1.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
2.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
3.
Cardiff
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Cardiff is the capital and largest city in Wales and the eleventh-largest city in the United Kingdom. The city is the chief commercial centre, the base for most national cultural and sporting institutions, the Welsh national media. The unitary authority areas mid-2011 population was estimated to be 346,100, the Cardiff metropolitan area makes up over a third of the total population of Wales, with a mid-2011 population estimate of about 1,100,000 people. Cardiff is a significant tourist centre and the most popular destination in Wales with 18.3 million visitors in 2010. In 2011, Cardiff was ranked sixth in the world in National Geographics alternative tourist destinations, the city of Cardiff is the county town of the historic county of Glamorgan. Cardiff is part of the Eurocities network of the largest European cities, the Cardiff Urban Area covers a slightly larger area outside the county boundary, and includes the towns of Dinas Powys and Penarth. A small town until the early 19th century, its prominence as a port for the transport of coal following the arrival of industry in the region contributed to its rise as a major city. Cardiff was made a city in 1905, and proclaimed the capital of Wales in 1955, since the 1980s, Cardiff has seen significant development. A new waterfront area at Cardiff Bay contains the Senedd building, home to the Welsh Assembly, sporting venues in the city include the Millennium Stadium, SWALEC Stadium, Cardiff City Stadium, Cardiff International Sports Stadium and Cardiff Arms Park. The city was awarded the title of European City of Sport twice, due to its role in hosting major sporting events, first in 2009. The Millennium Stadium hosted 11 football matches as part of the 2012 Summer Olympics, including the opening event. Caerdydd derives from the earlier Welsh form Caerdyf, the change from -dyf to -dydd shows the colloquial alteration of Welsh f and dd, and was perhaps also driven by folk etymology. This sound change had probably first occurred in the Middle Ages, Caerdyf has its origins in post-Roman Brythonic words meaning the fort of the Taff. The fort probably refers to that established by the Romans, the anglicised form Cardiff is derived from Caerdyf, with the Welsh f borrowed as ff /f/, as also happens in Taff and Llandaff. As English does not have the vowel the final vowel has been borrowed as /ɪ/, although some sources repeat this theory, it has been rejected on linguistic grounds by modern scholars such as Professor Gwynedd Pierce. A group of five Bronze Age tumuli is at the summit of The Garth, four Iron Age hill fort and enclosure sites have been identified within Cardiffs present-day county boundaries, including Caerau Hillfort, an enclosed area of 5.1 hectares. The fort was one of a series of military outposts associated with Isca Augusta that acted as border defences, the fort may have been abandoned in the early 2nd century as the area had been subdued. However, by this time a settlement, or vicus, was established
4.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
5.
Welsh people
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The Welsh people or the Welsh are a nation and ethnic group native to, or otherwise associated with, Wales and the Welsh language. Prior to the 20th century, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh, the term Welsh people applies to people from Wales and people of Welsh ancestry perceiving themselves or being perceived as sharing a cultural heritage and shared ancestral origins. Over 300,000 Welsh people live in London, the same etymological origin is shared by the names of various other Celtic or Latin peoples such as the Walloons and the Vlachs, as well as of the Swiss canton of Valais. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. They thus carry a sense of land of fellow-countrymen, our country, the word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century. It is attested in a poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. During their time in Britain, the ancient Romans encountered tribes in present-day Wales that they called the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli. The people of what is now Wales were not distinguished from the rest of the peoples of southern Britain, all were called Britons and spoke the common British language, a Brythonic Celtic tongue. Celtic language and culture seems to have arrived in Britain during the Iron Age, the claim has also been made that Indo-European languages may have been introduced to the British Isles as early as the early Neolithic, with Goidelic and Brythonic languages developing indigenously. The genetic evidence in this case would show that the change to Celtic languages in Britain may have occurred as a cultural rather than through migration as was previously supposed. The assumed genetic imprint of Neolithic incomers is seen as a cline, with stronger Neolithic representation in the east of Europe, when the Roman legions departed Britain around 400, a Romano-British culture remained in the areas the Romans had settled, and the pre-Roman cultures in others. According to Stephen Oppenheimer 96% of lineages in Llangefni in north Wales derive from Iberia, Genetic marker R1b averages from 83–89% amongst the Welsh. The people in what is now Wales continued to speak Brythonic languages with additions from Latin, the surviving poem Y Gododdin is in early Welsh and refers to the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin with a capital at Din Eidyn and extending from the area of Stirling to the Tyne. John Davies places the change from Brythonic to Welsh between 400 and 700, offas Dyke was erected in the mid-8th century, forming a barrier between Wales and Mercia. The genetic tests suggested that between 50% and 100% of the population of what was to become England was wiped out. In 2001, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings suggested a strong link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. The UCL research suggested a migration on a huge scale during the Anglo-Saxon period and it appears England is made up of an ethnic cleansing event from people coming across from the continent after the Romans left, said Dr Mark Thomas, of the Centre for Genetic Anthropology at UCL
6.
Crossbencher
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A crossbencher is an independent or minor party member of some legislatures, such as the British House of Lords and in the Parliament of Australia. They take their name from the crossbenches, between and perpendicular to the government and opposition benches, where crossbenchers sit in the chamber, Crossbench members of the British House of Lords are not aligned to any particular party. Until 2009, these included the Law Lords appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, in addition, former Speakers of the House of Commons and former Lord Speakers of the House of Lords, who by convention are not aligned with any party, also sit as Crossbenchers. Although non-affiliated members, and members of parties, sometimes physically sit on the crossbenches. An increasing number of Crossbenchers have been created peers for non-political reasons, since its establishment in May 2000, the House of Lords Appointments Commission has nominated a total of 67 non-party-political life peers who joined the House of Lords as Crossbenchers. From April 2007 to 2009, the number of Crossbenchers was higher than the number of Conservatives in the Lords for the first time. Although the Lords Spiritual also have no party affiliation, they are not considered Crossbenchers and do not sit on the crossbenches, the current convenor is David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead, who took the office in September 2015. While convenors are not part of the channels, they have been included in their discussions in recent years. Unlike the United Kingdom, in Australia the term is applied to those parties, the last few federal elections have seen an increase in the size and power of the crossbench in both houses of Parliament. The resulting 76–74 margin entitled Labor to form a minority government, derryn Hinch won a seat, while Liberal Democrat David Leyonhjelm, Family Firsts Bob Day, and Jacqui Lambie retained their seats. The number of crossbenchers increased by two to a record 20, the Liberal/National Coalition government required at least nine additional votes to reach a Senate majority. The term crossbencher generally is not used for the Canadian Parliament or any of the provincial or territorial legislatures, instead, any party that is not the governing party is an opposition party, with the largest of these designated the official opposition. All opposition parties other than the opposition are called third parties. Third parties and independents sit on the side of the chamber. Parties require a number of seats to have official party status for procedural purposes. Although parties without official party status behave like political parties, their members are treated as individual members, third parties have been common in Canadian legislatures since the 1920s. In particular, legislatures often contain members of an ideological party, beginning in 2016, the Independent Senators Group was formed in the Senate of Canada, fulfilling a similar purpose as Crossbenchers. The ISG was created partly as a response to Prime Minister Justin Trudeaus decision to appoint more non-partisan Senators, similar to Crossbenchers in the UK, the group has chosen a leader, and does not use a whipping system
7.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
8.
Loughborough University
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Loughborough University is a public research university located in the market town of Loughborough, Leicestershire, in the East Midlands of England. In March 2013, the university announced it had acquired the former broadcast centre at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park which opened as a campus in 2015. It was a member of the 1994 Group until the group was dissolved in November 2013, Loughborough ranks particularly highly for engineering and technology and is noted for its sports-related courses and achievements. In 2013, the university won its seventh Queens Anniversary Prize, awarded in recognition of its impact through research, the university is also rated five star for excellence by Quacquarelli Symonds through QS Star Scheme. The university traces its roots back to 1909 when a Technical Institute was founded in the town centre, there followed a period of rapid expansion during which the institute was renamed Loughborough College and the development of the present campus began. In the early years, efforts were made to mimic the environment of an Oxbridge college whilst maintaining a strong counterbalance to academic learning. During World War I, the served as an instructional factory. In 1966, the College of Advanced Technology as it had then become, in 1977, the university broadened its range of studies by amalgamating with Loughborough College of Education. More recently, in August 1998, the university merged with Loughborough College of Art, Loughborough College is still a college of further education. Schofield became principal in 1915 and continued to lead the College of Technology until 1950, over his years as principal, the College changed almost beyond recognition. He purchased the estate of Burleigh Hall on the outskirts of the town. He also oversaw the building of the original Hazlerigg and Rutland halls of residence, which are now home to the universitys administration and he further persuaded the Department of Education to buy further land and began a building programme. In 1963, the Robbins Report on higher education recommended that all colleges of advanced technology should be given the status of universities. Consequently, Loughborough College of Technology was granted a Royal Charter on 19 April 1966 and became Loughborough University of Technology and it gradually remodelled itself in the image of the plate glass universities of the period, which had also been created under Robbins. In 1977, Loughborough Training College was absorbed into the university, the Arts College was also amalgamated with the university in 1998. These additions have diluted the technological flavour of the institution, causing it to more a traditional university with its mix of humanities, arts. Consequently, in 1996, the university dropped the of Technology from its title, the shortened name Lufbra is commonly used by the students union, the alumni association and others. The universitys main campus is in the Leicestershire town of Loughborough, the Loughborough campus covers an area of 438 acres, and includes academic departments, halls of residence, the Students Union, two gyms, gardens and playing fields
9.
Sport of athletics
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Athletics is a collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running. The results of racing events are decided by finishing position, while the jumps, the simplicity of the competitions, and the lack of a need for expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the exception of relay races and competitions which combine athletes performances for a team score, organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BCE. The rules and format of the events in athletics were defined in Western Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th century. Most modern top level meetings are conducted by the International Association of Athletics Federations, the athletics meeting forms the backbone of the Summer Olympics. The foremost international athletics meeting is the IAAF World Championships in Athletics, other top level competitions in athletics include the IAAF World Cross Country Championships and the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. Athletes with a disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships. The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek ἀθλητής from ἆθλον or ἆθλος, initially, the term was used to describe athletic contests in general – i. e. sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats. In the 19th century, the term acquired a more narrow definition in Europe. This definition continues to be the most prominent one in the United Kingdom, furthermore, foreign words in many German and Roman languages which are related to the term athletics also have a similar meaning. In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, the word athletics is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics in this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to most athletics events, including racewalking, Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping and throwing are among the oldest of all sports and their roots are prehistoric. Athletics events were depicted in the Ancient Egyptian tombs in Saqqara, with illustrations of running at the Heb Sed festival, the Tailteann Games were an ancient Celtic festival in Ireland, founded around 1800 BCE, and the thirty-day meeting included running and stone-throwing among its sporting events. The original and only event at the first Olympics in 776 BCE was a running event known as the stadion. This later expanded to include throwing and jumping events within the ancient pentathlon, Athletics competitions also took place at other Panhellenic Games, which were founded later around 500 BCE. The Cotswold Olimpick Games, a festival which emerged in 17th century England. Annually, from 1796 to 1798, LOlympiade de la République was held in revolutionary France, the premier event of this competition was a running event, but various ancient Greek disciplines were also on display
10.
Celebrity
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Celebrity status is often associated with wealth, while fame often provides opportunities to make money. Successful careers in sports and entertainment are commonly associated with celebrity status, People may also become celebrities due to media attention on their lifestyle, wealth, or controversial actions, or for their connection to a famous person. Throughout recorded history there are accounts of people who attracted the trappings of celebrity which would be recognized today, athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement. Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime, in the 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder. He was promoted by the Christian Church as a martyr and images of him, the cult of personality can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th Century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation. The establishment of cultural hot-spots became an important factor in the process of generating fame, for example, London, newspapers started including gossip columns and certain clubs and events became places to be seen in order to receive publicity. The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th Century, yet, celebrity wasnt always tied to actors in films, especially when cinema was starting out as a medium. The second half of the century saw television and popular music bring new forms of celebrity, such as the rock star, unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors, for example, presenters, talk show hosts and news readers. In the sixties and early seventies the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing. In most cases the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghost-writer, cultures and regions with a significant population may have their own independent celebrity systems, with distinct hierarchies. For example, the Canadian province of Quebec, which is French-speaking, has its own system of French-speaking television, movie, a person who garners a degree of fame in one culture may be considered less famous or obscure in another. S. Whereas the francophone Canadian singer Celine Dion is well known in both the French-speaking world and in the United States, regions within a country, or cultural communities can also have their own celebrity systems, especially in linguistically or culturally distinct regions such as Quebec or Wales. Regional radio personalities, newscasters, politicians or community leaders may be local or regional celebrities and these informal rankings indicate a placing within a hierarchy. However, due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, a Brazilian actor might be a B-list action film actor in the U. S. but an A-list star in Portugal. Some elements are associated with fame, such as appearing on the cover of Time, being spoofed in Mad, having a wax statue in Madame Tussauds, certain people are known even to people unfamiliar with the area in which they excelled. If one has to name a famous boxer, they are likely to name Muhammad Ali or Mike Tyson. The same phenomenon is true for fictional characters, superman, Spider-Man, The Hulk, Wonder Woman and Batman represent super heroes to a far wider audience than that of the comics and graphic novels in which they appear. Disney have themeparks around the world rely on the fame of its creations headed by Mickey Mouse
11.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
12.
Wheelchair racing
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Wheelchair racing is the racing of wheelchairs in track and road races. Wheelchair racing is open to athletes with any qualifying type of disability, amputees, spinal injuries, cerebral palsy. Athletes are classified in accordance with the nature and severity of their disability or combinations of disabilities, like running, it can take place on a track or as a road race. The main competitions take place at the Summer Paralympics which wheelchair racing, competitors compete in specialized wheelchairs which allow the athletes to reach speeds of 30 km/h or more. It is one of the most prominent forms of Paralympic athletics, the World Wars significantly influenced societys view and treatment of individuals with disabilities. Before the wars, individuals with disabilities were considered as burdens on society, the British government is credited with being the first to recognize these needs by opening the Spinal Injuries Centre at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury, England, in 1944. Sir Ludwig Guttmann, director of this center, introduced competitive sports as an part of the rehabilitation of disabled veterans. With Guttmanns guidance, the first Stoke Mandeville Games for the Paralyzed were held in 1948, in the late 1940s, sports for rehabilitation spread throughout Europe and throughout the United States. During this time competitions and sporting events for individuals in wheelchairs emerged throughout Europe, in 1952 the first international competition for athletes in wheelchairs was organized between the British and the Netherlands. A total of 130 athletes with spinal cord injuries competed in six sports, since the beginning of the games in Stoke Mandeville wheelchair sports has expanded with the addition of many sports. Beginning with wheelchair archery, lawn bowls, table tennis, shot put, javelin, in the 1960s wheelchair basketball, fencing, snooker and weightlifting were also introduced. In 1960 the International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation was formed to allow all international competitions for individuals with spinal cord injuries, in the 1960s international sports competitions were expanded to include other disability groups who were not eligible for the World Games. There is also an event which is the wheelchair marathon. Athletes who are in a wheelchair can also participate in events as well, these include shot put, javelin. Athletes are divided into categories depending on their disability, these are spinal cord injury or an amputee, the classification guidelines are continually being changed to include more athletes. Athletes who are in a due to spinal cord injury or are an amputee are in classes T51 – T58. Classes T51 – T54 are for athletes in a wheelchair who are competing in track events, an athlete who is classed as T54 is completely functional from the waist up. An athlete who is classed as T53 has restricted movement in their abdominals, an athlete who is classed as either T52 or T51 has restricted movement in their upper limbs
13.
Disability sport classification
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Disability sports classification is a system that allows for fair competition between people with different types of disabilities. Amputee sports classification is a disability specific sport classification used for disability sports to facilitate fair competition among people with different types of amputations and this classification was set up by International Sports Organization for the Disabled, and is currently managed by IWAS who ISOD merged with in 2005. Several sports have sport specific governing bodies managing classification for amputee sportspeople, the classes for ISODs amputee sports classification system are A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8 and A9. The first four are for people with limb amputations. A5 through A8 are for people with limb amputations. The classification system developed by the CP-ISRA includes eight classes, CP1, CP2, CP3, CP4, CP5, CP6, CP7 and these classes can be generally grouped into upper wheelchair, wheelchair and ambulatory classes. CP1 is the class for upper wheelchair, while CP2, CP3, CP5, CP6, CP7 and CP8 are ambulatory classes. The Les Autres class of disabilities generally covers two classes and these are people with short stature and people with impaired passive range of movement. The latter is referred to as PROM. There are a number of open to people who fit into Les Autres classes. Historically, disability sports classification has not been specifically to people with transplants. This is because disabilities need to be permanent in nature, Classification for disability sports generally has three or four steps. The first step is generally a medical assessment, the second is generally a functional assessment. This may involve two parts, first observing a sportspeople in training and then involving observing sportspeople in competition, the purpose of classification in disability sport is to allow fair competition between people with different types of disabilities. It sees the purpose of classification as provid a structure for Competition, Classification is undertaken to ensure that an Athlete’s impairment is relevant to sport performance, and to ensure that the Athlete competes equitably with other Athletes. According to the IPC, the classification process serves two roles, the first is to determine who is eligible and the second is to group sportspeople for the purpose of competition. The eligibility minimum is an impairment that limits the ability to participate in an activity. The purpose of disability sport classification is similar to selective classification used in some sports, such selective criteria include sex, gender, age, weight or size
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T53 (classification)
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T53 is disability sport classification for disability athletics. The class includes people with a number of different types of disabilities including spinal cord injuries, people in this class have full use of their arms but have no or limited trunk function. Similar classifications are T51, T52, T53 and T54, people in this class have a functional upper limbs, but limited trunk usage and limited lower limb functionality. During classification, they undergo a bench test of muscle strength and demonstrate their skills in athletics. People in this class include Tanni Grey-Thompson, Angie Ballard and Richard Colman and this classification is for disability athletics. This classification is one of several classifications for athletes with spinal cord injuries, similar classifications are T51, T52, T53 and T54. Jane Buckley, writing for the Sporting Wheelies, describes the athletes in this classification as, Wheelchair athlete with normal arms, the Australian Paralympic Committee defines this classification as being for Athletes with normal upper limb function, with no abdominal or lower spinal strength. Some interference in their ability to perform long and forceful strokes, the International Paralympic Committee defined this class in 2011 as These athletes will have normal arm muscle power with no abdominal or lower spinal muscle activity. Use different techniques to compensate for lack of abdominal musculature including lying horizontal, when the paces quickens in a race, their acceleration is slower than the T54 class. In general when acceleration occurs, the trunk rises off the legs due to a lack of abdominal muscles to hold the trunk down, usually have to interrupt the pushing cycle to adjust the compensator. Equivalent activity limitation to person with complete cord injury at cord level T1-7, muscle power in the finger flexor and extensor muscles is functional, but there is always some weakness and resulting wasting of the intrinsic muscles of the hand. The grip on the implement is close to able-bodied and force can be imparted to the implement when throwing, the non-throwing hand grips the pole on the throwing frame. An athlete with partial to full trunk control but with an arm that fits the F52 profile is appropriately placed in this class. Disabilities included in this class include people with cerebral palsy, in track events, CP2 athletes have poor wheelchair control and may only be able to push their chair forwards using one arm. In field throwing events, CP2 competitors may have poor device release because of spasticity in their hands and their throwing motion generally is not a typical one owing to the lack of motion control. People in the CP2 class tend to use electric wheelchairs and they may have controlled shakes and twitches. This bodily activity can spike their metabolic rate and they can operate a manual wheelchair but this is restricted because of motor control issues. Functional control issues effect all or most of their limbs, CP2 competitors have better upper body control when compared to CP1
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Jade Jones (athlete)
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Jade Jones is an English wheelchair racer, competing in T54 events. Jones competed in the 2012 Summer Paralympics in the 400m, 800m and 1500m, Jones was born in Middlesbrough, England in 1996. She was born with a missing femur, Jones is a former pupil of Ormesby School in Middlesbrough and Prior Pursglove College in Guisborough, and began studying Law at the University of Teesside in September 2014. Jones was invited by wheelchair athlete, Tanni Grey-Thompson and her husband Ian Thompson, within a few weeks Jones was training under Grey-Thompson and began entering competitive sport meets in 2009. Competing in sprint racing and long distance events, Jones trained with the New Markse club, in 2011 she competed in the IPC Athletics World Championships in New Zealand. She finished 5th in T54 200m race, Jones recorded personal bests in the 400 m,800 m and 1500 m in 2012, and qualified in all three events for the 2012 Summer Paralympics. Jones failed to qualify for the finals in both the 400 m and 800 m, finishing sixth and fifth respectively. In the 1500 m she qualified through finishing 5th in the preliminary heat, in September 2012 Jones entered the Great North Run. Competing in the Junior Wheelchair event, she won the Tyne Tunnel 2k race in 4 minutes 12 seconds, in 2013, Jones qualified for the IPC Athletics World Championships in Lyon. She raced in the T54 classification distance races, reaching the finals of the 400 m,800 m,1500 m and 5000 m and her best finish was fourth in the 400 m. In 2014 Jones won her first major international medals, whilst representing Great Britain at the IPC European Championships in Swansea and she took silver in the 800m along with a bronze in the 5, 000m. Jones completed the year by winning a silver in the T54 womens race at the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, in July 2016 it was announced that Jones had been selected for her second Paralympics, in Rio
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Paralympic Games
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There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games, which since the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul, South Korea, are held almost immediately following the respective Olympic Games. All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee, the Paralympics has grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sporting events by the early 21st century. Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non-disabled Olympic athletes, but there is a funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes. Given the wide variety of disabilities that Paralympic athletes have, there are categories in which the athletes compete. The allowable disabilities are broken down into ten eligible impairment types and these categories are further broken down into classifications, which vary from sport to sport. The first athlete to do so was German American gymnast George Eyser in 1904, hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics. He was an amputee and could shoot left-handed. The first organized athletic day for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, the first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games, and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics. Dr. Guttmans aim was to create a sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games. The games were again at the same location in 1952. These early competitions, also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games, have described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games. There have been milestones in the Paralympic movement. The first official Paralympic Games, no longer open solely to war veterans, was held in Rome in 1960,400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games. Since 1960, the Paralympic Games have taken place in the year as the Olympic Games. The Games were initially only to athletes in wheelchairs, at the 1976 Summer Games, athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics. With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries, the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, South Korea, was another milestone for the Paralympic movement. It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games, in the same host city and this set a precedent that was followed in 1992,1996 and 2000. It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee and the International Olympic Committee in 2001, and was extended through 2020
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1992 Summer Paralympics
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The 1992 Summer Paralympics were the ninth Paralympic Games to be held. They were held in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, in addition, the 1992 Paralympic Games for Persons with mental handicap were held immediately after the regular Paralympics in the Spanish capital, Madrid. The games consisted of 560 events spread over fifteen sports, powerlifting and weightlifting were considered to be a single sport. Wheelchair tennis, a sport at the 1988 Summer Paralympics, was contested as an official medal sport for the first time. The United States topped the medal count with more medals, more silver medals. Germany took the most bronze medals, with 59, the Madrid medals are counted too and added in the table In the table below, the ranking sorts by the number of gold medals earned by a nation. Host country One hundred three delegations participated at the 1992 Summer Paralympics, south Africa returned to the Paralympics for the first time since being declared undesirable due to its policy of apartheid in 1980. The first Paralympic Games for Persons with mental handicap were held immediately after the regular Paralympic games in the Spanish capital of Madrid from September 15–22. The games featured a cultural group, a group of intellectually disabled men from Nagasaki who played taiko during the opening and closing ceremonies. 1992 Summer Olympics 1992 Winter Paralympics Cheating at the Paralympic Games
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100 m
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The 100 metres, or 100-metre dash, is a sprint race in track and field competitions. The shortest common outdoor running distance, it is one of the most popular and it has been contested at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men and since 1928 for women. The reigning 100 m Olympic champion is named the fastest runner in the world. The World Championships 100 metres has been contested since 1983, jamaicans Usain Bolt and Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce are the reigning world champions, Bolt and Elaine Thompson are the Olympic champions in the mens and womens 100 metres, respectively. On an outdoor 400 metres running track, the 100 m is run on the home straight, runners begin in the starting blocks and the race begins when an official fires the starters pistol. Sprinters typically reach top speed after somewhere between 50–60 m and their speed then slows towards the finish line. The 10-second barrier has historically been a barometer of fast mens performances, the current mens world record is 9.58 seconds, set by Jamaicas Usain Bolt in 2009, while the womens world record of 10.49 seconds set by American Florence Griffith-Joyner in 1988 remains unbroken. The 100 m emerged from the metrication of the 100 yards, the event is largely held outdoors as few indoor facilities have a 100 m straight. US athletes have won the mens Olympic 100 metres title more times than any country,16 out of the 28 times that it has been run. US women have dominated the event winning 9 out of 21 times. At the start, some athletes play psychological games such as trying to be last to the starting blocks, at high level meets, the time between the gun and first kick against the starting block is measured electronically, via sensors built in the gun and the blocks. A reaction time less than 0.1 s is considered a false start, the 0. 2-second interval accounts for the sum of the time it takes for the sound of the starters pistol to reach the runners ears, and the time they take to react to it. For many years a sprinter was disqualified if responsible for two false starts individually, however, this rule allowed some major races to be restarted so many times that the sprinters started to lose focus. The next iteration of the rule, introduced in February 2003, meant that one false start was allowed among the field, but anyone responsible for a subsequent false start was disqualified. To avoid such abuse and to improve spectator enjoyment, the IAAF implemented a change in the 2010 season – a false starting athlete now receives immediate disqualification. This proposal was met with objections when first raised in 2005, justin Gatlin commented, Just a flinch or a leg cramp could cost you a years worth of work. The rule had an impact at the 2011 World Championships. Runners normally reach their top speed just past the point of the race
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200 m
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The 200 metres is a sprint running event. On an outdoor 400 m track, the race begins on the curve and ends on the home straight, a slightly shorter race, called the stadion and run on a straight track, was the first recorded event at the ancient Olympic Games. The 200 m places more emphasis on speed endurance than shorter sprint distances as athletes rely on different energy systems during the longer sprint, in the United States and elsewhere, athletes previously ran the 220-yard dash instead of the 200 m, though the distance is now obsolete. The standard adjustment used for the conversion from times recorded over 220 yards to 200 m times is to subtract 0.1 seconds, another obsolete version of this race is the 200 metres straight, which was run on tracks that contained such a straight. Initially, when the International Amateur Athletic Association started to ratify world records in 1912, in 1951, the IAAF started to recognise records set on a curved track. In 1976, the record was discarded. The race attracts runners from other events, primarily the 100 metres, wishing to double up, marion Jones finished first in both races in 2000 but was later disqualified and stripped of her medals after admitting to taking performance-enhancing drugs. An Olympic double of 200 m and 400 m was first achieved by Valerie Brisco-Hooks in 1984, Usain Bolt is the only man to repeat as Olympic champion, Bärbel Wöckel and Veronica Campbell-Brown are the two women who have repeated as Olympic champion. The mens world record holder is Usain Bolt of Jamaica, who ran 19. 19s at the 2009 World Championships, the womens world record holder is Florence Griffith-Joyner of the United States, who ran 21. 34s at the 1988 Summer Olympics. The reigning Olympic champions are Usain Bolt and Elaine Thompson, the reigning World Champions are Bolt and Dafne Schippers. Races run with an aiding wind measured over 2.0 metres per second are not acceptable for record purposes, only the fastest time for each athlete is listed. A = Altitude Correct as of January 2017. Below is a list of all other legal times inside 19.60, yohan Blake also ran 19.44,19.54. Below is a list of all other legal times inside 21.80, merlene Ottey also ran 21.66,21.77. Marita Koch also ran 21.76,21.78. Below is a list of all other legal times inside 22.45, merlene Ottey also ran 22.24,22.34,22.37. A Known as the World Indoor Games IAAF list of 200-metres records in XML All time 200m men records
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400 m
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The 400 metres, or 400 metre dash, is a common sprinting event in track and field competitions. It has been featured in the programme at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men. On a standard running track, it is one lap around the track. Runners start in staggered positions and race in separate lanes for the entire course. In many countries, athletes competed in the 440 yard dash —which is a quarter of a mile and was referred to as the quarter-mile—instead of the 400 m. An athlete who competes in the 400 m may still be referred to as quarter-miler, while considered to be predominantly an anaerobic event, there is some aerobic involvement and the degree of aerobic training required for 400 metre athletes is open to debate. The current mens record is held by Wayde van Niekerk, with a time of 43.03 seconds, van Niekerk is also the reigning world. The world indoor record holder is Kerron Clement, in 44.57 seconds, the current womens world record is held by Marita Koch, with a time of 47.60 seconds. Allyson Felix is the womens world champion, while Shaunae Miller holds the womens Olympic title. The mens T43 Paralympic world record of 45.07 seconds is held by Oscar Pistorius. An Olympic double of 200 metres and 400 m was first achieved by Valerie Brisco-Hooks in 1984, alberto Juantorena of Cuba at the 1976 Summer Olympics became the first and so far the only athlete to win both the 400 m and 800 m Olympic titles. The Olympic champion has won a second gold medal in the 4 ×400 metres relay. From 31 appearances in the Olympic Games, the gold medallist came from the USA19 times. A = affected by altitude Correct as of January 2017. Below is a list of all other times equal or superior to 43.80, Wayde van Niekerk also ran 43.48. Jeremy Wariner also ran 43.50,43.62, LaShawn Merritt also ran 43.74,43.75. Below is a list of all other times superior to 48.80, jarmila Kratochvílová also ran 48.45,48.61. Olga Vladykina / Bryzgina also ran 48.60,48.65, multiple 400 metres victories at the Olympic Games and World Championships,6 wins, Michael Johnson - Olympic Champion in 1996 and 2000, World Champion in 1993,1995,1997 and 1999
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800 m
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The 800 metres, or 800 meters, is a common track running event. It is the shortest common middle-distance running event, the 800 metres is run over two laps of the track and has been an Olympic event since the first games in 1896. During indoor track season the event is run on a 200-metre track. The event was derived from the measurement of a half a mile. Imperial racing distances were common in the United States, american high schools were the last to convert to metric distances in 1980, following the NCAAs conversion in 1976. Countries associated to the English system converted to metric distances after the 1966 Commonwealth Games,800 m is 4.67 m less than half a mile. The event combines aerobic endurance with anaerobic conditioning and sprint speed, both the aerobic and anaerobic systems are being taxed to a high extent, thus the 800 metre athlete is required to combine training between both systems. If they are so inclined,400 m runners are encouraged to run the 200 metres while 800 m runners are encouraged to run the 1500 metres. The 800 m event is known for its tactical racing techniques. Because the 800 m event is the shortest event that has all the runners converge on lane one and it is commonly believed that getting the first or second position early in the race is advantageous as these positions are not usually caught up in the pack. Olympic champions Dave Wottle, Yuriy Borzakovskiy and others have defied that logic by running a more evenly paced race, lagging behind the pack and kicking past the slowing early leaders. Often the winner of 800 m races at high levels are not determined by the strongest runner and this can lead to the most exciting aspect of the 800 m which is its high probability of an upset. Two common tactics for the 800 meters are running a split or a positive split between laps. The positive split is widely considered to be the more effective strategy, a positive split is achieved by running the first lap faster than the second lap, and a negative split is achieved by the opposite, running the second lap faster than the first. The current world record holder, David Rudisha, runs using a positive split strategy, in his 2012 Olympic race, he ran his first lap in 49.28 seconds and his second lap in 51.63 seconds. Theoretically, a split is the most effective strategy. As of August 2016 As of August 2016, World junior records are held by Nijel Amos and Pamela Jelimo. Both marks coincidentally rank them as the third fastest ever, a Known as the World Indoor Games IAAF list of 800-metres records in XML
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1996 Summer Paralympics
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The 1996 Paralympic Games in Atlanta, USA were held from August 16 to 25. It was the first Paralympics to get mass media sponsorship, and had a budget of USD $81 million and it was the first Paralympic Games where International Sports Federation for Persons with an Intellectual Disability athletes were given full medal status. The mascot for the Paralympic Summer Games in Atlanta 1996 was Blaze, Blaze was created by Trevor Stone Irvin of Irvin Productions in Atlanta. Blaze is a phoenix, a bird that rises from ashes to experience a renewed life. The phoenix appears in Egyptian, Arabian, Chinese, Russian and Native American folklore and in all instances symbolizes strength, vision, inspiration and survival. The phoenix was a mascot for the 1996 Atlanta Paralympic Games and later for BlazeSports America. The phoenix has long been the symbol of Atlanta’s rebirth after its devastation in the American Civil War, but most importantly, it is the personification of the will, perseverance and determination of youth and adults with physical disability to achieve full and productive lives. Today, Blaze is the most recognizable symbol of disability sport in America, the games consisted of 508 events spread over twenty sports, including three demonstration sports. E. The host country, the United States, topped the medal count with more medals, more bronze medals. Germany took the most silver medals, with 58, in the table below, the ranking sorts by the number of gold medals earned by the top ten nations. The number of medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. Host country One-hundred and four delegations participated in the Atlanta Paralympics,1996 Summer Olympics BlazeSports America, the legacy organization of the 1996 Paralympic Games International Paralympic Committee Official site at the Wayback Machine
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2000 Summer Paralympics
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The 2000 Paralympic Games were held in Sydney, Australia, from 18 to 29 October. In September 1993, Sydney won the rights to host the 2000 Paralympic Games, to secure this right it was expected that the New South Wales Government would underwrite the budget for the games. The Sydney games were the eleventh Summer Paralympic Games, where an estimated 3800 athletes took part in the programme and they commenced with the opening ceremony on 18 October 2000. It was followed by the 11 days of international competition and was the second largest sporting event ever held in Australia. They were also the first Paralympic Games outside the Northern Hemisphere, the games was estimated to cost $157 million, with the NSW Government and Commonwealth Government contributing $25 million each. The Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games contributed $18 million, the Sydney Paralympic Organising Committee entered into a Host City contract with the International Paralympic Committee, which outlines the SPOC’s obligations in hosting the Paralympic Games. To cover the costs, other revenue was raised via sponsorship, though there is no budgeted profit, if any profit is made though the games, repayment to the Federal and State Governments is the first priority. In October 1998, governing bodies of the Paralympics including the SOCOG, an estimated total of forty-one thousand Australians answered this call, non-including those sourced from specialist community groups. The major focus between 1999-2000 was completion of the first stage of the Millennium Parklands and this is composed of 450 hectares of landscape, with up to 40 kilometers of pedestrian and cycle trails. This major first stage included focus on the surrounding Olympic facilities, providing a landscape for recreational activities, conservation. During this time work on the Water Reclamation and Management Scheme will continue to progress, the WRAMS will be in use during the games with the first stage to be implemented. This system will continue after the games, and will be developed after the games has been completed. The WRAMS system is one of the many water saving management strategies to be used during the games period. Stormwater from the Stadium Australia roof is to be collected and used to irrigate the central stadium, the Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee. The Games were organised by the Sydney Paralyampic Organising Committee led by President Dr John Grant, the SOCOG was established at the same time as the Sydney Paralympic organising Committee on 12 November 1993 by the Office of Olympic Co-ordination. In January 1995, SPOC became a company controlled by the Government. A board of directors including the Premier, Minister for the Olympics, the Treasurer and the Minister for Sport, the Sydney Paralympic Organising Committee also regulated the use of Paralympic Games indicia and images. On 29 November, the Sydney Games Administration Act 2000 was passed, the legislation caused the Sydney Paralympic Organising Committee to dissolve from 1 January 2001, its assets and liabilities were transferred to the Olympic Coordination Authority
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2004 Summer Paralympics
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3,806 athletes from 136 National Paralympic Committees competed. 519 medal events were held in 19 sports, four new events were introduced to the Paralympics in Athens, 5-a-side football for the blind, quads wheelchair tennis, and a womens competition in sitting volleyball and in the judo. A total of 1567 medals were awarded during the Athens games,519 gold,516 silver, china topped the medal count with more gold medals, more silver medals, and more medals overall than any other nation. In the table below, the ranking sorts by the number of medals earned by a nation. Chantal Petitclerc of Canada won five golds and set three records in wheelchair racing, while Swedish shooter Jonas Jacobsson took four gold medals. Frances Béatrice Hess won her nineteenth and twentieth Paralympic gold medals in swimming, swimmer Trischa Zorn of the United States won just one medal, a bronze, but it was her 55th ever Paralympic medal. She retained her position as the most successful Paralympian of all times, the opening ceremony for the 2004 Summer Paralympics took place on September 17,2004. The show started with children passing on knowledge and raising their lights to the sky and this was a reference to Hippocrates, who transferred knowledge to the children. A26 meters tall olive tree symbolising life stood in the middle of the arena, the opening ceremony also featured a performance with human drama, with light and with music, in an allegory about obstacles and limits. The Parade of Delegations was accompanied by the music of French composers Yves Stepping, the music told the legend of Hephaestos, god of fire and son of Zeus and Hera. An athlete from Turkmenistan propelled himself around the stadium by doing somersaults, Greece, the home team, received a strong cheer. After that, fireworks erupted at the stadium, there were 150 local support staff involved and 400 volunteers. The children were from ages 8 to 17, coming from Australia, France, Spain, Greece, the Games were officially declared opened by Greek president Costis Stephanopoulos and Philip Craven, the president of the International Paralympic Committee. They were accompanied by the head of the organizing committee Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, who told the athletes, many of you will leave Athens with medals, but all of you will leave as champions. Phil Craven quoted Democritus in his speech, Two thousand years ago and this holds true for all athletes, but especially for Paralympians. Recognising and cultivating your unique abilities and mastering challenges – you set standards and give expression for people, young and old. The Paralympic flame was lit by Greek athlete Georgios Toptsis, the closing ceremony for the 2004 Summer Paralympics took place on September 28,2004. The artistic and entertainment part of the ceremony will not take place, flags were flown at half mast and a minutes silence was observed
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1988 Summer Paralympics
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The 1988 Summer Paralympics, were the first Paralympics in 24 years to take place in the same city as the Olympic Games. They took place in Seoul, South Korea and this was the first time the term Paralympic came into official use. The 1988 Summer Paralympics were the first Paralympic Games to be held under the aegis of the International Co-ordinating Committee, the ICC was accepted into the Olympic Family, which allowed greater co-operation by National Olympic Committees in regards to the organization of Paralympic Games. The SLOOC gave a subsidy of $12,857,143 US dollars, the Seoul Paralympic Organizing Committee designed the first Paralympic Symbol which was used from 1988-1994. The Five teardrops in the W configuration and colours of the Olympic rings represented the five oceans and this symbol was eventually changed in 1994, as it was considered to be too close to the International Olympic Committees 5-ring emblem. The 1988 Seoul Paralympic Games is considered as the genesis of the Modern Paralympic Games, during the Opening Ceremony there were more than 75,000 people within the Olympic Stadium with a then record of 3,057 competitors from 61 nations. The President of South Korea, Roh Tae-Woo, presented the new Paralympic flag to the President of the ICC, paul Croft, competing in his second Paralympic Games, was the flag bearer for Australia during the Opening Ceremony. Parachutists in the Paralympic colors of blue, black, red, yellow, the Seoul Paralympic Games were not without controversies. The Iranian goalball team were disqualified for refusing to play against the Israeli team and it was deemed that the Iranian team had misused the sporting platform for political aims by the ICC who made immediate arrangements to send the team home. A Libyan team arrived at the Seoul Paralympic Games without having gone through the entry procedures. The SPOC urged the ICC to accept the Libyan team and a compromise was reached and they could compete in the marathon event, however they would not have any medal entitlement, nor would they be officially recognized at the Closing Ceremony. Twenty-seven athletes were awarded medals after the first round of competition in the mens and womens wheelchair slalom event. The mistake was discovered when officials realised that the medals should not have been awarded until after a round of competition. The games consisted of events in seventeen sports, including one demonstration sport, powerlifting and weightlifting were considered to be a single sport. The host nation, South Korea, is highlighted, sixty delegations took part in the Seoul Paralympics. Burma, which had part in the previous Games, was absent. The Seoul Paralympics occurred mere weeks after the 8888 Uprising and the coup which brought the State Peace. Burma would return as Myanmar in 1992, the Soviet Union made its Summer Paralympic début, having previously taken part in the 1988 Winter Paralympics
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IPC Athletics World Championships
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The World ParaAthletics Championships, known as the IPC Athletics World Championships prior to 2017, is an event organized by the International Paralympic Committee. Athletes with a disability compete, and in a few events athletes with an intellectual disability compete. Originally it was organised every four years, but this changed in 2011, the first IPC Athletics World Championships was held in Berlin, Germany in 1994. The London event will also be the first branded as the World ParaAthletics Championships
27.
Television presenter
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A presenter is a person who introduces or hosts television programs. Some presenters may double as an actor, model, singer, others may be subject matter experts, such as scientists or politicians, serving as presenters for a programme about their field of expertise. Some are celebrities who have made their name in one area, another example would be American stand-up comedian Joe Rogan, who is a commentator and post-fight interviewer in UFC. The term is used in other countries including Ireland, Australia. In the US, such a person is called a host
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Northumbria University
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Northumbria University, officially the University of Northumbria at Newcastle, is a university located in Newcastle upon Tyne in the North East of England. A former polytechnic, it was established as one of the new universities in 1992 and it is a member of the University Alliance and the second university of Newcastle. In 1969, these three institutions were amalgamated to form Newcastle Polytechnic, the Polytechnic became the major regional centre for the training of teachers with the incorporation of the City College of Education in 1974, and the Northern Counties College of Education in 1976. In 1992, Newcastle Polytechnic was inaugurated as the new Northumbria University as part of the UK-wide process in which polytechnics became new universities. It was originally styled, and its name still is. In 1995, it was awarded responsibility for the education of healthcare professionals, the university has two large campuses. City Campus East is home to the Schools of Law, Design, NBS and Law are housed in one building, and the School of Design is across a courtyard. City Campus East, designed by Atkins, opened in September 2007, winning awards from The Journal newspaper, City Campus West is home to the Schools of Arts & Social Sciences, Built & Natural Environment, Computing, Engineering & Information Sciences and Life Sciences. Also located on campus is the University Library, Students Union building and Sport Central, a £31m sports facility for students, staff. The Students Union building, at City Campus West, underwent a makeover with new lobby and recreational facilities. In September 2016 the Sandyford Building was acquired from Newcastle College, a second campus is located 2.6 miles outside of Newcastle, on Coach Lane, and is known as the Coach Lane Campus at Cochrane Park near the A188. It is in the Dene ward near Longbenton and round the corner from Tyneview Park, the Coach Lane Campus is home to School of Health, Community and Education Studies. A free shuttle bus runs between the two campuses. Northumbria University has a campus in Central London that was opened in 2014 and this campus concentrates mainly on business courses offering postgraduate Master of Science degrees in Marketing, Financial Management and International management. The campus is located close to a number of stations such as Aldgate. Postgraduate students studying with Northumbria University at the London Campus can also gain an internship as part of their studies, Northumbria describes itself as a comprehensive university, offering 30 of Britains 32 most frequently chosen academic disciplines. It specialises in law and business, arts and design, computing, environmental science, built environment, applied healthcare, sports science and psychology, Northumbria also offers clinical courses in law accredited by the Law Society and Bar Council. These allow graduates direct entry to the profession, the service is run as a full legal service, just like any other firm of solicitors
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Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
30.
Hodder & Stoughton
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Hodder & Stoughton is a British publishing house, now an imprint of Hachette. The firm has its origins in the 1840s, with Matthew Hodders employment, aged fourteen, with Messrs Jackson and Walford, the official publisher for the Congregational Union. In 1861 the firm became Jackson, Walford and Hodder, but in 1868 Jackson and Walford retired, Hodder & Stoughton published both religious and secular works, and its religious list contained some progressive titles. These included George Adam Smiths Isaiah for its Expositor’s Bible series, there was also a sympathetic Life of St Francis by Paul Sabatier, a French Protestant pastor. Matthew Hodder made frequent visits to North America, meeting with the Moody Press and making links with Scribners, the secular list only gradually accepted fiction, and it was still subject to moral censorship in the early part of the twentieth century. Matthew Hodder was doubtful about the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, and the company refused Michael Arlens The Green Hat, a novel published by Collins in 1924. In 1922 Hodder and Stoughton published an edition of Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland, in 1928, the company became the exclusive British hardback publisher of Leslie Charteriss adventure novel series, The Saint, publishing all 50 UK first editions of the series until 1983. In this decade they took over ownership of the medical journal. Hodder & Stoughton were also the originators of the Teach Yourself line of self-instruction books, as the company expanded at home and overseas, Hodder & Stoughtons list swelled to include the real life adventures in Pearys North Pole and several works by Winston Churchill. During the war, Ralph Hodder Williams set up the Brockhampton Book Co. to sell off overstocks of theological works. The manager, Ernest Roker, had an interest in books and managed to persuade author Enid Blyton to write a series of books for them about four children. In 1942, the Famous Five series was born with Five on a Treasure Island, in 1962, Brockhampton took over the childrens writer Elinor Lyon, whose novels the parent company had introduced in 1948. Hodder & Stoughton also published the Biggles books by Captain W. E. Johns, Hodder & Stoughton published their first original Biggles book in 1942 with Biggles Sweeps the Desert around Sept/Oct of that year and the Brockhampton Press published Johns Gimlet books from 1947. Hodder & Stoughton also published some of Johns Worrals books, Hodder & Stoughton eventually published 35 Biggles first editions and Brockhampton Press published a further 29 Biggles first editions. In 1953 they published Sir John Hunts successful The Ascent of Everest, in the 1970s, they brought the Knight and Coronet imprints into common use. The latter is memorable for David Nivens much-celebrated autobiography The Moons a Balloon. The non-fiction publishing included Anthony Sampsons era-defining The Anatomy of Britain in 1962, another notable title in the childrens sphere was the 1969 Brockhampton Press publication of Asterix the Gaul by Goscinny and Uderzo. In 1974, John le Carré’s Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy was published to critical acclaim
31.
Seoul
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The Seoul Capital Area houses up to half of the countrys population of 50.22 million people with 678,102 international residents. Situated on the Han River, Seouls history stretches back more than two years when it was founded in 18 BCE by Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It continued as the capital of Korea under the Joseon Dynasty, the Seoul Capital Area contains five UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Changdeok Palace, Hwaseong Fortress, Jongmyo Shrine, Namhansanseong and the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Seoul is surrounded by mountains, the tallest being Mt. Bukhan, in 2015, it was rated Asias most livable city with the second highest quality of life globally by Arcadis. In 2014, the citys GDP per capita of $39,786 was comparable to that of France and Finland. Ranked sixth in the Global Power City Index and Global Financial Centres Index, Seoul is the worlds most wired city and ranked first in technology readiness by PwCs Cities of Opportunity report. It is served by the KTX high-speed rail and the Seoul Subway, providing 4G LTE, WiFi, Seoul is connected via AREX to Incheon International Airport, rated the worlds best airport nine years in a row by Airports Council International. Lotte World Tower, a 556-metre supertall skyscraper with 123 floors, has built in Seoul and become the OECDs tallest in 2016. Its Lotte Cinema houses the worlds largest cinema screen, Seouls COEX Mall is the worlds largest underground shopping mall. Seoul hosted the 1986 Asian Games,1988 Summer Olympics,2002 FIFA World Cup, the Miss Universe 1980 pageant, a UNESCO City of Design, Seoul was named the 2010 World Design Capital. The city has known in the past by the names Wirye-seong, Hanju. During Japans annexation in Korea, Hanseong was renamed to Keijō by the Imperial authorities to prevent confusion with the hanja 漢, in reality, the ancient name of Seoul, Hanseong, originally had the meaning of big or vast. Its current name originated from the Korean word meaning city, which is believed to be derived from the word Seorabeol, which originally referred to Gyeongju. Unlike most place names in Korea, Seoul has no corresponding hanja, on January 18,2005, Seoul government officially changed its official Chinese language name to Shouer from the historic Hancheng, of which use is becoming less common. Settlement of the Han River area, where present-day Seoul is located, Seoul is first recorded as Wiryeseong, the capital of Baekje in the northeastern Seoul area. There are several city walls remaining in the area date from this time. Pungnaptoseong, a wall just outside Seoul, is widely believed to have been at the main Wiryeseong site. As the Three Kingdoms competed for this region, control passed from Baekje to Goguryeo in the 5th century
32.
Wheelchair basketball
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Wheelchair basketball is basketball played by people with varying physical disabilities that disqualify them from playing an able-bodied sport. These include spina bifida, birth defects, cerebral palsy, paralysis due to accident, amputations, the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation is the governing body for this sport. It is recognized by the International Paralympic Committee as the competent authority in wheelchair basketball worldwide. FIBA has recognized IWBF under Article 53 of its General Statutes, the IWBF has 82 National Organizations for Wheelchair Basketball actively participating in wheelchair basketball throughout the world, with this number increasing each year. It is estimated more than 100,000 people play wheelchair basketball from recreation to club play. Wheelchair basketball is played by boys, girls, men and women, Wheelchair basketball is included in the Paralympic Games. The Wheelchair Basketball World Championship is played two years after every Paralympic Games, major competition in wheelchair basketball comes from Canada, Australia, the United States, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Japan. In 1944, Ludwig Guttmann, through the program at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital, in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, England. It was known as wheelchair netball, at around the same times, starting from 1946, wheelchair basketball games were played primarily between American World War II disabled veterans. This began in the United States at the University of Illinois, dr. Timothy Nugent founded the National Wheelchair Basketball Association in 1949 and served as Commissioner for the first 25 years. The Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Games, held in 1947, were the first games to be held and included only a handful of participants, growth in both the number of wheelchair events and participants came quickly. Wheelchair netball was introduced in the 1948 Games, in 1952, a team from the Netherlands was invited to compete with the British team. This became the first International Stoke-Mandeville Games, an event that has been held ever since. Wheelchair basketball, as we know it now, was first played at the 1956 International Stoke-Mandeville Games, the US Pan Am Jets team won the tournament. In 1973, the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation established the first sub-section for wheelchair basketball, at that time ISMGF was the world governing body for all wheelchair sports. In 1989 ISMGF accepted for its former wheelchair basketball sub-section to be named International Wheelchair Basketball Federation, full independence came in 1993 with the IWBF becoming the world body for wheelchair basketball with full responsibility for development of the sport. World championships for the sport have been held since 1973, with Bruges, the first world championship for men was won by Great Britain. Of the first 11 mens world championships, six were won by the United States, Canada has won four of the womens world championship titles, and the United States two
33.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
34.
London Marathon
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The London Marathon is a long-distance running event held in London, United Kingdom, part of the World Marathon Majors. The event was first run on 29 March 1981 and has held in the spring of every year since. Since 2010, the race has been sponsored by Virgin Money, the most recent event was the 2016 London Marathon on 24 April 2016. The next London Marathon will be run on 23 April 2017, the race was founded by the former Olympic champion and journalist Chris Brasher and athlete John Disley. It is organised by Hugh Brasher as Race Director and Nick Bitel as Chief Executive, set over a largely flat course around the River Thames, the race begins at three separate points around Blackheath and finishes in The Mall alongside St. Jamess Park. Since the first marathon, the course has undergone very few route changes, in 1982, the finishing post was moved from Constitution Hill to Westminster Bridge due to construction works. It remained there for years before moving to its present location at The Mall. In 2007, 78% of all runners raised money, in 2011 the official charity of the London Marathon was Oxfam. In 2014, the charity was Anthony Nolan, and in 2015. The London Marathon was not the first long-distance running event held in the city, the Polytechnic Marathon was first held in 1909. The current London Marathon was founded in 1981 by former Olympic champion and journalist Chris Brasher, inspired by the people of New York coming together for this occasion, he asked whether London could stage such a festival. The following year Brasher and Disley made trips to America to study the organisation, the first London Marathon was held on 29 March 1981, more than 20,000 applied to run. 6,747 were accepted and 6,255 crossed the line on Constitution Hill. The Marathons popularity has grown since then. As at 2009,746,635 people have completed the race since its inception, in 2010,36,549 people crossed the line, the biggest field since the race began. The first wheelchair race was held in 1983 and the event was credited with reducing the stigma surrounding disabled athletes. In 2013 the IPC Athletics Marathon World Cup was held within the London Marathon featuring athletes of both genders in the T42–T46 and T11–T13 categories. In August 2013 it was announced that the event would be staged in London until 2017 and feature athletes in the T11-T12, T13, T42-T44, T43, T45-46, T51-52 and the T53-54 class
35.
BBC Cymru Wales
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BBC Cymru Wales is a division of the BBC, and the national broadcaster for Wales. Established in 1964, BBC Cymru Wales is based in Cardiff and directly employs some 1,200 people to produce a range of programmes for television, radio, BBC Cymru Wales operates two TV channels and two radio stations. Wales raises some £182 million in licence fee resources, however, spend on local content by BBC Wales is £151 million, £31 million of which is for BBC-produced television productions. BBC Cymru Wales operates two services, BBC One Wales and BBC Two Wales, which can opt out of the main network feed of BBC One. In addition to two channels, BBC Cymru Wales is required to provide programmes in Welsh, which it supplies to the Welsh channel S4C free of charge using the BBC Cymru brand. These programmes include a Welsh news service Newyddion, covering Welsh, general UK and international news, and a soap opera Pobol y Cwm, BBC Cymru Wales operates two radio stations covering the entire country. BBC Radio Wales is the English language network, broadcasting local programmes for approximately 20 hours a day, while off air, Radio Cymru simulcasts BBC Radio 5 Lives overnight programme. BBC Cymru Wales operates its own mini-site on BBC Online as well as providing news, in addition, news stories are provided for the BBC Red Button interactive service. BBC Cymru Wales employs an orchestra, the BBC National Orchestra of Wales. The majority of the concerts are recorded for broadcast on BBC Radio 3, BBC Radio Wales. Since January 2009 the administrative base of the NOW has been the BBC Hoddinott Hall, in the Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff. The first broadcast in Wales was on 13 February 1923 from the radio station 5WA, later to become part of the BBC Regional Programme, during this time, the region was served from a variety of bases around Wales. During World War II, the services all ceased and broadcast the Home Service from London. The BBCs Bangor base played host to the BBC Variety Department during the war, the first television signals in Wales came on 15 August 1952 from the newly constructed Wenvoe transmitter. The transmitter itself broadcast the national BBC Television service, the launch of BBC Wales on 9 February 1964 provided a specific television service for the country. The new service was promoted with animated promos using the sound of Welsh choirs to explain about interference from the mountains. Two years later in 1966, BBC Cymru Wales new headquarters at Broadcasting House in Cardiff opened, following the end of the Second World War, the BBC Home Service continued its regional opt-outs, including an opt-out service for Wales. This opt-out continued after the change from the Home Service to Radio 4, prior to 1982, BBC Cymru Wales on television provided programmes in both English and Welsh, with the news programme Heddiw and the long-running serial Pobol y Cwm figuring among the key output
36.
S4C
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S4C is a Welsh-language public-service television channel based in Cardiff and broadcast throughout Wales. When digital television arrived several years later, S4C added a second, 100% Welsh-language service, S4C does not commission programming in English, but when English is used on the channel it is left untranslated. A high-definition service called S4C Clirlun, simulcasting S4Cs main channel, Channel 4 HD began broadcasting in Wales from 2 December 2012 in its place. In 1962 the ITV network had created an area for North and West Wales. This traded as Teledu Cymru and provided significant levels of Welsh-language programming, however, problems with transmission infrastructure and poor market research led to financial difficulties within two years and the station was taken over by its neighbour Television Wales and West. During the 1970s, Welsh-language activists had campaigned for a TV service in the language, both the Conservative and Labour parties promised a Welsh-language fourth channel, if elected to government in the 1979 general election. This led to acts of disobedience, including refusals to pay the television licence fee, thereby running the risk of prosecution or even a prison sentence. Some took more extreme measures, including attacking television transmitters in Welsh-speaking areas, the channel started broadcasting on 1 November 1982, the night before Channel 4s opening. S4C appointed its first female CEO, Iona Jones in 2005, S4Cs remit is to provide a service which features a wide range of programmes in the Welsh language. BBC Wales fulfils its public service requirement by producing programmes in Welsh, including Newyddion, S4Cs news bulletin, and an opera, Pobol y Cwm. It has also provided Welsh-language versions of English-language programmes, e. g, on the analogue service, S4C showed programmes produced for Channel 4 in the rest of the United Kingdom ― either simultaneously or time-shifted ― outside of peak hours. These programmes were provided to S4C by Channel 4, free of charge, to make content more accessible to English speakers, all Welsh-language programming carries English subtitles. Originally these were on Teletext page 888, with Welsh subtitles on page 889, TV films produced for S4C have received some good foreign reviews, Hedd Wyn was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Oscar in 1994 and Solomon & Gaenor was nominated in 2000. The S4C analogue signal also spilled over on to the east coast of the Republic of Ireland, in the past it was rebroadcast in a number of areas there on UHF terrestrial signals by so-called deflectors, however Channel 4 is now re-transmitted from satellite by the few remaining deflectors. Up until the 1990s, S4C was also carried by some Irish cable, the S4C signal also continues to overspill into the Republic of Ireland via the Freesat satellite service. Up until 2009, S4C ran its own service, Sbectel. According to S4Cs latest annual report,9.9 million people viewed the channel throughout the UK during 2015-2016, with 629,000 viewers throughout the UK in an average week. Following the switch-off of analogue terrestrial signals on 31 March 2010, Wales became the first fully digital region in the UK, with both S4C and Channel 4 now available to all homes
37.
BBC One
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BBC One is the flagship television channel of the British Broadcasting Corporation in the United Kingdom, Isle of Man and Channel Islands. It was launched on 2 November 1936 as the BBC Television Service and it was renamed BBC TV in 1960, using this name until the launch of sister channel BBC2 in 1964, whereupon the BBC TV channel became known as BBC1, with the current spelling adopted in 1997. The channels annual budget for 2012–13 is £1.14 billion, the channel is funded by the television licence fee together with the BBCs other domestic television stations, and therefore shows uninterrupted programming without commercial advertising. It is currently the most watched channel in the United Kingdom, ahead of its traditional rival for ratings leadership. As of June 2013 the channel controller for BBC One is Charlotte Moore, the BBC began its own regular television programming from the basement of Broadcasting House, London, on 22 August 1932. BBC Television returned on 7 June 1946 at 15,00, Jasmine Bligh, one of the original announcers, made the first announcement, saying, Good afternoon everybody. Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh, the Mickey Mouse cartoon of 1939 was repeated twenty minutes later. The competition quickly forced the channel to change its identity and priorities following a reduction in its audience. The 1962 Pilkington Report on the future of broadcasting noticed this, and it therefore decided that Britains third television station should be awarded to the BBC. The station, renamed BBC TV in 1960, became BBC1 when BBC2 was launched on 20 April 1964 transmitting an incompatible 625-line image on UHF. The only way to all channels was to use a complex dual-standard 405- and 625-line, VHF and UHF, receiver. Old 405-line-only sets became obsolete in 1985, when transmission in the standard ended, although standards converters have become available for enthusiasts who collect, BBC1 was based at the purpose-built BBC Television Centre at White City, London between 1960 and 2013. In the weeks leading up to 15 November 1969, BBC1 unofficially transmitted the occasional programme in its new colour system, to test it. At midnight on 15 November, simultaneously with ITV and two years after BBC2, BBC1 officially began 625-line PAL colour programming on UHF with a broadcast of a concert by Petula Clark, colour transmissions could be received on monochrome 625-line sets until the end of analogue broadcasting. In terms of share, the most successful period for BBC1 was under Bryan Cowgill between 1973 and 1977, when the channel achieved an average audience share of 45%. On 30 December 1980, the BBC announced their intention to introduce a new breakfast television service to compete with TV-am. On 17 January 1983, the first edition of Breakfast Time was shown on BBC One, becoming the first UK wide breakfast television service and continued to lead in the rating until 1984. The first major overhaul was to axe the deeply unpopular Sixty Minutes current affairs programme and its replacement was the BBC Six OClock News, a straight new programme in a bid to shore up its failing early evening slot
38.
Transport for London
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Transport for London is a local government body responsible for the transport system in Greater London, England. Its head office is in Windsor House in the City of Westminster, the underlying services are provided by a mixture of wholly owned subsidiary companies, by private sector franchisees and by licensees. In 2015-16, TfL had a budget of £11.5 billion, the rest comes from government funding, borrowing, other income and Crossrail funding. On 21 January 2016, it was announced that the responsibility for franchising all of Londons inner suburban services would be transferred from the DfT to TfL. This transfer will take place as current franchises fall due for renewal, TfL was created in 2000 as part of the Greater London Authority by the Greater London Authority Act 1999. It gained most of its functions from its predecessor London Regional Transport in 2000, the first Commissioner of TfL was Bob Kiley. The first Chair was then-Mayor of London Ken Livingstone, and the first Deputy Chair was Dave Wetzel, Livingstone and Wetzel remained in office until the election of Boris Johnson as Mayor in 2008. Johnson took over as Chairman, and in February 2009 fellow-Conservative Daniel Moylan was appointed as his Deputy, TfL did not take over responsibility for the London Underground until 2003, after the controversial Public-private partnership contract for maintenance had been agreed. Management of the Public Carriage Office had previously been a function of the Metropolitan Police, Transport for London Group Archives holds business records for TfL and its predecessor bodies and transport companies. Some early records are held on behalf of TfL Group Archives at the London Metropolitan Archives. After the bombings on the underground and bus systems on 7 July 2005 and they helped survivors out, removed bodies, and got the transport system up and running, to get the millions of commuters back out of London at the end of the work day. Those mentioned include Peter Hendy, who was at the time Head of Surface Transport division, and Tim OToole, head of the Underground division, carrying open containers of alcohol was also banned on public transport operated by TfL. The Mayor of London and TfL announced the ban with the intention of providing a safer, there were Last Round on the Underground parties on the night before the ban came into force. Passengers refusing to observe the ban may be refused travel and asked to leave the premises, the Greater London Authority reported in 2011 that assaults on London Underground staff had fallen by 15% since the introduction of the ban. In an effort to reduce sexual offences and increase reporting, TfL—in conjunction with the British Transport Police, Metropolitan Police Service, TfL is controlled by a board whose members are appointed by the Mayor of London, a position held by Sadiq Khan since May 2016. The Commissioner of Transport for London reports to the Board and leads a management team with individual functional responsibilities, the body is organised in three main directorates and corporate services, each with responsibility for different aspects and modes of transport. This network is sub-divided into three service units, BCV, Bakerloo, Central, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines. JNP, Jubilee, Northern and Piccadilly lines, SSL, Metropolitan, District, Circle and Hammersmith & City lines
39.
River Tees
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The River Tees is in northern England. It rises on the slope of Cross Fell in the North Pennines. The river drains 710 square miles and has a number of tributaries including the River Greta, River Lune, River Balder, River Leven, before the reorganisation of the historic English counties, the river formed the boundary between County Durham and Yorkshire. The head of the valley, whose upper portion is known as Teesdale, has a grandeur, surrounded by moorland and hills. This area is part of the North Pennine Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the source of the river at Teeshead just below Cross Fell lies at an elevation of approximately 2,401 feet. It flows east-north-east through an area of shake holes through Carboniferous Limestone, below Viewing Hill, it turns south to the Cow Green Reservoir constructed to store water to be released in dry conditions to satisfy the industrial need for water on Teesside. Emerging from the reservoir at Cauldron Snout the river traverses a series of black basalt and dolerite rocks that intrude through the softer limestone. From this point downstream the Tees forms the boundary between the counties of Durham and Yorkshire almost without a break, although since 1974 much of it lies wholly in Durham. The dale widens below Cauldron Snout, and trees appear, contrasting with the rocks where the water descends over High Force. After a short turn northwards, the continues to meander south-easterly. Close to where the B6277 road begins to run parallel to the river is the 98-foot High Force waterfall, about 1 1⁄2 miles downstream is the smaller Low Force waterfall. The scenery becomes gentler and more picturesque as the river descends past Middleton-in-Teesdale and this locality has lead and ironstone resources. Just to the east of Middleton-in-Teesdale, the River Lune joins the Tees, after passing the village of Romaldkirk to the west, the river is joined by the River Balder at Cotherstone. The ancient town of Barnard Castle, Egglestone Abbey, and Rokeby Park, at Rokeby the Tees is joined by the River Greta. From the area near Eggleston, the river is crossing over millstone grit, from here the valley begins to open out, and traverses the rich plain east and south of Darlington in large meandering curves. The course of the valley down to here has been generally east-south-east, passing Ovington and Winston it runs parallel to the A67 south-east past Gainford and Piercebridge to Darlington, passing under the A1 and A66. The section from Piercebridge to Hurworth flows over magnesian limestone and it is at Croft-on-Tees that the River Skerne joins the Tees. The river now flows south past Croft-on-Tees before swinging northwards past Hurworth-on-Tees, a series of large meanders takes the course past Neasham, Low Dinsdale and Sockburn to Middleton St George
Great Britain
Wales
