1.
University of Tampere
–
The University of Tampere is a university in Tampere, Finland. It has 15,400 degree students and 2,100 employees and it was founded in 1925 in Helsinki as a Civic College, and from 1930 onwards it was known as a School of Social Sciences. In 1960, the relocated to Tampere, and in 1966 it was re-named University of Tampere. The University of Tampere began in 1925 in Helsinki as an institution generally referred to as a Civic College, the guiding notion was that enlightenment was conducive to peaceful societal development. It was felt that large sectors of the population and especially people in the rural areas were in need of enhanced popular education. In the early years of its operations interest in the Civic College focussed increasingly on catering for the needs of the municipal administration. The major success areas, a qualification in social care and a qualification in librarianship, in 1960 the institution moved to Tampere and within years the student intake increased fivefold and the former specialised college expanded into a multi-faculty university. The name was changed to the University of Tampere in 1966, together with the Danube University Krems, the Beijing Normal University and the University of Applied Sciences Osnabrück, the University of Tampere offers a Erasmus+ Joint masters degree. The collections of the Tampere University Library comprise approximately 380000 volumes of electronic resources, the materials are free to use for all at the premises of the library. The Main Library acquires information resources mainly on the fields of sciences, management sciences, social sciences, arts. The Main Library is also in charge of acquiring all textbooks excluding health sciences, in addition to the textbooks there is also the school book collection of class teacher education in the Main Library. Humanika, the Department Library of Humanities and Education acquires information resources on the fields of education, tertio, the Department Library of Health Sciences acquires information resources mainly in health sciences. Tertio functions as the library for the School of Medicine, the School of Health Sciences. It also provides services to the Tampere University Hospital. Tertio acquires all the books and journals for the specialists degrees
University of Tampere
2.
Public university
–
A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
Public university
–
Cairo University, the prime indigenous model for Egyptian state universities
Public university
–
Old Merensky Library at
University of Pretoria, South Africa
Public university
–
Sebelas Maret University, one of Indonesia's prominent public universities.
Public university
–
Chulalongkorn University main auditorium in Thailand
3.
Euro
–
Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
Euro
–
The
central bank has
its seat in
Frankfurt (Germany) and is in charge of the monetary policy of the
euro area.
Euro
–
Euro banknotes as of 2015
Euro
–
Euro coins and banknotes of various denominations.
4.
Rector (academia)
–
A rector is a term used in non-English-speaking countries for a university chancellor. In the sphere of academia, it is the highest academic official of universities and in certain other institutions of higher education. The term and office of a rector are called a rectorate, the title is used widely in universities in Europe. And is very common in Latin American countries and it is also used in Brunei, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel and the Middle East. In some universities, the title is phrased in an even loftier manner and this term is generally not used in English-speaking countries. In England and elsewhere in Great Britain, the head of a university is referred to as a chancellor. This pattern has been followed in the Commonwealth, the United States, in Scotland, many universities are headed by a chancellor, with the Lord Rector designated as an elected representative of students at the head of the university court. The head of a university in Germany is called a president, rector magnificus or rectrix magnifica, in Dutch universities, the rector magnificus is the most publicly prominent member of the board, responsible for the scientific agenda of the university. In the Netherlands, the rector is, however, not the chair of the university board, the chair has, in practice, the most influence over the management of the University. In some countries, including Germany, the position of teacher in secondary schools is also designated as rector. In the Netherlands, the rector and conrector are used commonly for high school directors. This is also the case in some Maltese secondary schools, in the Scandinavian countries, the head of a university or a gymnasium is called a rektor. In Sweden and Norway, this term is used for the heads of primary schools. For example, in Portugal, the rector of the University of Coimbra, the heads of Czech universities are called the rektor. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the universitys affairs unless prohibited by law, the rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the President of the Czech Republic. The nomination must be agreed by a majority of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret, the term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms. The rector appoints vice-rectors, who act as deputies to the extent the Rector determines, Rectors salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education
Rector (academia)
–
Inauguration of Rector Lubomír Dvořák (
Palacký University)
Rector (academia)
–
Colonnade at the reconstructed
Yushima Seidō in Tokyo. The hereditary rectors of this
Edo period institution were selected from the
Hayashi clan.
Rector (academia)
–
Herminio Dagohoy, the 96th Rector Magnificus of the
Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, Manila
5.
Doctorate
–
There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
Doctorate
–
Academic doctors gather before the commencement exercises at
Brigham Young University (April 2008).
Doctorate
–
The cover of the
thesis presented by
Claude Bernard to obtain his
Doctorate of Medicine (1843).
Doctorate
–
The ancient ceremony of bestowing
Complutense 's Doctoral
biretta.
Doctorate
–
In 1861,
Yale University awarded the first
Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the United States.
6.
Tampere
–
Tampere is a city in Pirkanmaa, southern Finland. It is the most populous city in any of the Nordic countries. The city has a population of 223,292 growing to 313,058 people in the urban area, Tampere is the second-largest urban area and third most-populous individual municipality in the country, after Helsinki and Espoo municipalities. Its also the most populous Finnish city outside the Greater Helsinki area and inner Finlands major urban, economic, Tampere is between two lakes, Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi. Since the two differ in level by 18 metres, the rapids linking them, Tammerkoski, have been an important power source throughout history. Tampere is dubbed the Manchester of Finland for its industrial past as the center of Finnish industry. Helsinki is approximately 160 kilometres south of Tampere, and can be reached in 1.5 hours by train and 2 hours by car, the distance to Turku is roughly the same. Tampere–Pirkkala Airport is Finlands third-busiest airport, with over 400,000 passengers annually, there have been many debates on the origin of the name Tampere. One theory is that it comes from the Swedish word damber, other suggestions have been the Swedish tamper-dagar, fasting days, and also the Finnish word tammi. Although the name Tampere or its Swedish counterparts Tammer- part cannot be completely confirmed, Tampere was founded as a market place on the banks of the Tammerkoski channel in 1775 by Gustav III of Sweden and four years later,1 October 1779, Tampere was granted full city rights. At this time, it was a small town, consisting of only a few square kilometres of land around the Tammerkoski. Tampere grew as a market town and industrial centre in the 19th century. The towns industrial nature in the 19th and 20th centuries gave it the nickname Manchester of the North, Tampere was the centre of many important political events of Finland in the early 20th century. On 1 November 1905, during the strike, the famous Red Declaration was proclaimed on the Keskustori. In 1918, when Finland had recently gained independence, Tampere also played a major role, Tampere was a red stronghold during the war, with Hugo Salmela in command. White forces captured the town after the Battle of Tampere, seizing about 10,000 Red prisoners on 6 April 1918, prevalent in Tamperes post-World War II municipal politics was the Brothers-in-Arms Axis. From 2007 on, Tampere switched to a new model of having a mayor and four deputy mayors, timo P. Nieminen was elected by the city council as the first mayor of Tampere for the years 2007–09. He was re-elected in 2009 and was succeeded by Anna-Kaisa Ikonen in 2013, after World War II, Tampere was enlarged by joining some neighbouring areas
Tampere
–
Clockwise from top-left: the cityscape (viewed from
Näsinneula), the
Tampere City Hall,
Särkänniemi (from Näsinneula), the
Tampere Hall, the skyline with Näsinneula,
Tammerkoski from the bridge Hämeensilta, and the
Tampere Cathedral.
Tampere
–
Location of Tampere in the
Pirkanmaa region and the
Tampere sub-region
Tampere
–
The old
Finlayson works.
Tampere
–
The
Renaissance Revival Raatihuone (
City Hall), 1890; the "red manifesto" was read from its balcony in 1905.
7.
Finland
–
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
Finland
–
Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
Finland
–
Flag
Finland
–
Now lying within Helsinki,
Suomenlinna is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
Finland
–
Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by
Eero Järnefelt
8.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
9.
Urban area
–
An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
Urban area
–
Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.
Urban area
–
Buenos Aires Córdoba
Urban area
Urban area
–
Rosario Mendoza
10.
ECIU
–
In 1997, eleven European universities came together to establish the European Consortium of Innovative Universities. The consortium is a group of dedicated to the development of an innovative culture in their institutions. The ECIU’s mission is, To contribute to the development of a knowledge-based European economy, to develop collaborative educational programmes, by building on research and teaching strengths within the member institutions. To act as an ‘agent of change’ by serving as an example of best practice and by influencing debate, the local coordinator is the contact person for information on activities, projects and seminars, and is informs the partner university about ECIU activities
ECIU
–
This article contains content that is written like
an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing
promotional content and inappropriate
external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a
neutral point of view. (October 2012)
11.
Finnish language
–
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a Finnish dialect, are spoken, the Kven language, a dialect of Finnish, is spoken in Northern Norway by a minority group of Finnish descent. Finnish is the member of the Finnic language family and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages. It modifies and inflects nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs, Finnish is a member of the Finnic group of the Uralic family of languages. The Finnic group also includes Estonian and a few minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea, several theories exist as to the geographic origin of Finnish and the other Uralic languages. The most widely held view is that they originated as a Proto-Uralic language somewhere in the boreal forest belt around the Ural Mountains region and/or the bend of the middle Volga. The Finns are more similar to their Indo-European-speaking neighbours than to the speakers of the geographically close Uralic language Sami. It has been argued that a native Finnic-speaking population absorbed northward migrating Indo-European speakers who adopted the Finnic language, the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, United States classifies Finnish as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers. Finnish is spoken by five million people, most of whom reside in Finland. There are also notable Finnish-speaking minorities in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Estonia, Brazil, Canada, the majority of the population of Finland,90. 37% as of 2010, speak Finnish as their first language. The remainder speak Swedish, Sami and other languages and it has achieved some popularity as a second language in Estonia. Finnish is one of two languages of Finland and one of the official languages in the European Union since 1995. Finnish language started to gain its role during the Grand Duchy of Finland, along with the nationalistic Fennoman movement and it enjoys the status of an official minority language in Sweden. The Finnic languages evolved from the Proto-Finnic language after Sámi was separated from it around 1500–1000 BCE, current models assume three or more hypothetical Proto-Finnic proto-dialects evolving over the first millennium BCE. During the Middle Ages, Finnish was solely an oral language, the first known written example of Finnish comes from this era and was found in a German travel journal dating back to c.1450, Mÿnna tachton gernast spuho somen gelen emÿna daÿda. According to the journal, a Finnish bishop, whose name is unknown, was behind the above quotation. Finnish priestdom at the time was largely Swedish-speaking, the first comprehensive writing system for Finnish was created by Mikael Agricola, a Finnish bishop, in the 16th century
Finnish language
–
Mikael Agricola, a 19th-century drawing by
Albert Edelfelt
Finnish language
–
Official language.
Finnish language
–
Elias Lönnrot as depicted in a 19th-century caricature – Lönnrot made several journeys to Karelia and Eastern Finland to collect folklore, from which he compiled the
Kalevala
Finnish language
–
Suomalaisen Sana-Lugun Coetus (1745) by
Daniel Juslenius was the first comprehensive dictionary of the Finnish language with 16,000 entries.
12.
University
–
A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
University
–
Degree ceremony at the
University of Oxford. The Pro-Vice-Chancellor in
MA gown and hood,
Proctor in official dress and new
Doctors of Philosophy in scarlet full dress. Behind them, a
bedel, a Doctor and Bachelors of Arts and Medicine graduate.
University
–
The
University of Bologna is the oldest University in history, founded in 1088.
University
–
Meeting of doctors at the
University of Paris. From a medieval manuscript.
University
–
Sapienza University of Rome is the largest university in Europe and one of the most prestigious European universities.
13.
Hervanta
–
Hervanta is a large suburb, or satellite city, of Tampere in Finland, located next to Hallila some 10 km south of the city centre. Home to a population of over 26,000, Hervanta is best known for its prefabricated blocks of flats, the total number of apartments is about 11,000. Nearly a fifth of the inhabitants are students, many of them enrolled at the Tampere University of Technology or the Police College, the largest student housing complex is Mikontalo, in fact nearly 3% of people in Hervanta reside there. Approximately 10% of Hervantas population is composed of foreigners from 75 different nationalities, Hervanta currently covers an area of 13.8 km² and is continuing to grow. It was selected as Finlands top suburb in a survey conducted by the Helsingin Sanomat newspaper, the complex of commercial buildings in the town center of Hervanta was designed by the Finnish architect Reima Pietilä. Hervanta is sometimes called the Silicon Valley of Finland, because of the concentration of high tech companies in the area. As well as the University, Hervanta is also home to the Hermia science centre, the worlds first-ever GSM phone call was made in Hervanta in 1991, when Radiolinja started building its GSM network. Nokia, Intel, Microsoft, and many companies have offices in Hervanta. On the north edge of Hervanta at Lukonmäki theres a downhill skiing centre with two skiing runs and one lift, ski centre also includes a small ski jump tower that is clearly visible when entering Hervanta from the north along Hervannan valtaväylä road. On the west side of Hervanta is located lake Suolijärvi that has a beach for sunbathing and swimming. Around the lake goes two trails, the innernmost and smaller trail goes around the lake near the shore while the outermost one makes a longer route keeping a fair distance to the lake. The longer route is linked to the trail network stretching around Tampere, the trails are used for jogging and cross-country skiing. Hervanta has numerous small sport fields that are used for soccer. During winter some of the fields are frozen for ice-skating and ice hockey, Hervanta also has a kind of a central park called Ahvenispuisto around lake Ahvenisjärvi. In southern part of Hervanta there is another big park called Näyttelijänpuisto, Näyttelijänpuisto has a disc golf track and a noteworthy hill that is used for tobogganing in winter. In addition to the two mentioned parks there are smaller parks. The local newspaper of Hervanta Tampere University of Technology Hervanta on Google Maps Hervanta collection in 3D Warehouse
Hervanta
–
Residential tower blocks in Hervanta
14.
Tampere, Finland
–
Tampere is a city in Pirkanmaa, southern Finland. It is the most populous city in any of the Nordic countries. The city has a population of 223,292 growing to 313,058 people in the urban area, Tampere is the second-largest urban area and third most-populous individual municipality in the country, after Helsinki and Espoo municipalities. Its also the most populous Finnish city outside the Greater Helsinki area and inner Finlands major urban, economic, Tampere is between two lakes, Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi. Since the two differ in level by 18 metres, the rapids linking them, Tammerkoski, have been an important power source throughout history. Tampere is dubbed the Manchester of Finland for its industrial past as the center of Finnish industry. Helsinki is approximately 160 kilometres south of Tampere, and can be reached in 1.5 hours by train and 2 hours by car, the distance to Turku is roughly the same. Tampere–Pirkkala Airport is Finlands third-busiest airport, with over 400,000 passengers annually, there have been many debates on the origin of the name Tampere. One theory is that it comes from the Swedish word damber, other suggestions have been the Swedish tamper-dagar, fasting days, and also the Finnish word tammi. Although the name Tampere or its Swedish counterparts Tammer- part cannot be completely confirmed, Tampere was founded as a market place on the banks of the Tammerkoski channel in 1775 by Gustav III of Sweden and four years later,1 October 1779, Tampere was granted full city rights. At this time, it was a small town, consisting of only a few square kilometres of land around the Tammerkoski. Tampere grew as a market town and industrial centre in the 19th century. The towns industrial nature in the 19th and 20th centuries gave it the nickname Manchester of the North, Tampere was the centre of many important political events of Finland in the early 20th century. On 1 November 1905, during the strike, the famous Red Declaration was proclaimed on the Keskustori. In 1918, when Finland had recently gained independence, Tampere also played a major role, Tampere was a red stronghold during the war, with Hugo Salmela in command. White forces captured the town after the Battle of Tampere, seizing about 10,000 Red prisoners on 6 April 1918, prevalent in Tamperes post-World War II municipal politics was the Brothers-in-Arms Axis. From 2007 on, Tampere switched to a new model of having a mayor and four deputy mayors, timo P. Nieminen was elected by the city council as the first mayor of Tampere for the years 2007–09. He was re-elected in 2009 and was succeeded by Anna-Kaisa Ikonen in 2013, after World War II, Tampere was enlarged by joining some neighbouring areas
Tampere, Finland
–
Clockwise from top-left: the cityscape (viewed from
Näsinneula), the
Tampere City Hall,
Särkänniemi (from Näsinneula), the
Tampere Hall, the skyline with Näsinneula,
Tammerkoski from the bridge Hämeensilta, and the
Tampere Cathedral.
Tampere, Finland
–
The old
Finlayson works.
Tampere, Finland
–
The
Renaissance Revival Raatihuone (
City Hall), 1890; the "red manifesto" was read from its balcony in 1905.
Tampere, Finland
–
Offices of
Nokia Networks in Tampere
15.
Nokia
–
Nokia Corporation, stylised as NOKIA, is a Finnish multinational communications and information technology company, founded in 1865. Nokia is headquartered in Espoo, Uusimaa, in the greater Helsinki metropolitan area, in 2014, Nokia employed 61,656 people across 120 countries, did business in more than 150 countries and reported annual revenues of around €12.73 billion. Nokia is a limited company listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is the worlds 274th-largest company measured by 2013 revenues according to the Fortune Global 500 and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the company has had various industries in its 151-year history. It was founded as a mill, and now focuses on large-scale telecommunications infrastructures. Nokias dominance also extended into the industry through its Symbian platform. Nokia eventually entered into a pact with Microsoft in 2011 to exclusively use Microsofts Windows Phone platform on future smartphones and its mobile phone business was eventually bought by Microsoft in an overall deal totaling $7.17 billion. Stephen Elop, Nokias former CEO, and several other joined the new Microsoft Mobile subsidiary of Microsoft as part of the deal. Nokia has a history, dating back to 1865 when Fredrik Idestam. A second pulp mill was created in 1868 near the town of Nokia, in 1871, Idestam together with friend Leo Mechelin formed a shared company and called it Nokia, after the town of the second pulp mill. For the next 90 years, Nokia on its own would be a forest and power industry company, in 1922, Nokia was jointly-owned with a trio partnership with Finnish Cable Works and Finnish Rubber Works. Nokia Corporation now boasted many industries including rubber, forestry, cable, electricity, in the 1970s, the newly formed conglomerate started entering the networking and radio industry. Nokia also started making military equipment for Finlands defence forces, such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, in 1979, Nokia went into a joint venture with television maker Salora, to create Mobira, which would lay out the foundation of Nokias future mobile phone division. In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone service, the worlds first international cellular network, then in 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, which can be considered as Nokias first mobile phone. At that time, though, Nokia had no interest at all in mobile phones and it is only due to the Salo, Finland-based Salora-Mobira that the idea was pushed through. In 1987, Finnish Cable Works discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory, nokian Tyres, a tyre producer that was originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit and this allowed Nokia Corporation to solely focus on communications. Jorma Ollila became CEO in 1992, Nokias first fully portable mobile phone was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987
Nokia
–
Main entrance of Nokia headquarters in
Espoo
Nokia
–
The
Nokia House, Nokia's head office located by the
Gulf of Finland in
Keilaniemi,
Espoo, was constructed between 1995 and 1997. It was the workplace of more than 1,000 Nokia employees.
16.
Euros
–
Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
Euros
–
The
central bank has
its seat in
Frankfurt (Germany) and is in charge of the monetary policy of the
euro area.
Euros
–
Euro banknotes as of 2015
Euros
–
Euro coins and banknotes of various denominations.
17.
Helsinki University of Technology
–
The Helsinki University of Technology was a technical university in Finland. It was located in Otaniemi, Espoo in the area of Greater Helsinki. The university was founded in 1849 by Grand Duke Nicholas I and it moved from Helsinki to Otaniemi campus area in 1966. It was merged into Aalto University in 2010 and briefly had the name Aalto University School of Science, much of the universitys Otaniemi campus was designed by Alvar Aalto. As the proportion of matriculation diploma holders in the student intake gradually increased, in 1908, TKK was given university status along with its present name, thus becoming the second university to be founded in Finland. In 1955, building of the new campus started with the housing village. In 1966, TKK moved from Helsinki to the new campus in Otaniemi, in 2010, TKK was merged with Helsinki School of Economics and University of Art and Design Helsinki into Aalto University. All engineering programmes offered by TKK led to the degree of diplomi-insinööri, the only exceptions to this were the architecture programmes that lead to the masters degrees of architecture and landscape architecture. From 2005, according to the Bologna process, all students also complete an intermediate degree before the DI or architects degree. This degree is considered a degree and enables enrollment in foreign universities where a bachelors degree is required. TKK did not offer programs terminating in a degree, a student might only be accepted to study for the Masters level degree. TKK required a degree from foreign students studying in English. Apart from numerous programs in Finnish language, various international Masters programs were offered exclusively for studies in English, the university was organized in four faculties, each consisting of departments and separate laboratories, and separate units not operating under any faculty. More recently, the university has invested in the research of nanotechnology, operating the largest cleanroom facility in Northern Europe. TKK was located in Otaniemi, Espoo, several high-tech companies, the Finnish forest industrys joint experimental laboratory KCL, and business incubators Innopoli and Technopolis are also situated there. It is also adjacent to Keilaniemi, with Life Science Center. The area is connected by a 15-minute bus ride to the center of Helsinki, TKK was known for its active student community and technology students are highly noticeable, as they wear a distinctive hat and often brightly colored overalls to many of their public events. The community has also organised important charity events, TKK students are also famous for, and Finlands leading practitioners of, student pranks, similar in principle to MIT hacks
Helsinki University of Technology
–
Alvar Aalto 's landmark auditorium of the main building. The
amphitheatre -like structure contains the main auditoriums, while its exterior can be used for plays and other activities.
Helsinki University of Technology
–
Logo of the Helsinki University of Technology
Helsinki University of Technology
–
The main library of the university, designed by
Alvar Aalto and built in 1970.
Helsinki University of Technology
–
A lecture of mathematics for undergraduates inside the main building.
18.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
19.
Foundation (nonprofit organization)
–
A foundation is a legal category of nonprofit organization that will typically either donate funds and support to other organizations, or provide the source of funding for its own charitable purposes. Foundations incorporate private foundations and public foundations and this type of non-profit organization differs from a private foundation which is typically endowed by an individual or family. One of the characteristics of the legal entities existing under the status of Foundations, is a diversity of structures and purposes. Nevertheless, there are common structural elements that are the first observed under legal scrutiny or classification. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. There is no commonly accepted legal definition in Europe for a foundation, there is a proposal for a European Foundation, a legal form that would be recognised throughout Europe, see European Foundation Project. The term foundation, in general, is used to describe a legal entity. Foundations as legal structures and/or legal persons, may have a diversity of forms, unlike a company, foundations have no shareholders, though they may have a board, an assembly and voting members. The foundation has a distinct patrimony independent of its founder, Foundations are often set up for charitable purposes, family patrimony and collective purposes. Foundations in Finland must have state approval and register at the National Board of Patents, a minimum capital of €25,000 is obligatory. A foundation can be created with any purpose and may have economic activity if this is specified in its Bylaws. There are not many Foundations in comparison to the rest of Europe, in practice public administration requires at least €1 million is considered necessary. States representatives have a seat in the Board. German regulations allow the creation of any foundation for public or private purposes in keeping with the concept of a gemeinwohlkonforme Allzweckstiftung, a foundation should not have commercial activities as its main purpose, but they are permitted if they serve the main purpose of the foundation. There is no minimum starting capital, although in practice at least is considered necessary, a German foundation can either be charitable or serve a private interest. If they engage in activities, only the commercially active part of the entity is taxed. A family foundation serving private interests is taxed like any other legal entity, there is no central register for German foundations. Only charitable foundations are subject to supervision by state authorities, family foundations are not supervised after establishment
Foundation (nonprofit organization)
–
Chart of a foundation
20.
College and university rankings
–
College and university rankings are rankings of institutions in higher education ordered by various combinations of various factors. Rankings have most often conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research. Some rankings evaluate institutions within a country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings usefulness and accuracy, the expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field. The variety of academic rankings provide an overview and insightful overlook of different academic institutions on composite capabilities in academia. For rankings of United States universities in particular, see Rankings of universities in the United States, several organizations produce worldwide university rankings, including the following. The ranking is funded by the Chinese government and its purpose was to measure the gap between Chinese and world class universities. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities there are no Chinese universities in the first 100 of 500 places, ARWU rankings have been cited by The Economist magazine. It has been lauded for being consistent and transparent based on an article, the education ministers of France, Norway and Denmark traveled to China to discuss and find ways to improve their rankings. ARWU does not rely on surveys and school submissions, among other criteria, ARWU includes the number of articles published by Nature or Science and the number of Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists. Harvard has topped the ranking for years, one of the primary criticisms of ARWUs methodology is that it is biased towards the natural sciences and English language science journals over other subjects. Along with QS World University Rankings and THE World University Rankings and this Saudi Arabia-based consulting organization has published yearly rankings of world universities since 2012. This university ranking is owned by the French consulting company and rating agency SMBG and it ranks masters and MBA in its 9 geographical regions. G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of only from other university websites. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each universitys website from the perspectives of other institutions. The annual U. S. News Best Global Universities rankings were produced to provide insight into how universities compare globally. The Best Global Universities rankings also provide insight into how U. S. universities – which U. S. News has been ranking separately for more than 30 years – stand globally
College and university rankings
–
Top 40 "National Universities" according to U.S. News & World Report, 2007
21.
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
–
Times Higher Education World University Rankings is an annual publication of university rankings by Times Higher Education magazine. The publisher had collaborated with Quacquarelli Symonds to publish the joint THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 before it turned to Thomson Reuters for a new ranking system. It is considered as one of the most widely observed university measures together with Academic Ranking of World Universities and it is praised for having a new improved methodology but undermining non-English-instructing institutions and being commercialized are the major criticisms. Times Higher Education chose to partner with educational and careers advice company QS to supply the data, the publication developed a new rankings methodology in consultation with its readers, its editorial board and Thomson Reuters. Thomson Reuters will collect and analyse the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the first ranking was published in September 2010. In fact, the surveys of reputation, which made up 40 percent of scores, and its clear that our research measures favored the sciences over the humanities. He went on to describe previous attempts at peer review as embarrassing in The Australian, The sample was too small. THE published its first rankings using its new methodology on 16 September 2010, the Globe and Mail in 2010 described the Times Higher Education World University Rankings to be arguably the most influential. The inaugural 2010-2011 methodology contained 13 separate indicators grouped under five categories, Teaching, research, citations, international mix, the number of indicators is up from the Times-QS rankings published between 2004 and 2009, which used six indicators. A draft of the methodology was released on 3 June 2010. The names of the categories and the weighting of each was modified in the final methodology, the overall ranking score was calculated by making Z-scores all datasets to standardize different data types on a common scale to better make comparisons among data. The reputational component of the came from an Academic Reputation Survey conducted by Thomson Reuters in spring 2010. The survey gathered 13,388 responses among scholars statistically representative of global higher educations geographical, the magazines category for industry income – innovation came from a sole indicator, institutions research income from industry scaled against the number of academic staff. The magazine stated that it used this data as proxy for high-quality knowledge transfer, the Times stated that articles published in 2009–2010 have not yet completely accumulated in the database. The magazine announced on 5 September 2011 that its 2011–2012 World University Rankings would be published on 6 October 2011, at the same time, the magazine revealed changes to the ranking formula that will be introduced with the new rankings. The methodology will continue to use 13 indicators across five categories and will keep its fundamental foundations. Teaching and research will each remain 30 percent of the overall score, however, a new international outlook – staff, students and research will be introduced and will make up 7.5 percent of the final score. One 2011–2012 indicator, the public research income, will be dropped
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
–
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
22.
Research university
–
Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
Research university
–
Degree ceremony at the
University of Oxford. The Pro-Vice-Chancellor in
MA gown and hood,
Proctor in official dress and new
Doctors of Philosophy in scarlet full dress. Behind them, a
bedel, a Doctor and Bachelors of Arts and Medicine graduate.
Research university
–
The
University of Bologna is the oldest University in history, founded in 1088.
Research university
–
Meeting of doctors at the
University of Paris. From a medieval manuscript.
Research university
–
Sapienza University of Rome is the largest university in Europe and one of the most prestigious European universities.
23.
Signal processing
–
According to Alan V. Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer, the principles of signal processing can be found in the classical numerical analysis techniques of the 17th century. Oppenheim and Schafer further state that the digitalization or digital refinement of techniques can be found in the digital control systems of the 1940s and 1950s. Feature extraction, such as understanding and speech recognition. Quality improvement, such as reduction, image enhancement. Including audio compression, image compression, and video compression and this involves linear electronic circuits as well as non-linear ones. The former are, for instance, passive filters, active filters, additive mixers, integrators, non-linear circuits include compandors, multiplicators, voltage-controlled filters, voltage-controlled oscillators and phase-locked loops. Continuous-time signal processing is for signals that vary with the change of continuous domain, the methods of signal processing include time domain, frequency domain, and complex frequency domain. This technology was a predecessor of digital processing, and is still used in advanced processing of gigahertz signals. Digital signal processing is the processing of digitized discrete-time sampled signals, processing is done by general-purpose computers or by digital circuits such as ASICs, field-programmable gate arrays or specialized digital signal processors. Typical arithmetical operations include fixed-point and floating-point, real-valued and complex-valued, other typical operations supported by the hardware are circular buffers and look-up tables. Examples of algorithms are the Fast Fourier transform, finite impulse response filter, Infinite impulse response filter, nonlinear signal processing involves the analysis and processing of signals produced from nonlinear systems and can be in the time, frequency, or spatio-temporal domains. Nonlinear systems can produce complex behaviors including bifurcations, chaos, harmonics
Signal processing
–
Seismic signal processing
Signal processing
–
This signal looks like noise, but the signal processing technique known as the
Fourier transform (below), shows that it contains five well defined frequency components.
24.
Biotechnology
–
Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the fields of bioengineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc. For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, the term is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Károly Ereky. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies, as per European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology also writes on the biological sciences. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches for interfacing with. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and this can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the definition of utilizing a biotechnological system to make products. Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise, Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest yields and these processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, in brewing, malted grains convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol, later other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteurs work in 1857, before the time of Charles Darwins work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwins theory of natural selection, for thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics, for example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained an understanding of microbiology. Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics, in 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium
Biotechnology
–
Insulin crystals
Biotechnology
–
A
rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture
Biotechnology
–
Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold
symmetry, the
zinc ions holding it together, and the
histidine residues involved in zinc binding.
25.
Biodegradable
–
Biodegradation is the disintegration of materials by bacteria, fungi, or other biological means. Although often conflated, biodegradable is distinct in meaning from compostable, while biodegradable simply means to be consumed by microorganisms, compostable makes the specific demand that the object break down under composting conditions. Organic material can be degraded aerobically with oxygen, or anaerobically, biosurfactant, an extracellular surfactant secreted by microorganisms, enhances the biodegradation process. Biodegradable matter is generally organic material serves as a nutrient for microorganisms. Microorganisms are so numerous and diverse that, a range of compounds are biodegraded, including hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Decomposition of biodegradable substances may include both biological and abiotic steps, in practice, almost all chemical compounds and materials are subject to biodegradation, the key is the relative rates of such processes - minutes, days, years, centuries. A number of factors determine the rate of organic compounds. Salient factors include light, water and oxygen, temperature is also important because chemical reactions proceed more quickly at higher temperatures. The degradation rate of organic compounds is limited by their bioavailability. Compounds must be released into solution before organisms can degrade them, Biodegradability can be measured in a number of ways. Respirometry tests can be used for aerobic microbes, first one places a solid waste sample in a container with microorganisms and soil, and then aerate the mixture. Over the course of days, microorganisms digest the sample bit by bit. Biodegradability can also be measured by anaerobic microbes and the amount of methane or alloy that they are able to produce, in formal scientific literature, the process is termed bio-remediation. In advanced societies, laundry detergents are based on linear alkylbenzenesulfonates, branched alkybenzenesulfonates, used in former times, were abandoned because they biodegrade too slowly. Plastics biodegrade at highly variable rates, pVC-based plumbing is specifically selected for handing sewage because PVC biodegrades very slowly. Some packaging materials on the hand are being developed that would degrade readily upon exposure to the environment. A prominent example is poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, the renewably derived polylactic acid, others are the cellulose-based cellulose acetate and celluloid. Under low oxygen conditions biodegradable plastics break down slower and with the production of methane, the breakdown process is accelerated in a dedicated compost heap
Biodegradable
–
Yellow
slime mold growing on a bin of wet paper
26.
Nokia Communicator
–
Nokia Communicators have Internet connectivity and clients for Internet and non-Internet communication services. The earlier 9000 series Communicators introduced features which later developed into smartphones, the latest Communicator model, the Nokia E90 Communicator, is part of the Nokia Eseries. Members of the series are, The Nokia 9300 and 9300i are very similar to the Nokia 9500 but were not marketed under the Communicator name by Nokia, likewise, the Nokia E7 from 2011 is also similar to the Communicator series, but not marketed as it. The first Nokia smartphone in the movies was Nokia Communicator 9000, in Bad Company the special phone used by Chris Rock is the Nokia 9210. List of Nokia products Nokia PC Suite OpenSync
Nokia Communicator
–
Nokia 9000 Communicator (right) Nokia 9110 Communicator (left)
Nokia Communicator
–
Nokia 9500 Communicator
Nokia Communicator
–
Nokia 9210i, 9500 and E90 Communicators
27.
Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
Laser
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United States Air Force laser experiment
Laser
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Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm) and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
Laser
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Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield
Laser
28.
Harvester (forestry)
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A harvester is a type of heavy forestry vehicle employed in cut-to-length logging operations for felling, delimbing and bucking trees. A forest harvester is typically employed together with a forwarder that hauls the logs to a roadside landing, Forest harvesters were mainly developed in Sweden and Finland and today do practically all of the commercial felling in these countries. The first fully mobile timber harvester, the PIKA model 75, was introduced in 1973 by Finnish systems engineer Sakari Pinomäki, the first single grip harvester head was introduced in the early 1980s by Swedish company SP Maskiner. Their use has become widespread throughout the rest of Northern Europe, after shearing off the tree, the operator could use his controls to cause the tree to fall either to the right or left. Unlike a harvester, it did not delimb the tree after felling it, Harvesters are employed effectively in level to moderately steep terrain for clearcutting areas of forest. For very steep hills or for removing trees, humans working with chain saws are still preferred in some countries. The principle aimed for in mechanised logging is no feet on the forest floor, keeping humans inside the driving cab of the machine provides a safer and more comfortable working environment for industrial scale logging. Harvesters are built on a robust all terrain vehicle, either wheeled, tracked or on Walking Excavator, the vehicle may be articulated to provide tight turning capability around obstacles. A diesel engine power for both the vehicle and the harvesting mechanism through hydraulic drive. An extensible, articulated boom, similar to that on an excavator, some harvesters are adaptations of excavators with a new harvester head, while others are purpose-built vehicles. These novel type of vehicles are only competitive in operations with short distances to the landing, a typical harvester head consists of a chain saw to cut the tree at its base, and also cut it to length. The saw is hydraulically powered, rather using the 2-stroke engine of a portable version. It has a more robust chain, and a power output than any saw that can be carried by a human. Two or more curved delimbing knives which reach around the trunk to remove branches, two feed rollers to grasp the tree. The wheels pivot apart to allow the tree to be embraced by the harvester head, the wheels are driven in rotation to force the cut tree stem through the delimbing knives. Diameter sensors to calculate the volume of timber harvested in conjunction with a wheel which measures the length of the stem as it is fed through the head. All of this can be controlled by one operator sitting in the cab of the vehicle, a control computer can simplify mechanical movements and can keep records of the length and diameter of trees cut. Length is computed by either counting the rotations of the wheels or, more commonly
Harvester (forestry)
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6-wheeled
Valmet harvester
Harvester (forestry)
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Small 4-wheeled Rottne harvester
Harvester (forestry)
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Timberjack harvester
Harvester (forestry)
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John Deere harvester in Sweden
29.
Times Higher Education
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Times Higher Education, formerly the Times Higher Education Supplement, is a weekly magazine based in London, reporting specifically on news and issues related to higher education. It is the United Kingdoms leading publication in its field, from its first issue, in 1971, until 2008 the Times Higher Education Supplement was published in newspaper format and was born out of, and affiliated with, The Times newspaper. On 10 January 2008, it was relaunched as a magazine and it is published by TES Global, which until October 2005 was a division of Rupert Murdochs News International. The magazine is edited by John Gill, phil Baty is the editor at large, and is responsible for international coverage. He is also the editor of the magazines World University Rankings, the magazine features a fictional satirical column written by Laurie Taylor, the Poppletonian, which reflects on life at the fictional Poppleton University. In 2011 Times Higher Education was awarded the titles of Weekly Business Magazine of the Year, Times Higher Education became known for publishing the annual Times Higher Education–QS World University Rankings, which first appeared in November 2004. On 30 October 2009 Times Higher Education broke with QS, then its partner in compiling the Rankings, the magazine developed a new methodology in consultation with its readers and its editorial board. Thomson Reuters collects and analyses the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the results have been published annually since autumn 2010. QS, which collected and analysed the data from 2004-2009. The magazine runs two sets of awards annually, the first is the Times Higher Education Awards. The 2011 awards took place on 24 November at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane, seventeen universities were given awards in different categories, with the University of Sheffield being University of the Year. Tessa Blackstone was given the Lord Dearing Lifetime Achievement Award, the University of Strathclyde was named as the University of the Year at the 2012 awards which took place on 29 November 2012 at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane. University of Strathclyde Principal and Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Jim McDonald received the award at the ceremony, the Times Higher Education Leadership and Management Awards were launched in 2009. The Thelmas were set up to recognise the impact that administrative staff have on the success of education institutions
Times Higher Education
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No. 2,048 (May 3–9, 2012)
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