the corner of Leadenhall Street and St. Mary Axe. Stows widow commissioned a monument to him in the church, made of Derbyshire marble. The work has been attributed to Nicholas Johnson. It includes an effigy of Stow, which was coloured, he is represented seated at a desk, writing in a book. Above him is the motto, based on a phrase of Pliny the Younger, Aut scribenda agere, in acknowledgement of Stows continuing reputation as the founding father of London history, the quill held by his effigy has been periodically renewed
29.
Private Officer of Arms
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A private officer of arms is one of those heralds and pursuivants appointed by great noble houses to handle all heraldic and genealogical questions. Many noblemen in Britain retained heralds from about 1170 onwards and this includes the grand barons of the realm but also important knights such as Sir John Chandos. The heralds were originally concerned with war and tournaments and identifying people by their arms, as such, they naturally developed an interest in genealogy. Formerly, the Lord of the Isles had Ross Herald and Islay Pursuivant, on the forfeiture of the Lordship these became, and remain, Royal Officers. In 1725, Blanc Coursier Herald was created to serve Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, today, most officers of arms are employed by state heraldic authorities. There are, however, some officers that still exist. In Scotland, there are four private pursuivants of arms that are recognized by the Court of the Lord Lyon King of Arms and these are appointed by clan chiefs to look after matters of clan heraldry and genealogy. The Kingdom of Sicily did not have actual heralds in recent times and this commission concerned itself with administration of certain nobiliary institutions and recognition of titles of nobility. Muñoz Altea continues this tradition as a Private Officer of Arms of the Royal House, in addition to his office as King of Arms, Muñoz Altea is delegate of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George
30.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
31.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
32.
King of Arms
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King of Arms is the senior rank of an officer of arms. In many heraldic traditions, only a king of arms has the authority to grant armorial bearings and sometimes certify genealogies, in other traditions, the power has been delegated to other officers of similar rank. In England, the authority to grant a coat of arms is subject to the approval of the Earl Marshal in the form of a warrant. In jurisdictions such as the Republic of Ireland the authority to grant armorial bearings has been delegated to a herald that serves the same purpose as the traditional king of arms. Canada also has a chief herald, though this officer grants arms on the authority of the Governor General as the Queens representative through the Herald Chancellors direct remit, in the Kingdom of Spain, the power to certify coats of arms has been given to the Cronistas de Armas. The English and Scottish kings of arms are the officers of arms to have a distinctive crown of office. When this crown is shown in pictorial representations, only nine leaves, recently, a new crown has been made for the Lord Lyon, modelled on the Scottish Royal crown among the Honours of Scotland. This crown has removable arches which will be removed at coronations to avoid any hint of lèse majesté, the Norroy and Ulster King of Arms is the herald of the Order of St Patrick
33.
Herald
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A herald, or, more correctly, a herald of arms, is an officer of arms, ranking between pursuivant and king of arms. The title is applied more broadly to all officers of arms. Heralds were originally sent by monarchs or noblemen to convey messages or proclamations—in this sense being the predecessors of the modern diplomats. In the Hundred Years War, French heralds challenged King Henry V to fight, like other officers of arms, a herald would often wear a surcoat, called a tabard, decorated with the coat of arms of his master. It was possibly due to their role in managing the tournaments of the Late Middle Ages that heralds came to be associated with the regulation of the coats of arms. Heralds have been employed by kings and large landowners, principally as messengers and ambassadors, Heralds were required to organise, announce and referee the contestants at a tournament. This science of heraldry became increasingly important and further regulated over the years, thus the primary job of a herald today is to be an expert in coats of arms. In the United Kingdom heralds are still called upon at times to read proclamations publicly, there are active official heralds today in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Canada, and the Republic of South Africa. In England and Scotland most heralds are full-time employees of the sovereign and are called Heralds of Arms in Ordinary, temporary appointments can be made of Heralds of Arms Extraordinary. These are often appointed for a major state occasions, such as a coronation. In addition, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has created the position of Herald of Arms Emeritus, with which to honor long-serving or distinguished heraldists
34.
Satin
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Satin is a weave that typically has a glossy surface and a dull back. The satin weave is characterized by four or more fill or weft yarns floating over a warp yarn or vice versa, four warp yarns floating over a single weft yarn. Floats are missed interfacings, where the yarn lies on top of the weft in a warp-faced satin. These floats explain the even sheen, as unlike in other weaves, the light reflecting is not scattered as much by the fibres, satin is usually a warp-faced weaving technique in which warp yarns are floated over weft yarns, although there are also weft-faced satins. If the yarns used are short-staple yarns such as cotton, the fabric formed is considered a sateen, a satin fabric tends to have a high luster due to the high number of floats on the fabric. Because of this it is used in making bed sheets, many variations can be made of the basic satin weave including a granite weave and a check weave. Satin weaves, twill weaves, and plain weaves are the three types of weaving by which the majority of woven products are formed. Satin is commonly used in apparel, satin baseball jackets, athletic shorts, womens lingerie, nightgowns, blouses, and evening gowns and it is also used in the production of pointe shoes for use in ballet. Other uses include interior furnishing fabrics, upholstery, and bed sheets, originally, during the Middle Ages, satin was made of silk, consequently it was very expensive, used only by the upper classes. Satin became famous in Europe during the twelfth century, the name derives its origin from the Chinese port city of Quanzhou, whose name in Arabic was Zayton. During the latter part of the Middle Ages, it was a shipping port of silk. In a satin weave, the fill yarn passes over multiple warp yarns before interlacing under one warp yarn, common satin weaves are, 4-harness satin weave, also called crowfoot satin, in which the fill yarn passes over three warp yarns and under one warp yarn. It is more pliable than a plain weave, 5-harness satin weave, the fill yarn passes over four warp yarns and then under one yarn. 8-harness satin weave, in which the fill yarn passes over 7 warp yarns and then 1 warp yarn, is the most pliable satin weave, antique satin is a type of satin-back shantung, woven with slubbed or unevenly spun weft yarns. Baronet or baronette has a back and a rayon or silk front. Charmeuse is a lightweight, draping satin-weave fabric with a dull reverse, double face satin is woven with a glossy surface on both sides. It is possible for both sides to have a different pattern, albeit using the same colors, duchess satin is a particularly luxurious, heavy, stiff satin. Farmers satin or Venetian cloth is made from mercerised cotton, gattar is satin made with a silk warp and a cotton weft
35.
Pursuivant
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A pursuivant or, more correctly, pursuivant of arms, is a junior officer of arms. Most pursuivants are attached to official authorities, such as the College of Arms in London or the Court of the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh. In the mediaeval era, many great nobles employed their own officers of arms, today, there still exist some private pursuivants that are not employed by a government authority. In Scotland, for example, several pursuivants of arms have been appointed by Clan Chiefs and these pursuivants of arms look after matters of heraldic and genealogical importance for clan members. Some Masonic Grand Lodges have a known as the Grand Pursuivant. The office is also at the local Masonic lodge level in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, in that jurisdiction it is the Pursuivants duty to guard the door of the lodge, and announce and escort applicants for admission into the lodge. The office is unknown at the local level in Masonic jurisdictions outside Pennsylvania
36.
William Dugdale
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Sir William Dugdale was an English antiquary and herald. As a scholar he was influential in the development of history as an academic subject. Dugdale was born at Shustoke, near Coleshill in Warwickshire, where his father, as he was born, a swarm of bees flew into the garden, which some considered a happy presage on the life of the babe. He was educated at King Henry VIII School, Coventry, in 1623 he married Margaret Huntbach, with whom he had nineteen children. In 1625, the year after his fathers death, he purchased the manor of Blyth, during an enclosure dispute with a neighbour a few years later he met the Leicestershire antiquary William Burton, who acted as arbitrator. He became involved in transcribing documents and collecting church notes and met other Midlands antiquaries such as Sir Symon Archer and he began working with Archer on the history of Warwickshire and their research led them to the archives of public records in London. There he met Sir Christopher Hatton, Sir Henry Spelman, Sir Simonds dEwes, Hatton provided him with hospitality in Holborn and became his principal patron. The accommodation in the College of Arms and the income from his post enabled him to pursue his research in London, in June 1642 he was summoned with the other heralds to attend the king at York. When war broke out Charles deputed him to summon the castles of Banbury and he witnessed the battle of Edgehill, and later returned with a surveyor to make a survey of the battlefield. He arrived in Oxford with the king in November 1642 and he was admitted MA of the University and he worked as a bureaucrat in the royalist capital, especially after December 1643 when Hatton was appointed Comptroller of the Household. In 1644 the king appointed him Chester Herald of Arms in Ordinary, during his leisure at Oxford he collected material at the Bodleian Library and college libraries for his books. It was during these years that he met Elias Ashmole, who became his son-in-law. Following the surrender of Oxford in 1646 Dugdale returned to Blyth Hall, Hatton, who had opposed the surrender, went into exile in France, where Dugdale visited him in 1648. He recommenced his researches, collaborating with Roger Dodsworth on the Monasticon Anglicanum. In the following year he published his own Antiquities of Warwickshire, in this work he was one of the first to consider the significance of stone tools, stating these were weapons used by the Britons before the art of making arms of brass or iron was known. At the Restoration Dugdale obtained the office of Norroy King of Arms through the influence of the Earl of Clarendon, in the office of Norroy he undertook heraldic visitations of the counties north of the Trent. In 1677 he was knighted and promoted to the office of Garter Principal King of Arms, in his last years he wrote an account of his life at the request of Anthony Wood. He died in his chair at Blythe Hall in 1686 and he also edited Sir Henry Spelmans Glossarium Archaiologicum and Concilia, adding his own extensions to the latter
37.
Garter Principal King of Arms
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The Garter Principal King of Arms is the senior King of Arms, and the senior Officer of Arms of the College of Arms, the heraldic authority with jurisdiction over England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The position has existed since 1415, Garter is responsible to the Earl Marshal for the running of the College. He also serves as the King of Arms of the Order of the Garter and his seal, the current Garter Principal King of Arms is Thomas Woodcock. William Bruges, the first Garter King of Arms, held the office by 1417, the exact date of his appointment is not known and no record of it survives. This was accepted until Hugh Stanford London published evidence which appeared to date Bruges appointment two years earlier than Anstis suggested, although the testament makes no mention of anyone other than Richards wife, the voluntas makes mention of his children. Reference is made to his son William, variously called Gien, Gyen and Gartere, and Williams wife, called Agnes Garter. The other register entries around the date to 1418 and 1419, so E. F. Jacob. Instead, he suggests that Richard forgot to call his newly appointed son Garter at first and he argues that it is entirely possible that, if not a gloss, the voluntas was edited after 1415 as Richard Bruges included more bequests to his family. The Garter Principal King of Arms was placed by King Henry V over all the body of heralds. He has power to appoint a herald for his deputy, he must be a native of England, the official arms of the Garter Principal King of Arms were in use by circa 1520. They Argent a Cross Gules on a Chief Azure a crown enclosed in a Garter between a lion passant guardant and a fleur de lis all Or, the Order of the Garter The College of Arms Elias Ashmole, The history of the most noble Order of the Garter J
38.
Peter Lely
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Sir Peter Lely was a painter of Dutch origin, whose career was nearly all spent in England, where he became the dominant portrait painter to the court. Lely was born Pieter van der Faes to Dutch parents in Soest in Westphalia, Lely studied painting in Haarlem, where he may have been apprenticed to Pieter de Grebber. He became a master of the Guild of Saint Luke in Haarlem in 1637 and he is reputed to have adopted the surname Lely from a heraldic lily on the gable of the house where his father was born in The Hague. He arrived in London in around 1641, which was marked by the death of Anthony van Dyck in December and his early English paintings, mainly mythological or religious scenes, or portraits set in a pastoral landscape, show influences from Anthony van Dyck and the Dutch baroque. Lelys portraits were well received, and he succeeded Anthony van Dyck as the most fashionable portrait artist in England and he became a freeman of the Painter-Stainers Company in 1647 and was portrait artist to Charles I. His talent ensured that his career was not interrupted by Charless execution, and he served Oliver Cromwell, whom he painted warts and all, in the years around 1650 the poet Sir Richard Lovelace wrote two poems about Lely – Peinture and See what a clouded majesty. After the English Restoration in 1660, Lely was appointed as Charles IIs Principal Painter in Ordinary in 1661, with a stipend of £200 per year, Lely became a naturalised English subject in 1662. The young Robert Hooke came to London to follow an apprenticeship with Lely before being given a place at Westminster School by Richard Busby, demand was high, and Lely and his large workshop were prolific. After Lely painted a head, Lelys pupils would often complete the portrait in one of a series of numbered poses. As a result, Lely is the first English painter who has left a mass of work. On Lely’s death in 1680 his executors employed a dozen such slaves to complete for sale the many unfinished canvases stacked about his studio and his most famous non-portrait work is probably Nymphs by a fountain in Dulwich Picture Gallery. Lely played a significant role in introducing the mezzotint to Britain and he encouraged Dutch mezzotinters to come to Britain to copy his work, laying the foundations for the English mezzotint tradition. He died soon afterwards at his easel in Covent Garden, while painting a portrait of the Duchess of Somerset, and was buried at St Pauls Church, Covent Garden. Some items in it which had acquired by Lely from the Commonwealth dispersal of Charles Is art collections. He was replaced as court portraitist by Sir Godfrey Kneller, also a German-born Dutchman, whose style drew from Lelys, between them they established the basic English portrait style followed by less fashionable painters for decades. Amongst Lelys pupils were John Greenhill and Willem Wissing, a horse was also named after him, finishing fourth in the 1996 Grand National. Peter Lelys works Millar, Oliver Lely, Sir Peter Grove Dictionary of Art,19, pp. 119–125 Millar, Oliver Sir Peter Lely 1618-80, National Portrait Gallery,1978. Painting in Britain 1530 to 1790, fourth Edition, New York, Viking Penguin,1978
39.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
40.
Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II
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The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II was a multinational celebration throughout 2012, that marked the 60th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952. Queen Elizabeth is queen regnant of 16 sovereign states, known as Commonwealth realms, the only other time in British history that a monarch celebrated a Diamond Jubilee was in 1897, when Queen Victoria celebrated hers. Commemorative events were held throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, unlike the Queens Silver and Golden Jubilees, when the Queen toured most of her realms around the world, Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, toured only the United Kingdom. Other parts of the Commonwealth were toured by her children and grandchildren as her representatives, the Canadian government announced in April that former prime minister Jean Chrétien would be Canadas representative to the organisation. The Queen attended the final night, on 18 May, the Queen hosted an informal lunch at Windsor Castle for more than twenty current or former monarchs from other countries. In the evening of the day, the Prince of Wales. Criticism was directed at the presence of the King of Bahrain at the lunch, in London, protesters against the King assembled outside Buckingham Palace during the dinner, although he did not attend that event. Google displayed a Google Doodle for the Diamond Jubilee on 2 June, featuring the Queens profile, corgis, heavy rain started during the event and the commemorative airforce flyover at the end was cancelled due to very low cloud base and bad visibility at ground level. Along with almost all members of the Royal Family, various governors-general from the Commonwealth realms other than the UK were in attendance, Pauls Cathedral, also attended by 2,000 other guests. Will Todd’s anthem The Call of Wisdom, commissioned specially for this event, was performed by the Diamond Choir, another reception was held at Londons Guildhall and a luncheon took place at Lancaster House, hosted by the British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. A reception solely for governors-general was held by the Queen at Buckingham Palace, the lighting of thousands of beacons across the Commonwealth took place on 4 June. The number of beacons was originally set at 2,012, by the date for registrations. The first beacon of the Jubilee was lit on the grounds of Apifoou College in Nukuʻalofa, Tonga, by Tongan girl and Boy Scouts using coconut sheath torches. Other nations, including Kenya, Australia, New Zealand, India, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, the worlds most remote beacon was lit in Tristan da Cunha in the south Atlantic, using invasive, non-native plants to fuel the fire. In the United Kingdom, British servicemen and women wounded in battle, one beacon was lit at Treetops Hotel in Aberdare National Park in Kenya, where the Queen was at the moment of her accession to the throne. The Queen lit the beacon outside Buckingham Palace at 10,30 pm, by inserting a large, specially made, the lighting proceeded until the final beacon was lit in Canada eight hours later. The Queens husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, was hospitalised with an infection on 4 June. Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, stated after visiting his father that the latter was watching the celebrations on television, the Queen visited the Duke the following day
41.
Queen of Canada
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The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canadas federal structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive, legislature, and judiciary in the federal, the Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and, as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada. The current Canadian monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II, as such, Elizabeths son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent. Although the person of the sovereign is shared with 15 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each countrys monarchy is separate. However, the Queen is the member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. While some powers are only by the sovereign, most of the monarchs operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his or her representative. In each of Canadas provinces, the monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor, as the territories are not sovereign, they do not have a viceroy. As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent, Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world. The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony, hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor general on behalf of the Privy Council. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. This is because, in law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, in 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada, including in relation to succession, the latter was deemed by the Cabinet in 1947 to be part of Canadian law, as is the Bill of Rights 1689, according to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Department of External Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within Canadian law, certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts
42.
Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime
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Chief Herald of Canada
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Chief Herald of Canada is the title held by the head of the Canadian Heraldic Authority. The Chief Herald of Canada directs the operations of the Canadian Heraldic Authority, there are exceptions to this, such as certain grants made directly by the Governor General. The position is held by Claire Boudreau. 1988-2007 Robert Watt 2007-Present Claire Boudreau Heraldry Royal Heraldry Society of Canada Canadian Heraldic Authority
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Royal Arms of Canada
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It is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version. The maple leaves in the shield, blazoned proper, were originally drawn vert but were redrawn gules in 1957, the shield design forms the monarchs royal standard and is also found on the Canadian Red Ensign. The Flag of the Governor General of Canada, which used the shield over the Union Flag. The arms are embossed on the cover of any citizens Canadian passport, in order to legally signify, prior to Confederation in 1867, the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom served in Canada as the symbol of royal authority. Arms had not been granted to any of the colonies in British North America, apart from 17th-century grants to Nova Scotia, the year after Confederation, arms were granted by Royal Warrant on 6 May to Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. That is why it was in this form Canada was represented on the first Red Ensign carried by Canadian troops at Vimy Ridge in 1917 and this eventually resulted in a shield with nine quarterings, an arrangement that had never been approved by the monarch. Nine quarterings on a shield was considered too complex for a national symbol, the decision was settled by 1920, and the committee conferred with the College of Arms in London, only to face resistance to the use of the Royal Arms from the Garter King of Arms. The new layout closely reflected the arms of the United Kingdom with the addition of leaves in the base. The proclamation also established red and white as the colours of Canada. In 1931, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster, Canada and these are the coat of arms of the Queen of Canada. While unsuccessful in this first attempt, Hicks continued his campaign and was joined by a number of other amateur and these letters patent carried the shield from the royal arms along with the annulus behind the shield bearing the motto of the Order of Canada—Desiderantes meliorem patriam. As soon as royal approval was forthcoming, the achievement was redesigned for use by the federal government within the Federal Identity Program. The present design of the arms of Canada was drawn by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, the arms of Canada are the arms of the sovereign and signify national sovereignty and ownership. It is also present on all denominations of Canadian banknotes, as well as the 50¢ coin. Since 1962, a banner of the arms, defaced with a variant of the Queens cypher, has formed the standard for Canada. Since, six additional standards for use by members of the Canadian Royal Family have been created. The revised 1957 and 1994 Arms of Canada are both protected official government symbols used to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program. The full achievement of the coat of arms has been used by the Canadian government on occasion on a red flag
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Canadian Heraldic Authority
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The Canadian Heraldic Authority is part of the Canadian honours system under the Canadian monarch, whose authority is exercised by the Governor General of Canada. The authority is responsible for the creation and granting of new coats of arms, flags and this process was quite lengthy—and costly. In addition, the heralds of the College of Arms and the Court of the Lord Lyon could sometimes be unfamiliar with Canadian history, in time, many Canadians with an interest in heraldry began calling for an office which would offer armorial bearings designed by and for Canadians. As early as 1967, plans were reportedly in the works to transfer overview of heraldry from the College of Arms in the UK to Canada. The push for a wholly Canadian heraldic system came largely from the Heraldry Society of Canada almost from its inception, mr. Crombie had his department organise a meeting in Ottawa the following year, to which many national and international heraldic experts were invited. The meeting concluded with a recommendation to government that an Authority be created. These letters patent were presented by Prince Edward to the general on behalf of the Crown. Subsequently, the Governor General, Jeanne Sauvé, authorised the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority on June 4,1988, as a result, Canada became the first Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom to have its own heraldic authority. Canada also provides full equality to women in terms of inheriting and transmitting arms, additionally, all armigers within Canada may file for trademark protection of their grant of arms under the Trade-Marks Act. The authority is located at Rideau Hall, the residence of the monarch. The governor general, as the representative of the Canadian monarch, is the highest authority in Canadian heraldry. Below the governor general is the Herald Chancellor, a held by the secretary of the governor general. The CHA is currently organized in a called the Chancellery of Honours. The deputy secretary that administers the Chancellery of Honours is also the Deputy Herald Chancellor, the position of chief herald was inaugurated by Robert Watt at the inception of the CHA in 1988 and held by him until his retirement in 2007. Since June 26,2007, the office of chief herald has been held by Claire Boudreau, below the chief herald are the Heralds of Arms, full-time workers at the CHA and considered part of the Public Service of Canada. The names of the offices were taken from significant Canadian rivers. Though the titles are territorial designations, as per heraldic tradition, each is assigned a badge of office. The Heralds of Arms are, The authority also allows for two types of positions, Heralds Emeritus and Heralds Extraordinary
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Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
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Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
