1.
Quezon, Palawan
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Quezon, Palawan is a first class municipality in the province of Palawan, Philippines. According to the 2010 census, it has a population of 55,142 people and it is home to the Tabon Caves where the remains of the Tabon Man were discovered. The Municipality of Quezon was created in 1951 from the barrios of Berong and Alfonso XII from Aborlan and the barrios of Iraan, Candawaga and Canipaan from Brookes Point. In 1957, the sitios of Aramaywan, Isugod, Tabon, Sawangan, Calumpang, Campong-Ulay, Ransang, Cadawaga, Culasian, Panalingaan, Taburi, Latud, Quezon is politically subdivided into 14 barangays
2.
Palawan
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Palawan, officially the Province of Palawan, is an archipelagic province of the Philippines that is located in the Mimaropa region. It is the largest province in the country in terms of area of jurisdiction. Its capital is the City of Puerto Princesa, but it is governed independently from the province as an urbanized city. The islands of Palawan stretch between Mindoro in the northeast and Borneo in the southwest and it lies between the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea. The province is named after its largest island, Palawan Island, measuring 450 kilometres long, the province is composed of the long and narrow Palawan Island, plus a number of other smaller islands surrounding it, totalling roughly 1,780 islands and islets. The Calamianes Group of Islands to the northeast consists of Busuanga, Coron, Culion, Balabac Island is located off the southern tip, separated from Borneo by the Balabac Strait. In addition, Palawan covers the Cuyo Islands in the Sulu Sea, the disputed Spratly Islands, located a few hundred kilometres to the west, are considered part of Palawan by the Philippines, and is locally called the Kalayaan Group of Islands. Palawans almost 2,000 kilometres of coastline is lined with rocky coves. It also harbors a vast stretch of forests that carpet its chain of mountain ranges. The mountain heights average 3,500 feet in altitude, with the highest peak rising to 6,843 feet at Mount Mantalingahan, the vast mountain areas are the source of valuable timber. The terrain is a mix of coastal plain, craggy foothills, valley deltas, the province has a total land area of 14,649.73 square kilometres. When Puerto Princesa City is included for geographical purposes, its area is 17,030.75 square kilometres. The land area is distributed to its mainland municipalities, comprising 12,239 square kilometres, and the island municipalities, the province has two types of climate. The first, which occurs in the northern and southern extremities, the other, which prevails in the eastern coast, has a short dry season of one to three months and no pronounced rainy period during the rest of the year. The southern part of the province is virtually free from tropical depressions but northern Palawan experiences torrential rains during the months of July, summer months serve as peak season for Palawan. Sea voyages are most favorable from March to early June when the seas are calm, the average maximum temperature is 31 °C with little variation all year. Palawan comprises 433 barangays in 23 municipalities and the capital City of Puerto Princesa, as an archipelago, Palawan has 13 mainland municipalities and 10 island towns. The remaining island municipalities are, Busuanga, Coron, Linapacan and Culion, Cuyo, Agutaya and Magsaysay, Araceli, Cagayancillo, Balabac and Kalayaan
3.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
National Museum of the Philippines
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The institution also operates numerous branch museums throughout the country. The National Museum began as Insular Museum of Ethnology, Natural History and it was subsequently transferred to the Department of Interior as the Bureau of Ethnological Survey after the passage of the Philippine Commission Act No.841 in 1903. This new bureau was responsible for the Philippine participation in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904, after the exposition, it was abolished as a separate bureau and was renamed the Philippine Museum. The National Museum went through the division and distribution of its functions to other government agencies, the Philippine Legislature passed Act No. The latter was transformed into an independent unit under the Office of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Japanese Occupation brought back the divisions under the National Museum of the Philippines as provided by Philippine Republic Executive Order No. 94, but the museum lost a part of its collection during the Liberation of Manila when the Legislative Building was destroyed by American artillery. Fortunately, the Legislative Building was immediately restored through the American reparation funds bringing the back to its operations. The museum’s role in growth was recognized as contributing to government’s desire for national development. It was revitalized in 1966 when President Ferdinand Marcos signed Republic Act No.4846 or the Cultural Properties, with its new powers, it was able to strengthen its cultural mandate by declaring properties, structures, and sites of historical and cultural value to the nation. The educational mandate was strengthened because it was able to inform the public of the researches it conducted, the National Museum of Fine Arts, formerly called the National Art Gallery, is housed in the old Legislative Building. The building was intended as a public library as proposed in Daniel Burnhams 1905 Plan for Manila. Designed by Ralph Harrington Doane, the American consulting architect of the Bureau of Public Works, construction of the building began in 1918 and completed in 1921. The façade of the building had classical features using stylized Corinthian columns, ornamentation, on July 16,1926, the building was formally inaugurated. During the World War II, the building was heavily damaged, after the war, it was rebuilt albeit less ornate and less detailed. During the Martial Law era, the Legislative Building was closed down, today, the building holds the countrys National Art Gallery, natural sciences and other support divisions. It is located in the Agrifina Circle, Rizal Park, Manila next to the main National Museum building which is the National Museum for Fine Arts, the building was the former headquarters of the Department of Finance. The National Museum of Natural History will have a hexagonal DNA tower structure in its center which will be the base for the ventilating roof-dome of the whole building, living trees will also be planted within the interior of the building. It was expected to be finished in the last quarter of 2015, the building started on construction on 1974 and completed 9 months after
6.
Palawan (island)
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Palawan is the largest island of the province of Palawan in the Philippines and the fifth largest island of the country. The north west coast of the island is along the South China Sea, much of the island remains traditional and is considered by some as under-developed. Abundant wildlife, jungle mountains, and some sandy beaches attract many tourists. As of 2016, the island of Palawan is rated the Most Beautiful Island in the World as voted by respective readers of rival travel publications Conde Nast Traveller. It is the year running that Palawan has won the Conde Nast Traveller award. El Nido, located at the tip of the island, is also currently rated the Most Beautiful Beach in the World by Conde Nast Traveller readers. In 2007, National Geographic Traveler magazine rated Palawan the best island destination in East and Southeast Asia region, one of the most biodiverse islands in the Philippines. The island has had a Biosphere Reserve status since early 1990s, showing local interest for conservation, iwahig Prison and Penal Farm, one of seven operating units of the Bureau of Corrections, is located on the island. The entire length of the forms a mountain range, with a peak altitude of 2,086 metres at Mount Mantalingajan. Other significant peaks include Mount Gantung in Batazara and Victoria Peak in Narra, in April 2013, a fishing vessel loaded with illegally poached animals ran aground on a coral atoll off the coast of Palawan Island. In 2014, armed forces chief of staff General Emmanuel Bautista said that Oyster Bay may be developed into a base with United States Navy support. Washington DC Media related to Palawan at Wikimedia Commons Geographic data related to Palawan at OpenStreetMap
7.
Panitian, Palawan
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Panitian is a barangay in the municipality of Quezon of the province of Palawan, established through Republic Act No.2593 enacted on June 21,1959. The enactment of R. A.2593 made Panitian the largest barangay of Quezon, Palawan with the inclusion of other sitios under its jurisdiction such as Odiong, Malatgao, Tagpisa, Candis and Napwaran. Due to its enormous size, Panitian allowed Sitio Malatgao to separate, Panitian is bordered on the west by Bgy. Malatgao, on the east by the proper of Quezon, on the south by the municipality of Sofronio Española. Located on Panitians northeasternmost point is the Tabon Cave complex, which is known as the Cradle of Philippine Civilization,1160, agricultural land distribution and resettlement was carried out by encouraging migration of settlers to open new lands for farming. In Southern Palawan, there was a total of 27 public land subdivisions consisting 20,855 lots of eight hectares per lot that was available for new settlers. These homestead lands now comprised the municipality of Narra, Palawan, some barangays of Aborlan, the jungle was a habitat of Palawan fruit bats, also known as megabats or paniki, from which the new inhabitants derived its name. It was first called Panikian, or land of megabats or paniki, the Zambals were given homestead land south of the Municipality of Quezon to be developed for agriculture or into rice farmlands. Initially, the Zambals occupied the lands in Sitios Sarangsang, Tapsan, Nali. The Zambals later on came in contact with the friendly Palawans in Sitio Gugnan in 1960s headed by its chieftain by the name of Ablo. Some of the Zambals purchased lands from the Palawans who had claims on some of the arable properties in Gugnan. Others however directly filed land ownership application at the Bureau of Lands District Office in Puerto Princesa City, with the news of land ownership reaching home in Zambales, new waves of Zambal migrants followed. Many Ilonggo-speaking migrants joined the Zambals in Panitian starting in the 1970s through Sitio Odiong, the Ilonggo migrants were usually fisherfolk coming from other parts of Quezon, Palawan. Many Ilonggos also migrated through Malatgao who then were able to acquire properties in outlying sitios of Panitian and he was ably assisted by Councilor David E. Rombaua who handled most of the daily affairs of Panitian, on behalf of the barangay captain whose residence was in Sitio Sarangsang. This growth is attributed primarily to four important factors, first, the optimism and pride of settlers on their land ownership and the bayanihan system, or a sense of community that exists among the local population. Lastly, the presence of the Philippine Marines starting around 1976 contributed significantly to the economy as their salaries ensure a trickle effect on the local commerce. The barrio proper was a center of economic activities for the local population. At its peak, there were at least six ricemills operating simultaneously in Panitian, Panitian continued to be a vibrant community until the mid-1980s
8.
South China Sea
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The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres. The areas importance largely results from one-third of the worlds shipping sailing through its waters, the sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are reflected in the variety of names used for the islands. South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and this name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as South China Sea. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period also referred to the sea, Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinas rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai. Fei Hai became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai, became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty. In Southeast Asia it was called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai South China Sea and this was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. In China, it is called the South Sea, 南海 Nánhǎi, in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea, with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the Luzon Sea, Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No, states and territories with borders on the sea include, the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows, On the South. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao on to the South point of Haitan Tao, the Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf, during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, the South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the Dangerous Ground rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today, extension ceased around 17 million years ago
9.
Tabon Man
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Tabon Man refers to remains discovered in the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point in Quezon, Palawan in the Philippines. These were discovered by Dr. Robert B, Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum of the Philippines on May 28,1962. The Tabon fragments are collectively called Tabon Man after Tabon Cave, Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000,20,000, the right mandible of a Homo sapien, which dates 29,000 BC, was discovered together with a skull-cap. The Tabon Skull Cap is considered the earliest skull cap of modern man found in the Philippines, the Tabon Mandible is the earliest evidence of human remains showing archaic characteristics of mandible and teeth. The Tabon Tibia Fragment, a bone from the leg, was found during the re-excavation of the Tabon Cave by the National Museum of the Philippines. The bone was sent to the National Museum of Natural History in France to be studied, accelerated carbon dating technique revealed a dating of 47,000 +/- 11-10,000 years ago, making it the oldest human fossil recovered in the complex. About half of the 3,000 recovered specimens examined were discarded cores of a material which had to be transported some distance. This indicates that the inhabitants were engaged in tool manufacture. The Tabon Man fossils are considered to have come from a group of inhabitants. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago. Anthropologist Robert Fox, who directed the excavations, deduced that the Tabon Cave was a habitation of man for a period of 40,000 years, from 50,000 to 9,000 years ago. Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap are agreed that it belonged to modern man, Homo sapiens and this indicates that Tabon Man was pre-Mongoloid. Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is Australian in physical type, nothing can be concluded about Tabon Mans physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. The Tabon Cave Complex is a series of caves situated in a promontory at Lipuun Point in Southwestern Palawan. It spans 138-hectares and it used to be an island but now, there are roughly 218 caves,38 of which are rich with archaeological and anthropological finds. Lipuun Point is made up of 25 million year old limestone and is composed of large domes, deep cliffs. In this area, cave occupation of a sporadic or temporary nature by humans seems to be indicated into the early Holocene
10.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
11.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
12.
Manunggul Jar
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The Manunggul Jar is a secondary burial jar excavated from a Neolithic burial site in Manunggul cave of Tabon Caves at Lipuun Point at Palawan dating from 890–710 B. C. The two prominent figures at the top handle of its cover represent the journey of the soul to the afterlife, the Manunggul Jar is widely acknowledged to be one of the finest Philippine pre-colonial artworks ever produced and is a considered a masterpiece. It is denoted a national treasure and it is designated as item 64-MO-74 by the National Museum of the Philippines and it is now housed at the National Museum of Anthropology and is one of the most popular exhibits there. It is made from clay with some sand soil, the Manunggul Jar was found by Dr. Robert B. Fox and Miguel Antonio in 1962 and it was found alongside the discovery of the remains of Tabon Man. It was recovered by Dr. Fox in Chamber A of Manunggul Cave in Southwestern Palawan, Manunggul Cave is one of the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point. In the expansion, the Tabon Caves is known to be a site of jar burials with artefacts dating a range from 4250-2000 BP, Chamber A dates as a Late Neolithic burial site. Seventy-eight jars and earthenwares, including the Manunggul Jar, was discovered on the subsurface and surface of Chamber A, each artifact varied in design and form but was evidently types of funerary pottery. As mentioned earlier, the first ever excavation that gave way to the discovery of this burial jar is on the year 1964 by Dr. Robert Fox, during that time, he and his team were excavating the Tabon Cave Complex, specifically in the Lipuun Point. In Fox’s excavation, it is yet the most unusual in all angles, the inside of the jar contains human bones which are covered in red paint. Like the Egyptian burial practice, the jar was found to be equipped with numerous bracelets. “. is perhaps unrivaled in Southeast Asia, the work of an artist, the Manunggul Jar shows that the Filipinos maritime culture is paramount that it reflected its ancestors religious beliefs. Many epics around the Philippines would tell how souls go to the life, aboard boats, pass through the rivers. This belief is connected with the Austronesian belief of the anito, the fine lines and intricate designs of the Manunggul Jar reflect the artistry of early Filipinos. These designs are proof of the Filipinos common heritage from the Austronesian-speaking ancestors despite the diversity of the cultures of the Filipinos, the upper part of the Manunggul jar, as well as the cover, is carved with curvilinear scroll designs which are painted with hematite. The depiction of sea-waves on the lid places this Manunggul jar in the Sa Huỳnh culture pottery tradition and these are people that migrated in an East to West migration from the Borneo-Palawan area to Southern Vietnam. Early Filipinos believed that a man is composed of a body, a force called ginhawa. This explains why the design of the cover of the Manunggul Jar features three faces - the soul, the boatman, and the boat itself
13.
Manjushri
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Mañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with prajñā in Mahayana Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, he is also a yidam and his name means Gentle Glory in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the name of Mañjuśrīkumārabhūta, literally Mañjuśrī, Still a Youth or, less literally. Scholars have identified Mañjuśrī as the oldest and most significant bodhisattva in Mahāyāna literature, Mañjuśrī is first referred to in early Mahayana sutras such as the Prajnaparamita sutras and through this association very early in the tradition he came to symbolize the embodiment of prajñā. The Lotus Sutra assigns him a land called Vimala, which according to the Avatamsaka Sutra is located in the East. His pure land is predicted to be one of the two best pure lands in all of existence in all the past, present and future, when he attains buddhahood his name will be Universal Sight. In the Lotus Sūtra, Mañjuśrī also leads the Nagarajas daughter to enlightenment, an example of a wisdom teaching of Mañjuśrī can be found in the Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra. This sūtra contains a dialogue between Mañjuśrī and the Buddha on the One Samadhi, constantly thus practicing, day or night, whether sitting, walking, standing or lying down, finally one reaches an inconceivable state without any obstruction or form. This is the Samadhi of One Act, within Vajrayana Buddhism, Mañjuśrī is a meditational deity, and considered a fully enlightened Buddha. In Shingon Buddhism, he is one of the Thirteen Buddhas to whom disciples devote themselves and he figures extensively in many esoteric texts such as the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa and the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti. His consort in some traditions is Saraswati, Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand, representing the realization of transcendent wisdom which cuts down ignorance and duality. The scripture supported by the padma held in his hand is a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra. Mañjuśrī is often depicted as riding on a lion, or sitting on the skin of a lion. This represents the use of wisdom to tame the mind, which is compared to riding or subduing a ferocious lion, in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art, Mañjuśrīs sword is sometimes replaced with a ruyi scepter, especially in representations of his Vimalakirti Sutra discussion with the layman Vimalakirti. According to Berthold Laufer, the first Chinese representation of a ruyi was in an 8th-century Mañjuśrī painting by Wu Daozi, in subsequent Chinese and Japanese paintings of Buddhas, a ruyi was occasionally represented as a padma with a long stem curved like a ruyi. He is one of the Four Great Bodhisattvas of Chinese Buddhism, in China, he is often paired with Samantabhadra. In Tibetan Buddhism, Mañjuśrī is sometimes depicted in a trinity with Avalokiteśvara and this syllabary was most widely used for the Gāndhārī language with the Kharoṣṭhī script, but also appears in some Sanskrit texts. In some of these texts, the Arapacana syllabary serves as a mnemonic for important Mahāyāna concepts, due to its association with him, Arapacana may even serve as an alternate name for Mañjuśrī
14.
Sphinx
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A sphinx is a mythical creature with the head of a human and the body of a lion. In Greek tradition, it has the head of a human, the haunches of a lion and it is mythicised as treacherous and merciless. Those who cannot answer its riddle suffer a fate typical in such stories, as they are killed. This deadly version of a sphinx appears in the myth and drama of Oedipus, unlike the Greek sphinx, which was a woman, the Egyptian sphinx is typically shown as a man. In European decorative art, the sphinx enjoyed a revival during the Renaissance. Sphinxes are generally associated with structures such as royal tombs or religious temples. The oldest known sphinx was found near Gobekli Tepe at another site, Nevali Çori, or possibly 120 miles to the east at Kortik Tepe, Turkey, and was dated to 9,500 BCE. The largest and most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, situated on the Giza Plateau adjacent to the Great Pyramids of Giza on the west bank of the Nile River, the sphinx is located southeast of the pyramids. Although the date of its construction is uncertain, the head of the Great Sphinx now is believed to be that of the pharaoh Khafra, what names their builders gave to these statues is not known. At the Great Sphinx site, a 1400 BCE inscription on a stele belonging to the 18th dynasty pharaoh Thutmose IV lists the names of three aspects of the sun deity of that period, Khepera–Rê–Atum. The theme was expanded to form great avenues of guardian sphinxes lining the approaches to tombs, nine hundred with ram heads, representing Amon, were built in Thebes, where his cult was strongest. Perhaps the first sphinx in Egypt was one depicting Queen Hetepheres II and she was one of the longest-lived members of the royal family of that dynasty. The Great Sphinx has become an emblem of Egypt, frequently appearing on its stamps, coins, from the Bronze Age, the Hellenes had trade and cultural contacts with Egypt. Before the time that Alexander the Great occupied Egypt, the Greek name, the historians and geographers of Greece wrote extensively about Egyptian culture. Herodotus called the ram-headed sphinxes Criosphinxes and called the hawk-headed ones Hieracosphinxes, the word sphinx comes from the Greek Σφίγξ, apparently from the verb σφίγγω, meaning to squeeze, to tighten up. This name may be derived from the fact that the hunters for a pride of lions are the lionesses, There was a single sphinx in Greek mythology, a unique demon of destruction and bad luck. According to Hesiod, she was a daughter of Orthrus and either Echidna or the Chimera, or perhaps even Ceto, according to others, she was a daughter of Echidna and Typhon. All of these are figures from the earliest of Greek myths
15.
Shailendra dynasty
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The Shailendra dynasty was the name of a notable Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java whose reign marked a cultural renaissance in the region. The dynasty appeared to be the family of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java for some period and Srivijaya in Sumatra. The inscriptions created by Shailendras uses three languages, Old Malay, Old Javanese and Sanskrit, written either in the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script, the use of Sanskrit usually signifies the official nature and religious significance of the event written on the inscription. The Sojomerto inscription discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java, mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra, the name Selendra was another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java. The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist before converting to Mahayana Buddhism, the name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription and the Karangtengah inscription. Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be found in the Ligor inscription on the Malay peninsula and it is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya, or Ligor inscription, and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland in Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native origin of the dynasty, despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin. According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipleago originated from Kalinga in Eastern India and this opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijayas Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, in 683, the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops. In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with the Funan kingdom in Cambodia, Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding mountainlord titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no evidence for such titles in the Funan period. Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java, supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage, the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact some of Shailendras inscriptions were written in old Malay. The name Selendra was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription as Dapunta Selendra, Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban or Panangkaran to Buddhism, unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription is now missing. The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances with Srivijaya in Sumatra, for instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival, Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga
16.
Last glacial period
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The last glacial period, popularly known as the Ice Age, was the most recent glacial period, which occurred from c. 110,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. This most recent glacial period is part of a pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation. From this point of view, scientists consider this ice age to be merely the latest glaciation event in a larger ice age. During this last glacial period, there were changes between glacier advance and retreat. The Last Glacial Maximum, the extent of glaciation within the last glacial period, was approximately 22,000 years ago. Approximately 13,000 years ago, the Late Glacial Maximum began, around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch, which includes the Holocene glacial retreat. From the point of view of archaeology, it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia, near the end of the event, Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia. The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of Asians to migrate to the Americas, glacials, on the other hand, refer to colder phases within an ice age that separate interglacials. Thus, the end of the last glacial period is not the end of the last ice age, the end of the last glacial period was about 11,700 years ago, while the end of the last ice age has not yet come. Over the past few years the glacial-interglacial cycle has been paced by periodic variations in the Earths orbit via Milankovitch cycles which are thus the cause of ice ages. The glaciations that occurred during this period covered many areas, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. The geochronological Late Pleistocene comprises the late glacial and the immediately preceding penultimate interglacial preiond, the last glaciation centered on the huge ice sheets of North America and Eurasia. Considerable areas in the Alps, the Himalaya and the Andes were ice-covered, Canada was nearly completely covered by ice, as well as the northern part of the United States, both blanketed by the huge Laurentide ice sheet. Alaska remained mostly ice free due to climate conditions. Local glaciations existed in the Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleran ice sheet and as ice fields, the maximum extent of western Siberian glaciation was reached by approximately 16, 000–15,000 BCE and thus later than in Europe. Northeastern Siberia was not covered by an ice sheet. Instead, large, but restricted, icefield complexes covered mountain ranges within northeast Siberia, according to the sediment composition retrieved from deep-sea cores there must even have been times of seasonally open waters
17.
Journey to the West
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Journey to the West is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Chengen. It is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, in English-speaking countries, the work is widely known as Monkey, the title of Arthur Waleys popular abridged translation. These disciples are Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie and Sha Wujing, together with a prince who acts as Xuanzangs steed. Journey to the West was thought to have written and published anonymously by Wu Chengen in the 16th century. Recent scholarship casts doubts on this attribution, brown University Chinese literature scholar David Lattimore states, The Ambassadors confidence was quite unjustified. What the gazetteer says is that Wu wrote something called The Journey to the West and it mentions nothing about a novel. The work in question could have any version of our story. Jenner points out that although Wu had knowledge of Chinese bureaucracy and politics, Yu states that the identity of the author, as with so many other major works of Chinese fiction, remains unclear but that Wu remains the most likely author. Yu bases his skepticism on the studies made by Glen Dudbridge. The question of authorship is complicated by the preexistence of much of the novels material in the form of folk tales. Regardless of the origins and authorship, Journey to the West has become the version of these folk stories. The novel Journey to the West was based on historical events, Xuanzang was a monk at Jingtu Temple in late-Sui dynasty and early-Tang dynasty Changan. Motivated by the quality of Chinese translations of Buddhist scripture at the time, Xuanzang left Changan in 629. Helped by sympathetic Buddhists, he traveled via Gansu and Qinghai to Kumul and he then crossed what are today Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan, into Gandhara, reaching India in 630. Xuanzang left India in 643 and arrived back in Changan in 646, although he had defied the imperial travel ban when he left, Xuanzang received a warm welcome from Emperor Taizong upon his return. The emperor provided money and support for Xuanzangs projects and he joined Da Cien Monastery, where he led the building of the Big Wild Goose Pagoda to store the scriptures and icons he had brought back from India. He recorded his journey in the book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, with the support of the emperor, he established an institute at Yuhua Gong monastery dedicated to translating the scriptures he had brought back. His translation and commentary work established him as the founder of the Dharma character school of Buddhism, Xuanzang died on March 7,664
18.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
19.
Chams
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The Chams, or Cham people, are an ethnic group of Austronesian origin in Southeast Asia. Their contemporary population, a diaspora is concentrated between the Kampong Cham Province in Cambodia and Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, Phan Thiết, Ho Chi Minh City, an additional 4,000 Chams live in Bangkok, Thailand, who had migrated during Rama Is reign. Recent immigrants are mainly students and workers, who preferably seek work and education in the southern Islamic Pattani, Narathiwat, Yala, Cham people represent the core of the Muslim communities in both Cambodia and Vietnam. From the 2nd to the century the Chams populated Champa. They spoke the Cham language, a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family, Chams and Malays are the only sizable Austronesian peoples, that had settled in Iron Age Mainland Southeast Asia among the more ancient Austroasiatic inhabitants. Austronesian origin, patterns and chronology of migration remain debated and it is assumed, earliest known records of Cham presence in Indochina date back to the second century CE. Maritime trade was the essence of an economy as population centers around the river outlets along the coast controlled the import/export of continental Southeast Asia. Acquisition of territory has not been the subject of concern, the size of Champa was during its heyday in the 9th and 10th century not substantially larger than during the formative period. Cham folklore includes a tradition of a myth in which the founder of the first Cham polity was a certain Lady Po Nagar. She eventually returned to Champa did many good deeds in helping the sick and the poor, from the 8th century onward trade and shipping of India came to be increasingly controlled by Muslims from such regions as Gujarat. Islamic ideas became a part of the vast tide of exchange, Cham people picked up these ideas by the 11th century. This can be seen in the architecture of Cham temples, which shares similarities with the one of the Angkor Temples, ad-Dimashqi writes in 1325, the country of Champa. is inhabited by Muslims and idolaters. The Muslim religion came there during the time of Caliph Uthman. and Ali, many Muslims who were expelled by the Umayyads and by Hajjaj, fled there. The Daoyi Zhilüe records that at Cham ports, Cham women were married by Chinese merchants to whom they came back to after trading voyages. A Chinese merchant from Quanzhou, Wang Yuanmao, traded extensively with Champa, in the 12th century, the Cham fought a series of wars with the Khmer Empire to the west. In 1177, the Cham and their allies launched an attack from the lake Tonlé Sap, in 1181, however, they were defeated by the Khmer King Jayavarman VII. Between the rise of the Khmer Empire around 800 and the Vietnamese peoples territorial push south from Jiaozhi and, later, Đại Việt, Champa began to shrink. A number of Cham also fled across the sea to Malay Peninsula and as early as the 15th century, the Chams encountered Sunni Islam there as the Malacca Sultanate was officially Muslim since 1414
20.
Spratly Islands dispute
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The dispute is characterised by diplomatic stalemate and the employment of military pressure techniques in the advancement of national territorial claims. All except Brunei occupy some of the maritime features, the Spratly Islands are important for economic and strategic reasons. In 2014, China drew increased attention due to its dredging activities within the Spratlys. In 2015 satellite imagery revealed that China was rapidly constructing an airfield on Fiery Cross Reef within the Spratlys whilst continuing its land reclamation activities at other sites, only China, Taiwan, and Vietnam have made claims based on historical sovereignty of the islands. The Philippines, however, claims part of the area as its territory under UNCLOS, there are multiple reasons why the neighbouring nations in particular, and the rest of the world in general, would be interested in the Spratly Islands. In 1968, oil was discovered in the region, the United States Energy Information Administration contests this, estimating almost no oil and less than 100 billion cubic feet of natural gas exists in fields near the Spratly Islands. Still, these large potential reserves have assisted in intensifying the territorial claims of the neighbouring countries, in 1973, Vietnamese troops were stationed on five islands. On 11 March 1976, the first major Philippine oil discovery occurred off the coast of Palawan, in 2010, these oil fields supplied 15% of all petroleum consumed in the Philippines. In 1992, the PRC and Vietnam granted oil exploration contracts to US oil companies that covered overlapping areas in the Spratlys and this led to a confrontation between China and Vietnam, with each demanding that the other cancel its contract. The region is one of the worlds most productive areas for commercial fishing, in 2010, the Western Central Pacific accounted for 14% of the total world catch at 11.7 million tonnes. This was up from less than 4 million tonnes in 1970, the PRC has predicted that the South China Sea holds combined fishing and oil and gas resources worth one trillion dollars. In 1984, Brunei established a fishing zone encompassing Louisa Reef in the southeastern Spratly Islands. The region is one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world, during the 1980s, at least 270 ships passed through the Spratly Islands region each day. More than half of the worlds supertanker traffic, by tonnage, a total of 48 nations made full claims, and dozens more made preliminary submissions. Brunei made a preliminary submission notifying of its intention to claim a continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles from its shores, China immediately issued protests over the two submissions and called on the United Nations not to consider them. It also issued a warning to countries not to claim the islands which it said were its sovereign territory. On 22 January 2013, the Philippines instituted arbitral proceedings against the Peoples Republic of China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration, on 19 February 2013, China rejected and returned the Philippines Notification. The Permanent Court of Arbitration acts as Registry in this arbitration, Philippine Justice Antonio T. Carpio states that the case is solely a maritime dispute, and not territorial in nature
21.
Hinduism in the Philippines
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At present, however, it is limited primarily to the immigrant Indian community, though traditional religious beliefs in most parts of the country have strong Hindu and Buddhist influences. The archipelagoes of Southeast Asia were under the influence of Hindu Tamil, Gujarati, Indian religions, possibly an amalgamated version of Hindu-Buddhist arrived in Philippines archipelago in the 1st millennium, through the Indonesian kingdom of Srivijaya followed by Majapahit. The statue now sits in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, a study of this image was made by Dr. F. D. K. It probably had some connection with the Javanese miners who are known to have been mining gold in the Agusan-Surigao area in the middle or late 14th century, the image is apparently that of a Sivaite goddess, and fits in well with the name Butuan. The Rajahnate of Butuan, in present-day Agusan del Norte and Butuan City, a Hindu Tamil King of the Rajahnate of Cebu was also recorded. Another gold artifact, from the Tabon Caves in the island of Palawan, is an image of Garuda, the discovery of sophisticated Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in Tabon Caves has been linked to those found from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam. These archaeological evidence suggests a trade of many specialized goods. Golden jewelry found so far include rings, some surmounted by images of Nandi - the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets, gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities. In 1989, a laborer working in a mine at the mouth of Lumbang River near Laguna de Bay found a copper plate in Barangay Wawa. This discovery, is now known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription by scholars and it is the earliest known written document found in the Philippines, dated to be from the 9th century AD, and was deciphered in 1992 by Dutch anthropologist Antoon Postma. Hinduism in the country declined when Islam was introduced by traders from Arabia which was followed by Christianity from Spain. This is an area of research as little is known about the scale and depth of Philippine history from the 1st millennium. There is some growth in the religion as of late, although most temples cater to the same communities, actual adherents of Hinduism are mostly limited to communities that include indigenous and native peoples, expatriate communities, as well as new converts. There are various Hare Krishna groups and popular Hindu personalities and groups such as Sai Baba, Hindu based practises like Yoga and meditation are also popular. Many fables and stories in Filipino Culture are linked to Indian arts, such as the story of monkey and the turtle, similarly, the major epics and folk literature of Philippines show common themes, plots, climax and ideas expressed in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. According to Indologists Juan R. Francisco and Josephine Acosta Pasricha, Hindu influences, the Maranao version is the Maharadia Lawana. Lam-Ang is the version of the Ilocanos and Sarimanok is the bird of the Maranao culture. In addition, many verses from the Hud-Hud of the Ifugao are derived from the Indian Hindu epics Ramayana, with the advent of Spanish colonialism in the 16th century, the Philippines became a closed colony and cultural contacts with other Southeast Asian countries were limited, if not closed
22.
Garuda
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The Garuda is a large legendary bird, bird-like creature, or humanoid bird that appears in both Hindu and Buddhist mythology. Garuda is the mount of the Lord Vishnu, Garuda is the Hindu name for the constellation Aquila. The brahminy kite and phoenix are considered to be the contemporary representations of Garuda, Indonesia adopts a more stylistic approach to the Garudas depiction as its national symbol, where it depicts a Javanese eagle. In Hinduism, Garuda is a Hindu divinity, usually the mount of the Lord Vishnu, Garuda is depicted as having the golden body of a strong man with a white face, red wings, and an eagles beak and with a crown on his head. This ancient deity was said to be massive, large enough to block out the sun, Garuda is known as the eternal sworn enemy of the Nāga serpent race and known for feeding exclusively on snakes, such behavior may have referred to the actual short-toed eagle of India. The image of Garuda is often used as the charm or amulet to protect the bearer from attack and its poison, since the king of birds is an implacable enemy. Garudi Vidya is the mantra against snake poison to remove all kinds of evil and his stature in Hindu religion can be gauged by the fact that a dependent Upanishad, the Garudopanishad, and a Purana, the Garuda Purana, is devoted to him. Various names have been attributed to Garuda - Chirada, Gaganeshvara, Kamayusha, Kashyapi, Khageshvara, Nagantaka, Sitanana, Sudhahara, Suparna, Tarkshya, Vainateya, Vishnuratha and others. The Vedas provide the earliest reference of Garuda, though by the name of Śyena, the Puranas, which came into existence much later, mention Garuda as doing the same thing, which indicates that Śyena and Garuda are the same. One of the faces of Śrī Pañcamukha Hanuman is Mahavira Garuda and this face points towards the west. Worship of Garuda is believed to remove the effects of poisons from ones body, in Tamil Vaishnavism Garuda and Hanuman are known as Periya Thiruvadi and Siriya Thiruvadi respectively. Garuda wears the serpent Adisesha on his left wrist and the serpent Gulika on his right wrist, the serpent Vasuki forms his sacred thread. The cobra Takshaka forms his belt on his hip, the snake Karkotaka is worn as his necklace. The snakes Padma and Mahapadma are his ear rings, the snake Shankachuda adorns his divine hair. He is flanked by his two wives ‘Rudra’ and ‘Sukeerthi’ or and these are all invoked in Vedanta Desikas Garuda Panchashath and Garuda Dandaka compositions. Garuda flanked with his consorts Rudra and Sukirthi can be worshipped in an ancient Soumya Keshava temple in Bindiganavile in Karnataka state of India. Garuda Vyuha is worshiped in Tantra for Abhichara and to protect against Abhichara, however, the interesting thing is that Garuda is the Sankarshna form of the lord who during creation primarily possesses the knowledge aspect of the lord. The important point is that Garuda represents the five vayus within us, prana, apana, vyana, udana, samana through his five forms Satya, Suparna, Garuda, Tarkshya, Vihageshwara
23.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
24.
Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
25.
An Giang Province
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An Giang is a province of Vietnam. It is located in the Mekong Delta, in the part of the country. An Giang occupies a position in the reaches of the Mekong Delta. The Hậu Giang and Tiền Giang branches of the Mekong River are the dominant geographical features of the province, with the exception of the west, most of An Giang is fairly flat, and is criss-crossed by many canals and small rivers. This terrain has led to An Giang being a significant agricultural center, the Cam Mountains, also known as the Thất Sơn range or the Seven Mountains, are located in the western Tịnh Biên District. Followers of the Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương tradition, founded in An Giang in 1849, refer to mountains as Bửu Sơn. The cities of Long Xuyên and Châu Đốc, both of which are located on the Hậu Giang branch of the Mekong, exist as independent municipalities. It is believed that An Giang was once an important center of the vanished Óc Eo culture, traditionally, An Giang has been known for its silk industry. An Giang is home to a number of people from Vietnams ethnic minorities. Due to the proximity to Cambodia, the Khmer Krom are the largest non-Vietnamese group. Other groups, such as the Chams and ethnic Chinese, are found in An Giang. The provinces name is derived from the Sino-Vietnamese word, 安江, tôn Đức Thắng, prominent Communist and former President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, later became the first President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ, vice-president of the Republic of Vietnam before April 30,1975, Nguyễn Văn Hưởng, former minister of Vietnamese health. Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum, Khmer Krom and Prime Minister of Cambodia in 1962 Nguyễn Quang Sáng, võ Tòng Xuân, academic, agronomist and former rector of An Giang University. Lê Minh Tùng, Vice-Chairman of An Giang province and current rector of An Giang University, huỳnh Phú Sổ, founder of the Hòa Hảo sect of Buddhism. Trần Văn Thành, leader of the revolt against the French, thư Ngọc Hầu, general of Nguyễn Dynasty. Trần Bá Lộc, collaborator with France, Đoàn Minh Huyên, founder of the Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương tradition Basa fish Tức Dụp Official website An Giang province, To open job transaction floor 2015
26.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
27.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
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Yuan dynasty
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The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. His realm was, by point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others used their native language. The Yuan dynasty is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty and it was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song dynasty, the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other khanates, the Chagatai, the Golden Horde. As such, the Yuan was also referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the khans, their subservience was nominal. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan, establishing the Yuan dynasty, dà Yuán is from the clause 大哉乾元 in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding Qián. The counterpart in Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus, in Mongolian, Dai Ön is often used in conjunction with the Yeke Mongghul Ulus, resulting in Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus, meaning Great Mongol State. Nevertheless, both terms can refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united the Mongol and Turkic tribes of the steppes and he and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han Chinese teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani and he sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedeis son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251 and he granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals and he adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin, two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan, Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols
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Holy Trinity University
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Holy Trinity University is a private sectarian university in Puerto Princesa City in the province of Palawan, run by the Dominican Sisters of Saint Catherine of Siena. Holy Trinity University is a center of Catholic education in Palawan. Holy Trinity University is the institution of higher learning in Palawan established in 1940 as the Holy Trinity College Academy. The first administrators of the Academy were Rev, Mother Paulina Cruz, O. P. and Rev. Mother Trinidad Acosta, O. P. who worked in cooperation with the Augustinian Recollect priests under the leadership of Msgr. Leandro Nieto, ORSA, the Prefect Apostolic of Palawan, the first courses offered were Kindergarten and Elementary level, followed by the secondary level. In October 1953, the school came to be known as Holy Trinity College where Associate in Arts was offered, arsenio Villanueva, ORSA became the Director of the College. New courses such as Secretarial course, Dressmaking and Liberal Arts were opened, in 1958, Mother Rosa Santiago, OP was appointed Directress. During her leadership, Associate in Commercial Science and Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education were opened and it was also during her term that improvements in the school’s physical structure were done. Sister Victoria San Juan, O. P. became the Superior-Directress in 1963, the highlight of student activism in the entire country during the seventies posted a great challenge to HTC. The Directress and Dean Sister Lucia Hacbang, OP amended certain policies for the benefit of the studentry in order to respond to the challenges of the times. In June 1976, Sister Leonor Pagorogon, OP became the Directress, through her dedicated efforts, HTC became the first FAPE Unit Center in Palawan. Sr. Leonor Pagorogon, OP went for a 3-year study leave for her Doctorate degree and Sr. Bernadette Izon, OP, after completion of her Doctorate degree in June 1981, Sister Leonor came back to further improve the college. She then became the First President of the College, School year,1984 –1985, paved the way for the opening of a two-year General Radio Communication Operator Course and the construction and inauguration of the first phase of St. Catherine building. In 1985-1986, the college opened its Automotive and Electrical Engineering courses, in June 1987, Sr. Teresita Medalle, O. P. became the President of HTC and worked for the opening of the four-year Bachelor of Science in Nursing. It was during her leadership that the college implemented a development program called the Catholic Schools Systems Development Program concept in the operation of the school. During the school year 1990-1991, HTC celebrated her golden jubilee of service to the community, the Mother Francisca Community Extension Service Program was also formally organized to include all the existing extension services program of the College. These are the Human Resource Development Program, the extension programs of the various colleges
30.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
31.
Baroque Churches of the Philippines
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The Baroque Churches of the Philippines are a collection of four Spanish-era baroque churches in the Philippines, which were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1993. The churches are considered as national cultural treasures of the country. The Philippines, following its ratification of the convention on September 19,1985, the Philippines had its first sites included in 1993, and since 1999, has six sites on the list spanning nine locations. Of those six sites, three are cultural and three natural, in 2015, the 28 sites in the Tentative List were revised. Currently, the Tentative List for possible nomination in the future contains nineteen submissions, a site within the district of Intramuros was assigned to the Augustinian Order, the first to evangelize in the Philippines. In 1587 the impermanent earliest building in wood and palm fronds was replaced by a church and monastery in stone. It was the structure in Intramuros to survive the Liberation of Manila in 1945. Miag-ao became an independent parish in 1731, when a simple church, however, destruction of the town by Muslim pirates in 1741 and 1754 led to the town being rebuilt in a more secure location. The new church, constructed in 1787-97, was built as a fortress and it was, however, damaged severely by fire during the revolution against Spain in 1898 and in the Second World War. Two bell towers were added in 1854, but the northern one cracked in the 1880 earthquake and had to be demolished, in the interior of the church the wall paintings date from the 19th century, but they overlie the original tempera murals. As a result, the church was endowed, with a fine retablo, pulpit, lectern. Of special interest is the series of crypto-collateral chapels lining both sides of the nave, the walls separating them act as buttresses. The stone barrel vault, dome, and arched vestibule are all unique in the Philippines, a monastery complex was formerly linked to the church by a series of cloisters, arcades, courtyards and gardens, but all except one building were destroyed in 1945. The Santa Maria Church is located in the municipality of Santa Maria, also unusual are the sitting of the convento parallel to the facade of the church and that of the separate bell tower at the midpoint of the nave wall. This was dictated by the hill on which it is located, the brick church follows the standard Philippine layout, with a monumental facade masking a straight roof-line covering a long rectangular building. It is alleged to be built on a raft as a precaution against earthquake damage. The walls are devoid of ornament but have delicately carved side entrances and strong buttresses The Paoay Church, also known as the Church of San Agustín, is located in Paoay and it is the most outstanding example in the Philippines of an Earthquake Baroque style architecture. Fourteen buttresses are ranged along the lines of a giant volute supporting a smaller one, a pair of buttresses at the midpoint of each nave wall have stairways for access to the roof
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San Agustin Church (Manila)
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San Agustin Church is a Roman Catholic church under the auspices of The Order of St. Augustine, located inside the historic walled city of Intramuros in Manila. It was named a National Historical Landmark by the Philippine government in 1976, the present structure is actually the third Augustinian church erected on the site. The San Agustin Church is located in General Luna St, Manila, the first San Agustin Church was the first religious structure constructed by the Spaniards on the island of Luzon. Made of bamboo and nipa, it was completed in 1571, the Augustinians decided to rebuild the church using stone, and to construct an adjacent monastery. Construction began in 1586, based on a design by Juan Macías, the structure was built using hewn adobe stones quarried from Meycauayan, Binangonan and San Mateo, Rizal. The work proceeded slowly due to the lack of funds and materials, the monastery was operational by 1604, and the church was formally declared complete on 19 January 1607, and named St. Paul of Manila. Macías, who had died before the completion of the church, was acknowledged by the Augustinians as the builder of the edifice. San Agustin Church was looted by the British forces who occupied Manila in 1762 during the Seven Years War, in 1854, the church was renovated under the supervision of architect Luciano Oliver. On 3 June 1863, the strongest earthquake at that time, hit Manila leaving widespread destruction to the city with San Agustin Church, a series of strong earthquakes struck Manila again on 18–20 July 1880. This time, the left a large crack in the east bell tower. The crack was repaired, but the left tower was permanently removed with only the base remaining today. During the Japanese occupation of World War II, San Agustin Church became a concentration camp, the church itself was the sole survivor of the seven churches of Intramuros to survive the leveling by combined American and Filipino ground forces in May 1945. While the church sustained damage to its roof, the adjacent monastery was completely destroyed, in the 1970s it was rebuilt as a museum under the design of architect Angel Nakpil. The church was renovated in 2013, replacing its colorful facade with a mature stone-colored one, the San Agustin Church is patterned after some of the magnificent temples built by the Augustinians in Mexico. The present edifice was built in 1587, and completed, together with the monastery, the atmosphere is medieval since both church and monastery symbolize the majesty and equilibrium of a Spanish golden era. Architecture of the Philippines Spanish Baroque architecture Miguel López de Legazpi Notes Bibliography World Heritage profile
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Paoay Church
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The Saint Augustine Church, commonly known as the Paoay Church, is the Roman Catholic church of the municipality of Paoay, Ilocos Norte in the Philippines. Completed in 1710, the church is famous for its distinct architecture highlighted by the buttresses on the sides. It is declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the Philippine government in 1973, the town of Paoay was originally called Bombay as the earliest inhabitants believed to have come from India. The earliest historical record of the dates back to 1593. Building of the present church was started in 1694 by Augustinian friar Father Antonio Estavillo, completed in 1710, some portions of the church was damaged in the 1865 and 1885 earthquake but was later restored under the initiative of former First Lady Imelda Marcos. The adaptive reuse of baroque style against earthquake is developed since many destructive earthquakes destroyed earlier churches in the country, Javanese architecture reminiscent of Borobudur of Java can also be seen on the church walls and facade. The most striking feature of Paoay Church is the 24 huge buttresses of about 1.67 metres thick at the sides, extending from the exterior walls, it was conceived to a solution to possible destruction of the building due to earthquakes. Its stair-like buttresses at the sides of the church is possibly for easy access of the roof and its walls are made of large coral stones on the lower part and bricks at the upper levels. The mortar used in the church includes sand and lime with sugarcane juice boiled with mango leaves, leather and its walls suggests Javanese architectural styles. The stone facade appear as massive pediment rising from the ground and is leaning towards the front. Square pilasters and stringed cornices divide the facade vertically and horizontally respectively, gothic features are also present through the use of finials while the triangular pediment shows Chinese elements and Oriental strokes. Crenellations, niches, rosettes and the Augustinian coat of arms can also be seen, facade is made of brick on the lower level and coral stones on the upper level. Adjacent to the facade is a three-storey coral bell tower constructed separately from the building on the right side resembling a pagoda. It was in 1793 when the cornerstone of the tower was laid. It stands at some distance from the church as a protection against earthquake and it served as observational post for Filipino revolutionaries against the Spaniards in 1898 and by Filipino guerrillas against Japanese soldiers during World War II. Several projects for the restoration of Paoay Church is sought by government and non-government organizations due to question on its structural integrity. The local government of Ilocos Norte through resolution is seeking the reconstruction of the churchs convent presently in ruins, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 260, Paoay Church was declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the Philippine government in 1973, the church was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site together with San Agustin Church in Manila, Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion Church in Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur, and Sto
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Santa Maria Church
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The Church of Our Lady of the Assumption, commonly known as the Santa Maria Church is the parish church of Santa Maria in Ilocos Sur province, Philippines. The church was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on December 11,1993 as part of the Baroque Churches of the Philippines, the Santa Maria Church is an attraction to both tourists and Catholics in Ilocos Sur. It is not only a reminiscent of the four centuries of Spanish domination of that area but also a structure with a diversified architectural design of bricks. It was built on top of a not only as a lookout. The parish of Santa Maria started as a chapel-of-ease of Narvacan, its neighboring town to the north, the influx of the settlers after the full conquest of the Ilocos Region by the Spaniards greatly increased the population of Santa Maria. The chapel became an independent ministry in 1769 and was dedicated to the Virgin Mary depicted as Our Lady of the Assumption, besides economic progress, evangelical missions were expanded. According to the legend, before the Santa Maria Church was built on its present site, construction of the present church was started in 1765. In 1810, the tower was built during the renovation of the church. During the renovation of complex in 1863, the protective wall around the sides of the hill was constructed. After the bell tower was remodeled the same year, its foundation must have settled down making the imposing structure slightly leaning or tilting as it appears today. The convent was renovated in 1895. Many foreigners who traveled to the north and saw the church were much impressed by its size, an enormous convent stands beside the church, upon a terrace some 80 feet above the plaza. There are a number of buildings, schoolhouses and office, which must have been very handsome but are tumbling down. A great expanse of land was now well-cultivated into paddy fields and across it is a road fifteen feet wide, well-metalled. Barrios and homes were scattered all around the plain, the church is reached by climbing an 85-step stairway of granite rock. The grand three-flight stairway leads to a courtyard in front of the doorway where a sweeping view of the lower plains. A narrow roadway coming from the back of the church also leads up to the courtyard, the church brick façade has one large portal with three windows. The recessed arched entrance is flanked by a pair of rectangular pilaster dividing the façade into three well-defined planes, the whole facade is then framed on the sides by heavy circular buttresses topped by urn-like finials
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Miagao Church
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The Miagao Church also known as the Sto. Tomas de Villanueva Parish Church is a Roman catholic church located in Miagao, Iloilo and it was also called the Miagao Fortress Church since it served as defensive tower of the town against Muslim raids. Miagao was formerly a visita of Oton until 1580, Tigbauan until 1592, San Joaquin until 1703 and it became an independent parish of the Augustinians in 1731 under the advocacy of Saint Thomas of Villanova. With the establishment of the parish, a church and convento was built in a land near the sea called Ubos, Father Fernando Camporredondo served as the towns first parish priest in 1734. When the town experienced frequent Moro invasion in 1741 and 1754, from there, a new church was constructed in 1787 through forced labor under the supervision of under Fray Francisco Gonzales, parish priest and Spanish gobernadorcillo Domingo Libo-on. It was built on the highest point of the town to guard from invaders called Tacas, after ten years, the church was completed in 1797. It was designed to have thick walls to serve as protection from invaders and it was severely damaged during the Spanish revolution in 1898 but was later rebuilt, fire in 1910, the second World War and earthquake in 1948. The present day Miagao church is the church built since its establishment in 1731. To preserve the church, it underwent restoration in 1960 and completed in 1962 and it was declared a national shrine by Presidential Decree No.260 of former President Ferdinand Marcos. The churchs over-all architectural style falls under the Baroque Romanesque architectural style and its ochre color is due to the materials used in constructing the church, adobe, egg, coral and limestone. The façade of Miagao church consists of an ornately decorated bas-relief in the middle of two huge watchtower belfries on each side, the bas-relief is a mixed influence of Medieval Spanish, Chinese, Muslim and local traditions and elements, a unique characteristic of the church façade. A prominent part of the façade is a coconut tree depicted as the tree of life where St. Christopher holds on, St. Christopher is dressed in local and traditional clothing carrying the Child Jesus on his back. The rest of the features the daily life of the people of Miagao during that time including native flora. Above the wooden door entrance at the center of the façade just below the image of St. Christopher is a image of the towns patron saint. At each side of the door is the images of St. Henry of Bavaria on the left, above the images of St. Henry and Pope Pius VI is their respective coat-of-arms. The two huge unequal belltowers directly attached to the main churchserve as watchtowers to defend the town against invasion of Moros and it has two different designs since it was commissioned by two different priests. On the left side is the belfry, the tallest west belfry with four levels. Originally, the east belfry was constructed only with two levels and it was in 1830 when Father Francisco Perez decided to add another story to the east belfry
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Vigan
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Vigan, officially the City of Vigan, is a fourth income class component city and capital of the province of Ilocos Sur in the Philippines. The city is located on the western coast of the island of Luzon. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 53,879 people, former Philippine president Elpidio Quirino, the sixth President of the Philippines, was born in Vigan, at the former location of the Provincial Jail, he resided in the Syquia Mansion. In May 2015, Vigan City was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Beirut, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, the area of Vigan was originally a settlement of traders coming from the Fujian Province, China. At the time of Spanish colonisation, the Chinese settlers, whose language was Southern Fujianese, referred to the area as Bee Gan, which means Beautiful Shore. Since the Spanish conquistadors interchanged V and the B to refer to the /b/ sound, they spelled the Hokkien Chinese name Bee Gan as Vigan, which is the name used to this day. Vigans Chinese heritage is evident from the numerous elite Chinese creole families who come from the area. Others, such as the Syquia family, have retained Chinese-derived surnames, though most, if not all, of the Christian Chinese creole families fully Hispanicised themselves culturally. The most commonly known source of the name is from the Bigaa plant. The citys full name at the time of its Spanish foundation was Villa Fernandina, or Town of Ferdinand, in honor of Prince Ferdinand, the firstborn son of King Philip II of Spain. As the city grew, and the seat of the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia transferred to Vigan, due to silting of the Mestizo River, Vigan City is no longer separated from the mainland, therefore no longer an island. The city is unique in the Philippines because it is one of many extensive surviving Philippine historic cities, Vigan was a coastal trading post long before the Spaniards arrived, Chinese traders sailing from the South China Sea came to Isla de Vigan via the Mestizo River that surrounded it. The Spaniards led by Salcedo marched north from Manila on May 20,1572 and they arrived in Vigan on June 13,1572. From Vigan, Salcedo rounded the tip of Luzón and proceeded to pacify Camarines, Albay, in 1574, Salcedo returned to the capital of his encomienda, Vigan, bringing with him his soldiers and some Augustinian missionaries to pioneer the evangelization of the Ilocos region. He established a Spanish city for the purpose of controlling the neighboring country, during this period, Vigan was composed of 19 barrios. Between 1645 and 1660, Vigan was divided into 21 Cabezas de Barrio as mentioned in the Libro de Casamiento, during the Philippine-American War, American forces led by Commander McCracken and Lt. Col. James Parker occupied the town in Nov.1899. At the start of World War II, Vigan was one of the first places in the Philippines invaded by Japan on 10 December 1941. In 1945, combined U. S. and Philippine Commonwealth ground troops, aided by Ilocano resistance fighters, defeated the Japanese Imperial forces, in 1999, Vigan was listed by UNESCO as the best preserved example of Spanish colonial towns in Asia
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Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras
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The Ifugao Rice Terraces reach a higher altitude and were built on steeper slopes than many other terraces. The Ifugao Rice Terraces illustrate the ability of human culture to adapt to new social and climate pressures as well as to implement and develop new ideas. Although listed by the UNESCO as a World Heritage site believed to be older than 2,000 years, the rice terraces of the Cordilleras are one of the few monuments in the Philippines that show no evidence of having been influenced by colonial cultures. The history of the terraces is intertwined with that of its people, their culture and it is believed that terracing began in the Cordilleras less than one thousand years ago as Taro cultivation. It is evidence of a level of knowledge of structural. The knowledge and practices, supported by rituals, involved in maintaining the terraces are transferred orally from generation to generation, Taro was later replaced by rice around 1600 A. D. which is the predominant crop today. The five clusters inscribed as part of the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras are Batad, Bangaan, Hungduan, Mayoyao Central, Batad and Bangaan are under the jurisdiction of the Municipality of Banaue but are not referred to as the Banaue Rice Terraces. The Banaue Rice Terraces refer to the close to the Banaue poblacion as seen from the viewpoint. Contrary to popular belief, these terraces are not part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site and they were not included in the UNESCO inscription due to the presence of numerous modern structures, making it score low in the integrity criterion of UNESCO. The Banaue Rice Terraces are however a National Cultural Treasure under Ifugao Rice Terraces and they are supported by indigenous knowledge management of muyong, a private forest that caps each terrace cluster. The muyong is managed through an effort and under traditional tribal practices. The communally managed forestry area on top of the terraces contains about 264 indigenous plant species, the terraces form unique clusters of microwatersheds and are part of the whole mountain ecology. They serve as a filtration system and are saturated with irrigation water all year round. A biorhythm technology, in cultural activities are harmonized with the rhythm of climate. The Hudhud consists of narrative chants performed mainly by elder Ifugao women usually during the sowing season, at harvest time and at funeral wakes. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras were named as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre in 1995 and it has passed by UNESCO’s standards due to the blending of the physical, socio-cultural, economic, religious, and political environment as a living cultural landscape. The Ifugao Rice Terraces have also been inscribed in the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2001 as the dangers of deforestation, the Philippines sought danger listing as a way to raise national and international support and cooperation in the preservation of the heritage site. In 2012, UNESCO has removed the Rice Terraces from the list of sites in danger in recognition of the success of the Philippines in improving its conservation, Banaue Rice Terraces Honghe Hani Rice Terraces UNESCO World Heritage Site Link
38.
Mount Hamiguitan
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Mount Hamiguitan is a mountain located in the province of Davao Oriental, Philippines. It has a height of 1,620 metres, the mountain and its vicinity has one of the most diverse wildlife populations in the country. Among the wildlife found in the area are Philippine eagles and several species of Nepenthes, some of the latter, such as the Nepenthes peltata, are endemic to the area. The mountain has a protected forest area of approximately 2,000 hectares and this woodland is noted for its unique pygmy forest of century old trees in ultramafic soil, with many endangered, endemic and rare species of flora and fauna. The Mount Hamiguitan range, with an area of 6,834 hectares, was declared a national park, in 2014, the park was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Mount Hamiguitan is located in the province of Davao Oriental in the part of the island of Mindanao. It occupies the area within the political boundaries of Mati, San Isidro. Some of the commonly found on Mount Hamiguitan include the following. The following species can be found in the area, In June 2014, Hamiguitan Range, a sanctuary for native flora. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 18, 7–15, doi,10. 1016/j. sjbs.2010.07.003 Media related to Mount Hamiguitan at Wikimedia Commons
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Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park
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The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park is a protected area of the Philippines located about 80 kilometres north of the city centre of Puerto Princesa, Palawan. The river is also called Puerto Princesa Underground River, the national park is located in the Saint Paul Mountain Range on the western coast of the island. It is bordered by St. Paul Bay to the north, the City Government of Puerto Princesa has managed the National Park since 1992. The entrance to the river is a short hike or boat ride from the town Sabang. In 2010, a group of environmentalists and geologists discovered that the river has a second floor. Deeper areas of the river are almost impossible to explore due to oxygen deprivation. On November 11,2011, Puerto Princesa Underground River was provisionally chosen as one of the New7Wonders of Nature and this selection was officially confirmed on January 28,2012. The park has a limestone karst mountain landscape, St. Pauls Underground River Cave is more than 24 km long and contains an 8.2 km long underground section of the Cabayugan River. The river winds through the cave before flowing directly into the West Philippine Sea and is navigable by boat up to 4.3 km in from the sea. The cave includes major formations of stalactites and stalagmites, and several large chambers and it is one of the largest cave rooms in the world. The lower portion of the river up to 6 km from the sea, is subject to tidal influences, until the 2007 discovery of an underground river in Mexicos Yucatán Peninsula, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River was reputed to be the worlds longest underground river. The area also represents a habitat for biodiversity conservation, the site contains a full mountain-to-the-sea ecosystem and has some of the most important forests in Asia. It was inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site on December 4,1999, researchers have identified more than 800 plant species from 300 genera and 100 families. These include at least 295 trees dominated by the dipterocarp species, in the lowland forest, large trees such as the Dao, Ipil, Dita, Amugis, and Apitong are common. Beach forest species include Bitaog, Pongamia pinnata, and Erynthia orientalis, other notable plant species include Almaciga, Kamagong Pandan Anibong, and Rattan Birds comprise the largest group of vertebrates found in the park. Of the 252 bird species known to occur in Palawan, a total of 165 species of birds were recorded in the park and this represents 67% of the total birds and all of the 15 endemic bird species of Palawan. Notable species seen in the park are the blue-naped parrot, Tabon scrub fowl, hill myna, Palawan hornbill, there are also some 30 mammal species that have been recorded. Most often observed in the forest canopy and along the shoreline feeding during low tide is the long-tailed macaque, the only primate found in the area
40.
Tubbataha Reef
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The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park is a protected area of the Philippines located in the middle of the Sulu Sea. The marine and bird sanctuary consists of two atolls and the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef covering a total area of 97,030 hectares. It is located 150 kilometres southeast of Puerto Princesa City, the capital of Palawan province, the uninhabited islands and reefs are part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo, Palawan, located roughly 130 kilometres to the northeast of the reef. The site is an excellent example of a coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons. In 1999, Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the Wetlands of International Importance, in 2008, the reef was nominated at the New 7 Wonders of Nature. The area is under a threat due to overfishing and destructive fishing practices. The reefs also serve as a ground for Hawksbill and Green sea turtles. The natural park is located near the middle of Sulu Sea,150 kilometres southeast of Puerto Princesa City, the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef is located about 20 kilometres north of the two atolls. The Tubbataha Reef is situated on the Cagayan Ridge, composing of extinct underwater volcanoes, being a true atoll structure, it is believed that the atolls of Tubbataha were formed thousands of years ago as fringing reefs and volcanic islands. This is based on Charles Darwins theory that atolls are formed when a volcano erupts, when the volcanoes became extinct and the islands subsided over a long time, only the corals remain, growing towards the sunlight. The very big corals seen today surrounding the lagoons are originally the fringing reefs, the word tubbataha is a combination of two Sama-Bajau words, tubba and taha, which together means a long reef exposed at low tide. Historically, Sama-Bajau peoples, who have a lifestyle, visit the reef from time to time. Although people from the islands of Cagayancillo are frequent visitors of the reef and they used the native vessel banka to sail and fish on Gusong, their local name for the Tubbataha. Tubbatahas isolation, located in the middle of the Sulu Sea far from inhabitants of the nearest populated islands, had preserved its marine resources from over-exploitation over the years, the two islets in Tubbataha have no source of freshwater thus preventing habitation. In the 1980s, fishermen reaching Tubbataha increased in numbers with the advent in motorized bangkas, fish had declined in other fishing grounds because of overfishing and soon Tubbataha became a fishing destination because of its abundant marine life. Many fishermen used destructive fishing techniques like cyanide and dynamite fishing to maximize their catch, scuba divers and environmentalists campaigned to make the reefs a national marine park. This was the first time that the Philippines have declared an area as a national park. In the early years of law enforcement by the Presidential Task Force, in 1996 a wooden structure was built but shifting sand soon rendered its foundations unstable
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Metro Manila
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These 5 provinces, plus Metro Manila and Pampanga, sum to 30.7 million residents as of the newly counted census of 2015. The region is the center of culture, economy, education, NCR is one of the 12 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines according to the National Economic and Development Authority. Designated as a global city, NCR exerts a significant impact on commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education. It is the home to all the consulates and embassies in the Philippines and its economic power makes the region the countrys premier center for finance and commerce. NCR accounts for 37. 2% of the domestic product of the Philippines. The Province of Manila, the progenitor to the present-day Metro Manila, is one of the eight provinces that revolted against the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines. The province was honored as one of the sun rays in the Flag of the Philippines, a historical province known as Manila encompasses the former pre-Hispanic kingdoms of Tondo and Maynila. It became the capital of the colonial Philippines, with Manila serving as the center of colonial power, in 1898, it included the City of Manila and 23 other municipalities. Mariquina also served as the capital from 1898-1899, just as when the sovereignty of the Philippines was transferred to the United States, the province was dissolved and most of it was incorporated to the newly created province of Rizal in 1901. Since the Spanish colonial period, Manila was considered as one of the global cities. Pasig serves as its provincial capital, in 1939, President Quezon established Quezon City with a goal to replace Manila as the capital city of the country. A masterplan for Quezon City was completed, the establishment of Quezon City meant demise of the grand Burnham Plan of Manila, with funds being diverted for the establishment of the new capital. World War II further resulted in the loss most of the developments in the Burnham Plan, but more importantly, later on, Quezon City eventually declared as the national capital from 1948-1976. The tile was re-designated back to Manila through Presidential Decree No.940 owing to its significance as the seat of government of the Philippines since the Spanish colonial period. During the war, President Manuel L. Jorge Vargas was appointed as its mayor, Mayors in the cities and municipalities included in the City of Greater Manila served as vice mayors in their town. This was in order to ensure Vargas, who was Quezons principal lieutenant for administrative matters, the City of Greater Manila was abolished by the Japanese with the formation of the Philippine Executive Commission to govern the occupied regions of the country. The City of Greater Manila served as a model for the present-day Metro Manila, on November 7,1975, Metro Manila was formally established through Presidential Decree No.824. The Metropolitan Manila Commission was also created to manage the region, on June 2,1978, through Presidential Decree No
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