1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Pennsylvania Route 73
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Pennsylvania Route 73 is a 62. 32-mile long east–west state highway in southeastern Pennsylvania. It runs from PA61 in Leesport southeast to the New Jersey state line on the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge over the Delaware River in Philadelphia, where it continues as New Jersey Route 73. The route passes through areas of Berks County, crossing U. S. Route 222 in Maiden Creek before continuing southeast through Oley. PA73 continues into Montgomery County and intersects PA100 in Gilbertsville, the route passes through Skippack and intersects US202 in Center Square, PA309 in Springfield Township, and PA611 near Jenkintown. PA73 continues through Northeast Philadelphia on Cottman Avenue, crossing US1, predating the Interstate and U. S. Highway Systems, the Skippack Pike, a modern section of the route, served as the primary connector between Philadelphia and the northwest suburbs. The Skippack Pike dates back to 1713 and was completed as a turnpike in 1855, Legislative Route 197 connected Reading to Philadelphia along the PA73 corridor in 1911. PA73 was designated in 1928 to run from PA23 near Blue Ball to US1 in Philadelphia, heading north to Reading, the route was extended east to the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge after it opened in 1929. The portion of route between Leesport and Maiden Creek became the part of PA383 by 1930. PA73 was shifted to its current alignment in eastern Montgomery County in the 1950s, the western terminus of PA73 was realigned to Leesport by 1966, with the route between Blue Ball and Reading becoming PA625 with most of the remainder between Reading and Oley now unnumbered. PA73 was realigned to its current routing to Tacony-Palmyra Bridge in the 1960s, having previously followed Frankford Avenue and Robbins and Levick streets on a one-way pair. PA73 begins at an intersection with PA61 in Ontelaunee Township, Berks County to the north of the city of Reading, from this intersection, the route heads northeast on two-lane undivided Lake Shore Drive past a mix of farm fields and development. The road heads east into wooded areas and runs along the shore of Lake Ontelaunee. Past the lake, PA73 crosses into Maidencreek Township and comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southerns Evansville Industrial Track as it enters agricultural areas with some homes, the route heads east-southeast and crosses US222 in the community of Maiden Creek. PA73 continues along Main Street and runs through areas in the community of Blandon. Past Blandon, the road south into forested mountain areas. The route turns southeast through wooded areas with residential and commercial development. PA73 continues east through rural land to Oley Township, where it reaches a junction with PA662. At this point, PA662 joins PA73 for a concurrency, at the east end of Oley, PA662 splits to the southeast and PA73 continues east on West Philadelphia Avenue past residential development
3.
New Jersey Route 73
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Route 73 is a state highway in the southern part of the U. S. state of New Jersey. What is today Route 73 between the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge and Berlin was legislated as Route S41 in 1927, a spur of Route 41, an extension of this spur called Route S41A was designated in 1938 to continue south from Berlin to Route 42 in Folsom. In 1953, both routes became Route 73 in order to match Pennsylvania Route 73. The portion of Route 73 between Berlin and the Atlantic City Expressway became a highway by 1969. By the 2000s, Route 73 was extended south along County Route 561 Spur to U. S. Route 322, several traffic circles along Route 73 have been modified or replaced over time. Among these was the Berlin Circle, which was turned into an intersection in 2006. The Marlton Circle at Route 70, which was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to pass through the circle, was replaced with an interchange completed in 2011 and this portion of the route is officially considered a part of Route 73 but is not signed as such. The road runs through forested areas of the Pine Barrens with some homes and farms, following this intersection, the road continues northwest as Mays Landing Road, crossing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line. It enters a corner of Hammonton before it crosses into Winslow Township in Camden County. Here, Route 73 crosses over a Southern Railroad of New Jersey railroad line, after the Atlantic City Expressway, Route 73 becomes officially signed and maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, although County Route 561 Spur is still signed along the route. It heads to the north as an undivided road, passing through wooded areas with some residences and businesses and crosses CR723. The route continues to an intersection with CR561, where it widens into a four-lane divided highway. At this junction, CR561 Spur ends and Route 73 forms a concurrency with County Route 561, the road intersects CR722 and CR721, becoming Camden Road at the latter junction. It heads north through rural areas, meeting CR720. North of Cedar Brook, the route traverses CR536, becoming Cedarbrook Road and it intersects CR680 and CR711 before widening into a divided highway prior to a junction where CR712 heads northeast and CR561 splits from Route 73 by heading north on Cedarbrook Road. Past this intersection, Route 73 becomes a road and encounters CR710 at a four-way intersection. A short distance later, the route enters Waterford Township and comes to a cloverleaf interchange with U. S. Route 30. Following US30, Route 73 passes through a corner of Berlin Boro before it goes under New Jersey Transit’s Atlantic City Line near the Atco station
4.
Delaware River
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The Delaware River is a major river on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Its watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, not including Delaware Bay, the rivers length including its two branches is 388 miles. The Delaware River is one of nineteen Great Waters recognized by the Americas Great Waters Coalition, the Delaware River rises in two main branches that descend from the western flank of the Catskill Mountains in New York. The West Branch begins near Mount Jefferson in the Town of Jefferson in Schoharie County, the rivers East Branch begins at Grand Gorge near Roxbury Delaware County. These two branches flow west and merge near Hancock in Delaware County and the waters flow as the Delaware River south. The river meets tide-water at the junction of Morrisville, Pennsylvania and Trenton, the rivers navigable, tidal section served as a conduit for shipping and transportation that aided the development of the industrial cities of Trenton, Camden, and Philadelphia. The mean freshwater discharge of the Delaware River into the estuary of Delaware Bay is 11,550 cubic feet per second, in 1609, the river was first visited by a Dutch East India Company expedition led by Henry Hudson. Hudson, an English navigator, was hired to find a route to Cathay. Early Dutch and Swedish settlements were established along the section of river. Both colonial powers called the river the South River, compared to the Hudson River, lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colonys council president, John Ratcliffe, and attacked the colonys fledgling settlements. Lord de la Warr arrived with 150 soldiers in time to prevent colonys original settlers at Jamestown from giving up, the name of barony is pronounced as in the current spelling form Delaware and is thought to derive from French de la Guerre. It has often reported that the river and bay received the name Delaware after English forces under Richard Nicolls expelled the Dutch. However, the river and bay were known by the name Delaware as early as 1641, the state of Delaware was originally part of the William Penns Pennsylvania colony. In 1682, the Duke of York granted Penns request for access to the sea and leased him the territory along the western shore of Delaware Bay which became known as the Lower Counties on the Delaware. The Delaware Rivers watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. This total area constitutes approximately 0. 4% of the mass in the United States. In 2001, the watershed was 18% agricultural land, 14% developed land, there are 216 tributary streams and creeks—an estimated 14,057 miles of streams and creeks—in the watershed. The waters of the Delaware Rivers basin are used to fishing, transportation, power, cooling, recreation
5.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
6.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
7.
Palmyra, New Jersey
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Palmyra is a borough in Burlington County, New Jersey, United States. Palmyra was originally incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 19,1894, from portions of Cinnaminson Township, on February 20,1923, Palmyra was reincorporated as a borough. The area that is now Palmyra was settled in the late 17th century by Swedes, a farmhouse built in 1761 by the third generation settlers still remains as the oldest house in Palmyra. Palmyra was the name of an ancient trading center located in central Syria, the post office was established in 1851. What is now Palmyra was part of Chester Township, which was created in 1694 and was one of the original 104 townships in New Jersey incorporated in 1798, Palmyra became a part of Cinnaminson Township when that township was set off from Chester in 1860. Palmyra Township was set off from Cinnaminson in 1894, and Palmyra was incorporated as a borough in 1923. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had an area of 2.550 square miles. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the borough include West Palmyra, the borough borders Cinnaminson Township and Riverton in Burlington County, Pennsauken Township in Camden County, and Philadelphia across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania. The city is connected to the Tacony section of Philadelphia via Route 73 by the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge, the bridge was completed in 1929 at a cost of $4 million. The park is open dawn to dusk, no pets or bicycles are allowed. As of the census of 2010, there were 7,398 people,3,156 households, the population density was 3,968.4 per square mile. There were 3,392 housing units at a density of 1,819.5 per square mile. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 37% of the population,31. 5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the family size was 2.97. In the borough, the population was out with 19. 5% under the age of 18,7. 4% from 18 to 24,28. 6% from 25 to 44,31. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41.0 years, for every 100 females there were 95.1 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 91.2 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $61,990 and the median family income was $74,265. Males had an income of $53,295 versus $48,417 for females
8.
Burlington County Bridge Commission
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The Burlington County Bridge Commission is a public agency responsible for the operation and maintenance of several bridges in Burlington County, New Jersey across the Delaware River. It now manages eight bridges, including the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge, the Burlington-Bristol Bridge, minor bridges operated by the Commission are the Pennsauken Creek Bridge, Pompeston Creek Bridge, Route 73 Overpass, Swede Run Bridge and the Twin Pipe Culvert, all along County Route 543. Tolls are collected in New Jersey for traffic heading towards Pennsylvania at the Tacony-Palmyra, no tolls are collected for traffic crossing into New Jersey. Tolls range from $2.00 for two-axle cars, vans, light trucks and motorcycles. E-ZPass is accepted for payment of tolls, tolls will be increasing on September 15,2015. Two-Axle cars will be $3.00 with EZPass / $4.00 cash, in 1962, the Commission built a single-span bridge over Route 73 and a multi-span bridge over Pennsauken Creek, on River Road. This acquisition also included the movable Riverside-Delanco Bridge across the Rancocas Creek and this arrangement with the County was agreed upon by the Commission because River Road was considered to be a feeder road for both the Burlington-Bristol and Tacony-Palmyra Bridges. Of the eight bridges, the Commission has one each of the three types of movable bridges. The Tacony-Palmyra Bridge has a double leaf bascule span, the Burlington-Bristol Bridge has a lift span
9.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
PA 73 and 
Route 73, and 2 sidewalks
Media related to Tacony–Palmyra Bridge at Wikimedia Commons
