1.
Taos Pueblo, New Mexico
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Taos Pueblo is a census-designated place in Taos County, New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States, and is located north of Taos. The population was 1,264 at the 2000 census, Taos Pueblo is located at 36°26′55″N 105°33′14″W. Rio Pueblo de Taos passes through Taos Pueblo, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 15.6 square miles, all land. Taos Pueblo is the only living Native American community designated both a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and a National Historic Landmark, the multi-storied Taos Pueblo adobe buildings have been continuously inhabited for over 1000 years. It is the longest continuously inhabited place in the entire country, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,264 people,441 households, and 316 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 80.9 people per square mile, there were 682 housing units at an average density of 43.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 2. 93% White,95. 02% Native American,0. 40% Pacific Islander,0. 32% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 11% of the population. 25. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.39. In the CDP, the population was out with 26. 1% under the age of 18,8. 5% from 18 to 24,28. 8% from 25 to 44,22. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 102.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.0 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $20,682, and the median income for a family was $23,867. Males had an income of $19,861 versus $18,333 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $10,002, about 27. 4% of families and 31. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36. 3% of those under age 18 and 38. 0% of those age 65 or over. Ancient Pueblo Peoples Puebloan peoples Official website Indianpueblo. org—Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, Taos Pueblo unesco. org, Taos Pueblo — UNESCO World Heritage Centre
2.
Taos Pueblo (book)
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Taos Pueblo is a book by Ansel Adams and Mary Hunter Austin. Originally published in 1930, it is the first book of Adams photographs, a seminal work in his career, it marks the beginning of a transition from his earlier pictorialist style to his signature sharp-focused images of the Western landscape. In the spring of 1929 Adams and his wife traveled to New Mexico to photograph the landscape there, Austin introduced Adams to her friend and Santa Fe arts patron Mabel Dodge Luhan, whose husband Tony Lujan was a member of the Taos tribal council. Through Lujans influence, Adams was given permission by the Taos Indians to photograph in, after taking some initial photographs, Adams contacted his friend and patron Albert M. Bender, who had previously produced Adams first portfolio of prints Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras. Bender enthusiastically agreed to sponsor a book based on new work. Adams and Austin continued to work independently on their parts of the book. In spite of the title one of Adams signature images from the book was taken at San Francisco de Asis Mission Church. He was captivated by the walls and buttresses of the church. Although it was published in form, Taos Pueblo was illustrated with true photographic prints hand-produced by Adams. Adams insisted that the book have a consistent appearance throughout, to do this he enlisted the help of Will Dassonville, a friend and producer of photographic papers in the Bay Area. Dassonville ordered a warm-colored, rag-base paper from a New England mill, the first went to the Grabhorn Press for the text pages, and the second was custom-coated by Dassonville with a silver-bromide emulsion. Adams was able to print directly on the paper, which had an exceptional tonal range and a matte surface. Over a period of months during the fall of 1929. The book was published in an edition of 100 signed and numbered copies, plus eight artists copies. Bender set the price of the book at $75 per copy, Bender, however, reached out to his wealthy friends, and within two years the edition was sold out. Bender quipped, I note the Stock Market reports only Ansel Adams photographs as the commodity that is on the rise. With the cooperation of Adams, in 1977 the New York Graphic Society published an edition of the original. It was produced in an edition of 950 copies, each signed by Adams
3.
Taos, New Mexico
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Taos /ˈtaʊs/ is a town in Taos County in the north-central region of New Mexico in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, incorporated in 1934. As of the 2010 census, its population was 5,716, Other nearby communities include Ranchos de Taos, Cañon, Taos Canyon, Ranchitos, El Prado, and Arroyo Seco. The town is close to Taos Pueblo, the Native American village, Taos is the county seat of Taos County. The English name Taos derives from the native Taos language meaning place of red willows, Taos is the principal city of the Taos, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Taos County. The Taos Pueblo, which borders the town of Taos on its side, has been occupied for nearly a millennium. Located in a valley off the Rio Grande, it is the most northern of the New Mexico pueblos. The pueblo, at some five stories high, is a combination of many individual homes with common walls. There are over 1,900 Taos Indians living within the greater pueblo-area community, many of them have modern homes near their fields and live there in summer months, only staying at their homes within the main North or South pueblo buildings during cooler weather. About 150 people live within the main pueblo buildings year-round, the Taos Pueblo was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. Taos was established c.1615 as Don Fernando de Taos, in 1680, Taos Pueblo joined the widespread Pueblo Revolt. After the Spanish Reconquest of 1692, Taos Pueblo continued armed resistance to the Spanish until 1696, during the 1770s, Taos was repeatedly raided by Comanches who lived on the plains of what is now eastern Colorado. Juan Bautista de Anza, governor of the Province of New Mexico, between 1780 and 1800, Don Fernando de Taos was established. Between 1796 and 1797 the Don Fernando de Taos Land Grant gave land to 63 Spanish families in the Taos valley and it was built as a fortified plaza with adobe buildings and is now a central plaza surrounded by residential areas. Mountain men who trapped for beaver nearby made Taos their home in the early 1800s, Mexico ceded the region to the U. S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 after the Mexican–American War. New Mexico was a territory of the United States beginning 1850, for historical reasons, the American flag is displayed continuously at Taos Plaza. This derives from the time of the American Civil War, when Confederate sympathizers in the area attempted to remove the flag, the Union officer Kit Carson sought to discourage this activity by having guards surround the area and fly the flag 24 hours a day. The Padre of Isleta, Anton Docher first served as a priest in Taos before leaving for Isleta in 1891, beginning in 1899, artists began to settle in Taos, six formed the Taos Society of Artists in 1915. In time, the Taos art colony developed, many paintings were made of local scenes, especially of Taos Pueblo and activities there, as the artists often modelled Native Americans from the pueblo in their paintings
4.
Taos County, New Mexico
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Taos County is a county in the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 32,937, the county was formed in 1852 as one of the original nine counties in New Mexico Territory. Taos County comprises the Taos, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,204 square miles, of which 2,203 square miles is land and 1.3 square miles is water. The countys highest point is the summit of Wheeler Peak at 13,161 feet and this is also the highest natural point in New Mexico. The county has the highest mean elevation of any U. S. county outside of Colorado, Taos County contains 17 of New Mexicos highest 25 peaks. The population density was 14 people per square mile, there were 17,404 housing units at an average density of 8 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 57. 94% of the population,32. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the family size was 2.98. In the county, the population was out with 24. 50% under the age of 18,6. 90% from 18 to 24,27. 40% from 25 to 44,28. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 96.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $26,762, and the median income for a family was $33,995. Males had an income of $27,310 versus $21,121 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,103, about 16. 10% of families and 20. 90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24. 60% of those under age 18 and 20. 80% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 32,937 people,14,806 households, the population density was 15.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 20,265 housing units at a density of 9.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 68. 7% white,6. 2% American Indian,0. 7% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,19. 1% from other races, and 4. 9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 55. 8% of the population, in terms of ancestry,10. 8% were English,10. 3% were German,9. 0% were Irish, and 1. 2% were American. The average household size was 2.19 and the family size was 2.85
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
7.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
8.
Pueblo Revival architecture
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The Pueblo Revival style is a regional architectural style of the Southwestern United States, which draws its inspiration from the Pueblos and the Spanish missions in New Mexico. The style developed at the turn of the 20th century and reached its greatest popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, Pueblo style architecture is most prevalent in the state of New Mexico. Pueblo-style architecture imitates the appearance of traditional Pueblo adobe construction, though materials such as brick or concrete are often substituted. If adobe is not used, rounded corners, irregular parapets, walls are usually stuccoed and painted in earth tones. Multistory buildings usually employ stepped massing similar to that seen at Taos Pueblo, the regional architecture from which the Pueblo style draws its inspiration is primarily found in New Mexico and Arizona, but also Colorado. Although the revival movement is most closely associated with the state of New Mexico, in the 1890s, architect A. C. Schweinfurth incorporated Pueblo features into a number of his buildings in California, mary Elizabeth Jane Collters Hopi House in Grand Canyon National Park drew heavily on the Pueblo style. In 1908, architect Isaac Rapp used the San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church as a template for his Colorado Supply Company warehouse in Morley, the best known of these was his 1908 remodeling of Hodgin Hall, though a new heating plant and the Estufa were completed earlier. Nearly all subsequent university buildings have also employed the Pueblo style, the other stronghold of Pueblo-style architecture is Santa Fe, where it was popularized in the 1920s and 1930s by a group of artists and architects seeking to establish a unique regional identity. In 1957, a committee led by John Gaw Meem drafted Santa Fe H Historical District Regulations Ordinance No, 1957-18, commonly known as the Historical Zoning Ordinance. This ordinance mandated the use of the Old Santa Fe Style and this ordinance remains in effect, meaning the Pueblo style continues to predominate. Pueblo-style houses are frequently constructed in Albuquerque, Santa Fe. Updated versions of the style have also used for newer commercial and public buildings such as the Albuquerque International Sunport terminal. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, only in New Mexico, An Architectural History of the University of New Mexico, the First Century 1889-1989. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press
9.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
10.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
13.
Taos language
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The Taos language of the Northern Tiwa language branch of the Tanoan language family is spoken in Taos Pueblo, New Mexico. In data collected in 1935 and 1937, George L. Trager notes that Taos was spoken by all members of the Taos Pueblo community, pre-school children and a few very old women were monolingual Taos speakers. Nonetheless, it is one of 46 languages in North America that are being spoken by significant numbers of children as of 1995, the most recent estimate is from 1980 with about 800 native speakers out of 1600 ethnic population. Taos speakers have historically been reluctant to provide linguists with language data to work with and have preferred to keep their secret from outsiders. G. Trager had to work with his consultants in private, the tendency for secrecy is a continuing general Pueblo reaction starting in the 17th century in large part due to the oppressive persecution of Pueblo religious practices by the colonial Spanish. The Taos community has been particularly guarded about revealing their language to outsiders when compared with other pueblos in New Mexico. Due to secrecy practices, the details of language preservation are not known outside of the community, G. Trager found no dialectal variation in the 1930-1940s. Taos belongs to a northern sub-grouping on the Tiwa branch of the Tanoan language family and it is closely related to and partly mutually intelligible with Picurís. It is slightly more distantly related to Southern Tiwa, in July 2012, Taos Pueblo, which does not formally encourage persons outside the tribe to learn their language hosted a Tiwa Language Festival for tribal members to keep Tiwa from going to sleep. The Cultural Education Committee hopes to incorporate the Tiwa language into Head Start in the fall, according to one analysis, Taos has 18 consonants, The alveolar flap /ɾ/ is found in loanwords from New Mexican Spanish. Taos has six vowels—five of these have an oral-nasal contrast, Taos has three degrees of stress, primary, secondary, and unstressed, as well as three tones, high, mid, and low. Taos has been transcribed by Trager in Americanist phonetic notation, however, his transcription differs between his earlier work exemplified by Trager and his later work following and explained in Trager. The following chart lists the symbolization of Taos phonemes in Trager and Trager, however, the chart only lists symbols that differ between the three—if Trager, Trager, and the IPA all use the same symbol it is not listed in the chart below. Both Trager and Trager use the same vowel symbolization and this symbols have roughly approximate values of corresponding IPA symbols except that the vowel transcribed as ⟨o⟩ by Trager is phonetically IPA and in Tragers phonemic categorizing a low back vowel. More different is Tragers two ways of transcribing tone and stress, the table below shows the differences on the syllable ta. The conflation between primary + high and secondary + high as well as primary + low and secondary + low in Trager was due to the belief that they were in complementary distribution, Trager rescinded this view in Trager and onward. In Tragers terminology, primary stress is called stress, secondary stress is normal. Taos nouns are inflected according to number with the number suffixes
14.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
15.
Puebloans
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The Pueblo peoples speak languages from several different groups and are also divided culturally by their kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn. In addition to differing kinship systems, the peoples have differing marriage practices and those who have a matrilineal system, in which children are considered born into the mothers clan and her line is used for inheritance and descent, are the Hopi, Keres, Towa and Zuni. The non-Towa Tanoan have a system, with clan membership, inheritance. All the Pueblo peoples have traditional economies based on agriculture and trade, at the time of Spanish encounter beginning in the 16th century, these peoples were living in complex, multi-story villages often built around a central courtyard. The Spanish called these pueblos, meaning towns, and applied the name to all the living in such complexes. In the 21st century there are 21 surviving pueblos in the Southwest of the United States, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main pueblos are located primarily in the states of New Mexico. Anthropologists have studied these peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions, in 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted the peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuñi and Hopi specialize in dry farming, in 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published a division of the Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture, one includes the Hopi, Zuni, Keres and Jemez. They each have matrilineal kinship systems, children are considered born into their mothers clan and must marry a spouse outside it and they maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation myth tells that humans emerged from the underground and they emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos have a kinship system. They practice endogamy, or marriage within the clan and they have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism, the creation story recounts the emergence of the people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west and their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. The Pueblo peoples speak languages from different language families, demonstrating their diverse ethnic origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan, Zuni is an isolate, and Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo
16.
Tanoan
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Tanoan /təˈnoʊ. ən/, also Kiowa–Tanoan or Tanoan–Kiowa, is a family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most of the languages – Tiwa, Tewa, and Towa – are spoken in the Native American Pueblos of New Mexico and these were the first languages collectively given the name of Tanoan. Kiowa, which is a language, is now spoken mostly in southwestern Oklahoma. The Kiowa had historically occupied areas of Texas and Oklahoma, the Tanoan language family has seven languages in four branches, Kiowa–Towa might form an intermediate branch, as might Tiwa–Tewa. Tanoan has long recognized as a major family of Pueblo languages, consisting of Tiwa, Tewa. The inclusion of Kiowa into the family was at first controversial among linguists, the once-nomadic Kiowa people of the Plains are culturally quite distinct from the Tiwa, Tewa, and Towa pueblos, and people in other language families have typically shared more culture. Linguists now accept that a Tanoan family without Kiowa would be paraphyletic, Kiowa may be closer to Towa than Towa is to Tiwa–Tewa. Technically Tanoan and Kiowa–Tanoan are considered synonyms among linguists, because of the cultural use of the name Tanoan as signifying several peoples who share a culture, the more explicit term Kiowa–Tanoan is still commonly used for the language family. The prehistory of the Kiowa people is little known, as a result, the history is obscure about the separation of the members of this language family into two groups with radically distinct lifestyles. There is apparently no oral tradition of any ancient connection between the peoples, scholars have not determined when the peoples were connected so that the common linguistic elements could have developed. The earliest traditions and historical notices of the Kiowa record them as migrating to the north and west, today this area is within the modern states of Texas and Oklahoma), which they occupied from the late 18th century. The Tanoan family has been connected to the Uto-Aztecan family in a hypothetical Aztec–Tanoan proposal, although it is undemonstrated, many linguists find this hypothesis to be promising. The chart below contains the reconstructed consonants of the Tanoan proto-language as reconstructed by Hale based on consonant correspondences in stem-initial position, the evidence for *ɡ comes from prefixes, *ɡ has not been found in stem-initial position and thus is in parentheses above. Hale reconstructs the nasalization feature for nasal vowels, vowel quality and prosodic features like vowel length, tone, and stress have not yet been reconstructed for the Tanoan family. Hale gives certain sets of vowel quality correspondences, the following table illustrates the reconstructed initial consonants in Proto-Tanoan and its reflexes in the daughter languages. As can be seen in the table, a number of phonological mergers have occurred in the different languages. Cognate sets supporting the above are listed below, Campbell, Lyle, American Indian languages, The historical linguistics of Native America. Cordell, Linda A. Prehistory, Eastern Anasazi, in A. Ortiz, Handbook of North American Indians, Southwest
17.
Pueblo
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Pueblos are modern and old communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment structures built of stone, adobe mud and these structures were usually multi-storied buildings surrounding an open plaza. The rooms were only through ladders lowered by the inhabitants, thus protecting them from break-ins. Larger pueblos were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Pueblo people, several different federally recognized tribes have traditionally resided in pueblos of such design. The word pueblo is the Spanish word for town or village and it comes from the Latin root word populus meaning people. The demands of agrarian routine and the need for defense, the desire for human society in the vast solitude of. Nowadays the pueblo might have a running into thousands. Doubtless they were smaller in the early middle ages. There are 21 federally recognized Pueblos that are home to Pueblo people and their official federal names are as follows, Pre-Columbian towns and villages in the Southwest, such as Acoma, were located in defensible positions, for example, on high steep mesas. Anthropologists and official documents refer to ancient residents of the area as pueblo cultures. For example, the National Park Service states, The Late Puebloan cultures built the large, the people of some pueblos, such as Taos Pueblo, still inhabit centuries-old adobe pueblo buildings. Contemporary residents often maintain other homes outside the historic pueblos, adobe and light construction methods resembling adobe now dominate architecture at the many pueblos of the area, in nearby towns or cities, and in much of the American Southwest. In addition to contemporary pueblos, numerous ruins of archeological interest are located throughout the Southwest, some are of relatively recent origin
18.
Eight Northern Pueblos
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The Eight Northern Pueblos of New Mexico are Taos, Picuris, Santa Clara, Ohkay Owingeh, San Ildefonso, Nambé, Pojoaque, and Tesuque. Taos and Picuris are Tiwa-speaking pueblos, the rest speak Tewa, tiwa and Tewa are closely related languages of the Tanoan language family. These pueblos make up the Eight Northern Pueblos Council, which sponsors craft fairs, advocates for the interests of the pueblos. The Capital of the Eight Northern Pueblos is located in Ohkay Owingeh, Ohkay Owingeh was formerly known as San Juan, but changed to its original Tewa name in 2005. List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples Indian Pueblo Cultural Center Website
19.
Tanoan language
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Tanoan /təˈnoʊ. ən/, also Kiowa–Tanoan or Tanoan–Kiowa, is a family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most of the languages – Tiwa, Tewa, and Towa – are spoken in the Native American Pueblos of New Mexico and these were the first languages collectively given the name of Tanoan. Kiowa, which is a language, is now spoken mostly in southwestern Oklahoma. The Kiowa had historically occupied areas of Texas and Oklahoma, the Tanoan language family has seven languages in four branches, Kiowa–Towa might form an intermediate branch, as might Tiwa–Tewa. Tanoan has long recognized as a major family of Pueblo languages, consisting of Tiwa, Tewa. The inclusion of Kiowa into the family was at first controversial among linguists, the once-nomadic Kiowa people of the Plains are culturally quite distinct from the Tiwa, Tewa, and Towa pueblos, and people in other language families have typically shared more culture. Linguists now accept that a Tanoan family without Kiowa would be paraphyletic, Kiowa may be closer to Towa than Towa is to Tiwa–Tewa. Technically Tanoan and Kiowa–Tanoan are considered synonyms among linguists, because of the cultural use of the name Tanoan as signifying several peoples who share a culture, the more explicit term Kiowa–Tanoan is still commonly used for the language family. The prehistory of the Kiowa people is little known, as a result, the history is obscure about the separation of the members of this language family into two groups with radically distinct lifestyles. There is apparently no oral tradition of any ancient connection between the peoples, scholars have not determined when the peoples were connected so that the common linguistic elements could have developed. The earliest traditions and historical notices of the Kiowa record them as migrating to the north and west, today this area is within the modern states of Texas and Oklahoma), which they occupied from the late 18th century. The Tanoan family has been connected to the Uto-Aztecan family in a hypothetical Aztec–Tanoan proposal, although it is undemonstrated, many linguists find this hypothesis to be promising. The chart below contains the reconstructed consonants of the Tanoan proto-language as reconstructed by Hale based on consonant correspondences in stem-initial position, the evidence for *ɡ comes from prefixes, *ɡ has not been found in stem-initial position and thus is in parentheses above. Hale reconstructs the nasalization feature for nasal vowels, vowel quality and prosodic features like vowel length, tone, and stress have not yet been reconstructed for the Tanoan family. Hale gives certain sets of vowel quality correspondences, the following table illustrates the reconstructed initial consonants in Proto-Tanoan and its reflexes in the daughter languages. As can be seen in the table, a number of phonological mergers have occurred in the different languages. Cognate sets supporting the above are listed below, Campbell, Lyle, American Indian languages, The historical linguistics of Native America. Cordell, Linda A. Prehistory, Eastern Anasazi, in A. Ortiz, Handbook of North American Indians, Southwest
20.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
21.
Sangre de Cristo Mountains
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The Sangre de Cristo Mountains are the southernmost subrange of the Rocky Mountains. They are located in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico in the United States, the mountains run from Poncha Pass in South-Central Colorado, trending southeast and south, ending at Glorieta Pass, southeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico. The mountains contain a number of fourteen thousand foot peaks in the Colorado portion, the name of the mountains may refer to the occasional reddish hues observed during sunrise and sunset, and when alpenglow occurs, especially when the mountains are covered with snow. Although the particular origin of the name is unclear, it has been in use since the early 19th century, before that time the terms La Sierra Nevada, La Sierra Madre, La Sierra, and The Snowies were used. According to tradition, sangre de Cristo were the last words of a Catholic priest who was killed by Indians, sometimes the archaic Spanish spelling Christo is used. Much of the mountains are within various National Forests, the Rio Grande and San Isabel in Colorado, and these publicly accessible areas are popular for hunting, camping, hiking, mountain biking, backpacking, climbing, and cross-country and downhill skiing. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve lies on the southwest side of the mountains in Colorado, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains are divided into various subranges, described here from north to south. They form a ridge separating the San Luis Valley on the west from the watershed of the Arkansas River on the east. The Crestones are a group of four 14, 000+ foot peaks in the Sangre de Cristo Range above Crestone, Colorado. The Spanish Peaks are a pair of mountains, West Spanish Peak,13,626 feet/4,153 m. The Spanish Peaks were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1976 as one of the best known examples of igneous dikes. The mountains can be seen as far north as Colorado Springs, as far west as Alamosa, points south to Raton, New Mexico, and points east to La Junta, Colorado. The Culebra Range runs almost due north and south, with its limit at La Veta Pass in Colorado. Its highest point is Culebra Peak, which is notable for being the only fourteener in Colorado which is on private land, climbers wishing to ascend Culebra must pay a fee, and the number of climbers per year is limited. Standing to the east of the main crest are the two prominent Spanish Peaks, unlike the rest of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, these are volcanic, with conical shapes and prominent dikes radiating outward. These peaks were important landmarks on the branch of the Santa Fe Trail. The Taos Mountains span the western lobe of the range from Costilla Creek in the north and they include the highest point in New Mexico, Wheeler Peak 13,161 feet, which is part of the small Wheeler Peak Wilderness. Other notable peaks include Pueblo Peak 12,305 feet, which rises dramatically above Taos Pueblo, williams Lake is located below Wheeler Peak in the Wheeler Peak Wilderness
22.
Sangre de Cristo Range
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The Sangre de Cristo Range rises over 7,000 feet above the valleys and plains to the west and northeast. According to the USGS, the range is the part of the larger Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Usage of the terms Sangre de Cristo Range and Sangre de Cristo Mountains is varied, however, most of the range is shared by two National Forests, which abut along the range divide. Most of the northeast side is located within the San Isabel National Forest, the central part of the range is designated as the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness. The Great Sand Dunes National Park sits on the flank of the range at the edge of the San Luis Valley. The range divide is traversed by no paved roads, only by four wheel drive and foot trails over Hayden Pass, Hermit Pass, Music Pass, Medano Pass, and Mosca Pass. The highest peak in the range, located in the south, is Blanca Peak, other well-known peaks are the fourteeners of the Crestone group, Kit Carson Mountain, Crestone Peak, Crestone Needle, and Humboldt Peak. Two sub-peaks of Kit Carson Mountain, Challenger Point and Columbia Point, are named in memory of the crews of the Space Shuttle Challenger, the range is also home to many high peaks in the 13,000 to 14,000 foot range. See the Sangre de Cristo Mountains article for other noteworthy summits in the greater range, in 1719 the Spanish explorer Antonio Valverde y Cosio named the Sangre de Cristo mountains after being impressed by the reddish hue of the snowy peaks at sunrise, alpenglow. Today tourism is the economic activity. The Sangre de Cristos are fault-block mountains similar to the Teton Range in Wyoming, there are major fault lines running along both the east and west sides of the range and, in places, cutting through the range. The mountains were pushed up around 5 million years ago, basically as one mass of rock. The Sangre de Cristo range is still being uplifted today as faults in the area remain active, on the west side is the San Luis Valley, a portion of the Rio Grande Rift. On the southeast side is the Raton Basin, a quiet and these sedimentary rocks originated as sediment eroded from the Ancestral Rocky Mountains
23.
Rio Pueblo de Taos
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The Rio Pueblo de Taos, also known as Rio Pueblo, is a tributary of the Rio Grande in the U. S. state of New Mexico. From its source in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains it flows about 33 miles, generally south and west, on the way the river passes by Taos and through Taos Pueblo. The Rio Pueblo de Taos originates at Blue Lake, about 2 miles southeast of Wheeler Peak, several headwater tributaries drain the south and east slopes of Old Mike Peak, Lew Wallace Peak, and Red Dome. The river flows south for about 5 miles, then turns west and it is joined by La Junta Creek from the south, then Buffalo Grass Creek from the north. After flowing west for about 5 miles, and just downstream from the mouths of Frijoles Canyon on the north and Palo Encebado Canyon on the south, the Rio Pueblo de Taos abruptly leaves the mountains. Within a mile the river passes through the center of Taos Pueblo, then turns to flow southwest to the Rio Grande, the rivers entire upper course in the mountains is within the Pueblo de Taos Indian Reservation. Near Taos the Rio Lucero joins the Rio Pueblo de Taos from the north, shortly below that the Rio Fernando de Taos joins from the south, after which the Rio Pueblo de Taos enters Taos Canyon. New Mexico State Road 570 crosses the Rio Grande via the Taos Junction Bridge just below its confluence with the Rio Pueblo de Taos, the area is part of the Orilla Verde Recreation Area. In addition to Rio Pueblo de Taos and Rio Pueblo, the stream has been known by other names, including Rio Taos, Taos Creek, Pueblo Creek, Ialapaijpaana, Jalapa, Kipawai, Tawiimpo. List of rivers of New Mexico List of tributaries of the Rio Grande Rio Pueblo de Taos, New Mexico Whitewater
24.
River source
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The source or headwaters of a river or stream is the furthest place in that river or stream from its estuary or confluence with another river, as measured along the course of the river. As an example of the definition above, the USGS at times considers the Missouri River as a tributary of the Mississippi River. But it also follows the first definition above in using the combined Missouri - lower Mississippi length figure in lists of lengths of rivers around the world. This definition, from geographer Andrew Johnston of the Smithsonian Institution, is used by the National Geographic Society when pinpointing the source of rivers such as the Amazon or Nile. A definition given by the state of Montana agrees, stating that a source is never a confluence but is in a location that is the farthest, along water miles. Under this definition neither a lake nor a confluence of tributaries can be a river source. Likewise, the source of the Amazon River has been determined this way, when not listing river lengths, however, alternative definitions may be used. In the case of the Missouri River, Lewis and Clark would have had to travel to the east. to reach the source. Sometimes the source of the most remote tributary may be in an area that is more marsh-like, for example, the source of the River Tees is marshland. The furthest stream is often called the headstream. Headwaters are often small streams with cool waters because of shade and they may also be glacial headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice. Headwater areas are the areas of a watershed, as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source is often but not always on or quite near the edge of the watershed, for example, the source of the Colorado River is at the Continental Divide separating the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America. A river is considered a geographic feature, with only one mouth. For an example, note how the Mississippi River and Missouri River sources are officially defined, U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Mississippi River, Length,2,340 miles, Source, 47°14′22″N 95°12′29″W U. S. For example, The River Thames rises in Gloucestershire, the White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa. The word source, when applied to lakes rather than rivers or streams, refers to the lakes inflow
25.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
26.
Archeologists
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
27.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar
28.
Four Corners
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The Four Corners is a region of the United States consisting of the southwestern corner of Colorado, southeastern corner of Utah, northeastern corner of Arizona, and northwestern corner of New Mexico. It is the location in the United States where four states meet. Most of the Four Corners region belongs to semi-autonomous Native American nations, the largest of which is the Navajo Nation, followed by Hopi, Ute, and Zuni tribal reserves and nations. The Four Corners region is part of a region known as the Colorado Plateau and is mostly rural, rugged. In addition to the monument, commonly visited areas within Four Corners include Monument Valley, Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Canyon, the most populous city in the Four Corners region is Farmington, New Mexico, followed by Durango, Colorado. The United States acquired the four corners region from Mexico after the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848, in 1863 Congress created Arizona Territory from the western part of New Mexico Territory. The boundary was defined as a line running due south from the southwest corner of Colorado Territory and this was an unusual act of Congress, which almost always defined the boundaries of new territories as lines of latitude or longitude, or following rivers. By defining one boundary as starting at the corner of another Congress ensured the creation of four states meeting at a point. The area was first surveyed by the U. S. Government in 1868 as part of an effort to make Colorado Territory into a state, the first marker was placed at the spot in 1912. The first Navajo tribal government was established in 1923 to regulate a number of oil exploration activities on Navajo land. The Four Corners Area is defined as a circle around the Four corners located at 36°59′56. 3″N 109°02′42. 6″W, the Four Corners is part of the high Colorado Plateau. This makes it a center for systems, which stabilize on the plateau then proceed eastward through Colorado. This weather system creates snow and rain fall over the central United States, protected areas in the Four Corners area include Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Hovenweep National Monument, Mesa Verde National Park, and Monument Valley. Mountain Ranges in the Four Corners include Sleeping Ute Mountains, Abajo Mountains, the Four Corners Monument itself is administered by the Navajo Nation Department of Parks and Recreation. Other tribal nations within the Four Corners region include the Hopi, the Four Corners is home to the capital of the Navajo tribal government at Window Rock, Arizona. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribal headquarters are located at Towaoc, Colorado, the Four Corners region is mostly rural. The economic hub, largest city, and only area in the region is Farmington. The populated settlement closest to the center of Four Corners is Teec Nos Pos, other cities in the region include Cortez and Durango in Colorado, Monticello and Blanding in Utah, Kayenta and Chinle in Arizona, and Shiprock, Aztec, and Bloomfield in New Mexico
29.
Ancestral Puebloans
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The Ancestral Puebloans are believed to have developed, at least in part, from the Oshara Tradition, who developed from the Picosa culture. They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger structures to house clans, grand pueblos, the Ancestral Puebloans possessed a complex network that stretched across the Colorado Plateau linking hundreds of communities and population centers. They held a distinct knowledge of celestial sciences that found form in their architecture, the kiva, a congregational space that was used chiefly for ceremonial purposes, was an integral part of this ancient peoples community structure. In contemporary times, the people and their culture were referred to as Anasazi for historical purposes. The Navajo, who were not their descendants, called them by this term, reflecting historic traditions, the term was used to mean ancient enemies. Contemporary Puebloans do not want this term used, archaeologists continue to debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current agreement, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence around the 12th century BC, beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers identified Ancestral Puebloans as the forerunners of contemporary Pueblo peoples. Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in the United States are credited to the Pueblos, Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Culture National Historical Park and Taos Pueblo. Pueblo, which means village in Spanish, was a term originating with the Spanish explorers who used it to refer to the particular style of dwelling. The Navajo now use the term in the sense of referring to ancient people or ancient ones, Hopi people used the term Hisatsinom, meaning ancient people, to describe the Ancestral Puebloans. The Ancestral Puebloans were one of four major prehistoric archaeological traditions recognized in the American Southwest and this area is sometimes referred to as Oasisamerica in the region defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. The others are the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Patayan, in relation to neighboring cultures, the Ancestral Puebloans occupied the northeast quadrant of the area. The Ancestral Puebloan homeland centers on the Colorado Plateau, but extends from central New Mexico on the east to southern Nevada on the west. Structures and other evidence of Ancestral Puebloan culture has been found extending east onto the American Great Plains, in areas near the Cimarron and Pecos Rivers, terrain and resources within this large region vary greatly. The plateau regions have high elevations ranging from 4,500 to 8,500 feet, extensive horizontal mesas are capped by sedimentary formations and support woodlands of junipers, pinon, and ponderosa pines, each favoring different elevations. Wind and water erosion have created steep-walled canyons, and sculpted windows, in areas where resistant strata, such as sandstone or limestone, overlie more easily eroded strata such as shale, rock overhangs formed. The Ancestral Puebloans favored building under such overhangs for shelters and defensive building sites, all areas of the Ancestral Puebloan homeland suffered from periods of drought, and wind and water erosion. Summer rains could be unreliable and often arrived as destructive thunderstorms, while the amount of winter snowfall varied greatly, the Ancestral Puebloans depended on the snow for most of their water
30.
Plains Indians
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Plains Indians are usually divided into two broad classifications which overlap to some degree. The first group became a nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, following the vast herds of buffalo. These include the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Nakoda, and Tonkawa. The second group of Plains Indians were semi-sedentary, and, in addition to hunting buffalo, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. These include the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw, Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Wichita, and the Santee Dakota, Yanktonai and Yankton Dakota. Both groups included people indigenous to the region as well as those who were pushed west by population pressure linked to the expansion of white culture. Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes, the tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of buffalo. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game. When horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives, people in the southwest began to acquire horses in the 16th century by trading or stealing them from Spanish colonists in New Mexico. As horse culture moved northward, the Comanche were among the first to commit to a fully mounted nomadic lifestyle and this occurred by the 1730s, when they had acquired enough horses to put all their people on horseback. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was the first European to describe the Plains Indian culture, while searching for a reputedly wealthy land called Quivira in 1541, Coronado came across the Querechos in the Texas panhandle. The Querechos were the later called Apache. According to the Spaniards, the Querechos lived in tents made of the skins of the cows. They empty a large gut and fill it with blood, Coronado described many common features of Plains Indians culture, skin tepees, travois pulled by dogs, Plains Indian Sign Language, and staple foods such as jerky and pemmican. The Plains Indians found by Coronado had not yet obtained horses, by the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota and other northern nomads was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July the scattered bands of the gathered together into large encampments. These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes. In the fall, people would split up into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter, between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare
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Pueblo Revolt
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The Pueblo Revolt killed 400 Spanish and drove the remaining 2,000 settlers out of the province. Twelve years later the Spanish returned and were able to reoccupy New Mexico with little opposition, for more than 100 years beginning in 1540, the Pueblo Indians of present-day New Mexico were subjected to successive waves of soldiers, missionaries, and settlers. These encounters, referred to as the Entradas, were characterized by violent confrontations between Spanish colonists and Pueblo peoples. In 1598 Juan de Oñate led 129 soldiers and 10 Franciscan Catholic priests plus a number of women, children, servants, slaves. There were at the time approximately 40,000 Pueblo Indians inhabiting the region, Oñate put down a revolt at Acoma Pueblo by killing and enslaving hundreds of the Indians and sentencing 24 men to have their right foot cut off. The Acoma Massacre would instill fear of the Spanish in the region for years to come, Spanish colonial policies in the 1500s regarding the humane treatment of Indians were difficult to enforce on the northern frontier. With the establishment of the first permanent colonial settlement in 1598, encomiendas were soon established by colonists along the Rio Grande, restricting Pueblo access to fertile farmlands and water supplies and placing a heavy burden upon Pueblo labor. Especially egregious to the Pueblo was the assault on their traditional religion, Franciscan priests established theocracies in many of the Pueblo villages. The priests converted the Pueblos to build the Spanish empire in New Mexico, in 1608, it looked as though Spain might abandon the province, the Franciscans baptized seven thousand Pueblos to try to convince the Crown otherwise. The Franciscan missionaries also forbade the use of drugs in the traditional religious ceremonies of the Pueblo. Several Spanish officials, such as Nicolas de Aguilar, who attempted to curb the power of the Franciscans were charged with heresy and tried before the Inquisition. In the 1670s drought swept the region, causing a famine among the Pueblo and increased raids by the Apache which Spanish and Pueblo soldiers were unable to prevent. Fray Alonso de Benavides wrote multiple letters to the King, describing the conditions, noting the Spanish inhabitants and Indians alike to eat hides, the unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675. Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo medicine men, four medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging, three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were whipped and sentenced to prison. When this news reached the Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe, because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting the Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to accede to the Pueblo demand for the release of the prisoners. Among those released was a San Juan Indian named Popé, following his release, Popé, along with a number of other Pueblo leaders, planned and orchestrated the Pueblo Revolt. Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and he gained the support of the Northern Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Tano, and Keres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley
32.
Ute people
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Ute people /ˈjuːt/ are Native Americans of the Ute tribe and culture. They are now living primarily in Utah and Colorado, the Ute are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People. They have three Ute tribal reservations, Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah, Southern Ute in Colorado, and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, the majority of Ute are believed to live on one of these reservations. The State of Utah is named after these people, the primary language of the Ute people is English. However, some of the people speak their ancestral Ute language. It is related to the Southern Paiute language and belongs to the Southern subdivision of the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, a dictionary and grammar have been written for the language, and the Bible has been translated into Ute. Several orthographies exist, but the language is written in the Latin script, different ideas about the phonetic spelling of many names and some words has caused confusion about the spelling, so many names are often spelled in several different ways. An example is Timpanogos, which has also been spelled as Toompahnahwach, Tumpanuwac, Tumpanawach, Timpanog, Tumpipanogo or Timanogos, from this area, speakers of Uto-Aztecan languages gradually diffused northward and southward. The Ute, Paiute, Shoshone, Comanche and some belong to what is called the Numic subdivision within the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is believed that this Numic group originated near the border of Nevada and California, then spread North, the Numic group is divided into 3 main subdivisions - Southern, Central and Western. Not all of the languages are mutually intelligible, especially those in different subdivisions, Ute and Southern Paiute are Southern Numic Languages, while Shoshone, Gosiute and Comanche are Central Numic, and Northern Paiute and Bannock are Western Numic. The Numic-speaking tribes share many cultural, genetic and linguistic characteristics, many of the tribes met and merged with each other or divided from each other at various times. For instance, the Comanche split off from the Shoshone in about the mid-1600s, since the mid-1800s, some Ute bands merged with Southern Paiute bands to become Paiute. Some possibly Shoshonean tribes, such as the Timpanogos, merged with the Ute and it is also true that there were many times when the tribes did not get along. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, before Mexican settlers arrived, the Utes occupied significant portions of what are today eastern Utah, western Colorado, including the San Luis Valley, and parts of New Mexico and Wyoming. The Utes were never a group within historic times, instead. Some of the largest known groups were the Capote, Moache, Moanumts, Parianuche, Taviwach, Weeminuche, also the Uintah or Uinta, Uncompahgre tribe and White River Utes. The last partial migration of the Utes within this area was in the year 1885, “In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln signed an executive order establishing the original Uintah Valley Reservation in the eastern part of the Utah territory
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Comanche
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
34.
Charles Bent
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Charles Bent was appointed as the first civilian Governor of the newly acquired New Mexico Territory by military Governor Stephen Watts Kearny in September 1846. Charles Bent had been working as a fur trader in the region since 1828, with his brother, William. Though his office was in Santa Fe, Bent maintained his residence, on January 19,1847, Charles Bent was scalped and killed by Pueblo warriors, during the Taos Revolt. Charles Bent was born in Charleston, Virginia, the oldest child of Silas Bent, after leaving the army, in 1828, Charles and his younger brother, William, took a wagon train of goods from St. Louis to Santa Fe. There they established contacts and began a series of trading trips back. In 1832, he formed a partnership with Ceran St. Vrain, another trader from St. Louis, Bents Fort, outside La Junta, Colorado, has been restored and is now a National Historic Site. In 1835, Charles Bent married Maria Ignacia Jaramillo, who was born in Taos, marias younger sister, Josefa Jaramillo, would later marry Kit Carson. Following the bloodless American victory, during the Mexican–American War, many of the inhabitants of New Mexico were not satisfied with the new American rule, in December 1846, the influential families in the state started to plan a revolt against the new rule. The governor and Colonel Price revealed this conspiracy in advance, some of the Taos Revolt leaders were arrested, but two important leaders of the movement were able to escape. It seemed as if the rebellion had been put down when Governor Charles Bent issued a proclamation, in January 1847, while serving as territorial governor, Charles Bent traveled to his hometown of Taos, without military protection. There he was scalped alive and murdered in his home by a group of pueblo Native American attackers, under the orders of Mexican conspirators, Bent is buried in the National Cemetery in Santa Fe. The women and children in the Bent home were not harmed by the insurgents, in the following months, Colonel Price was able to reassure the country. Most rebels were caught and some of them executed, the uprising was finally crushed in July 1847. Bent and the renowned frontier scout Christopher Kit Carson had married sisters, Maria Ignacia Bent outlived her husband by 36 years, she died on April 13,1883. The Bents had a daughter, Teresina Bent, Charles and Maria Bent and the Carsons are interred at Kit Carson Cemetery in Taos. Bent Street, which runs in front of what had been his home in Taos, and Martyrs Lane, the Governor Charles Bent House is now a museum. An elementary school in northeast Albuquerque is named in Bents honor, raymond Burr, known for his long-running Perry Mason television series, portrayed Charles Bent in a 1957 episode entitled Lone Woman of CBSs Playhouse 90. Scott Brady was cast in the episode as William Bent
35.
Siege of Pueblo de Taos
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The Siege of Pueblo de Taos was the final battle during the main phase of the Taos Revolt, an insurrection against the United States during the Mexican-American War. It was also the major engagement between American forces and insurgent forces in New Mexico during the war. In August 1846, New Mexico fell to American troops under Stephen Watts Kearny, when Kearny departed for California, Colonel Sterling Price was left in command of American forces in New Mexico. Another American force fought the New Mexicans at Mora, on the east side of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. On 1 Feb. his force of 478 men reached the summit of Taos Mountain, Price marched through Don Fernando de Taos and then found the rebels had strongly fortified Pueblo de Taos. Price ordered Lt. Early on 4 Feb. he placed Capt. Burgwins 1st Dragoon Regiment, and Major Clarkes light artillery, in the same position he had the battery the evening before, Capt. Slacks mounted men were placed to prevent escape towards the mountains or Don Fernando, and this placed the front and eastern flank of the church in a crossfire. The batteries started firing at 9 AM, which failed to breach the walls, so by 11 AM. Capt. Burgwin and Capt McMillin charged the western flank of the church, while Capt. Agney, Lt. Boon, the roof of the church was set fire, but Capt. Burgwin was mortally wounded while moving through the corral at the front of the church. A hole was cut in the wall which permitted shells to be thrown in by hand. By 3 PM, the 6-pounder was placed sixty yards from the church and widened the hole after ten rounds, after which it was placed ten yards away and fired three rounds of grape into the church. This allowed Lt. Dyer, Lt. Wilson and Taylor to take possession of the church and those trying to escape into the mountains were pursued by Capt. St. Vrain, killing many before night fell, the rebels surrendered the next day, giving up one of the insurrection leaders, Tomas Romero, a Pueblo Indian. Two of the rebellion leaders, Pablo Montoya and Tomás Romero, were captured in the fighting. Romero was shot by Private Fitzgerald in the room at Don Fernando before being brought to trial. Montoya was convicted of treason and hanged at Don Fernando on 7 Feb, later trials resulted in 14 additional public hangings. Later skirmishes occurred at the Red River Canyon Affair, the Las Vegas Affair, list of battles fought in New Mexico Battles of the Mexican-American War Bauer, K. Jack, The Mexican-American War 1846-48 Cooke, Philip St. George. The Conquest of New Mexico and California, an Historical and Personal Narrative
36.
Anton Docher
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Anton Docher, Antonin Jean Baptiste Docher, was a French Franciscan Roman Catholic priest, who served as a missionary to Native Americans in New Mexico, in the American Southwest of the United States. He served 34 years with the Pueblo of Isleta, and was known for defending the Indians. Following academic studies and years of service, in 1887 Docher traveled to the United States. He worked briefly at Taos, before being assigned to the Pueblo of Isleta in New Mexico, in the US, his first name became Americanized as Anton. Anton Docher was born in 1852 in Le Crest, a small wine-growing village of Puy de Dôme in Auvergne and he had three brothers, and their father died when they were young. Together with his brothers and widowed mother, during his youth Docher worked in the vineyards of the area. At the age of 18, he became a student at the Petit Seminary of Saint Sauveur in Puy de Dôme, at the age of 27, during his first year studying philosophy in the Grand Seminary of Clermont-Ferrand, Docher was conscripted for military service. He served in North Africa, in Tunisia, next he served in Cochinchina where he fought for five years in the colonial army, achieving the rank of sergeant. Docher was wounded and decorated with the Colonial Medal for bravery and he had contracted lung disease whilst in North Africa, and returned to France after being in Indochina. He resumed his studies at the Petit Seminary as a Prefect, long interested in working as a missionary, on October 21,1887, Docher left France for New Mexico. After two years of studies, including local Native American languages, he was ordained as a priest in the Cathedral of Santa Fe by J. B. Salpointe. He served two years in Bernalillo and in Taos, in 1891 Docher was transferred to the Pueblo of Isleta, arriving on December 28 of that year. A community of Tiwa Indians, the pueblo is situated on the bank of the Rio Grande. During Dochers decades in Isleta, he served as a priest in Laguna, Acoma, Los Lunas. In Los Lentes, in 1893 Docher acquired an ancient bell for the chapel. Known as The Padre of Isleta, Docher spent 34 years with the Tiwa people and he was a very close friend of Adolph Bandelier, an anthropologist, Charles Fletcher Lummis and Pablo Abeita, who became governor of the pueblo. Like anthropologist Bandelier, Docher collected Indian objects during this period, some of his collection has been preserved by the Docher and Morvan families. Respected by the Isleta for his attitude to their customs and ancestral faiths Docher was called Tashide
37.
Pueblo of Isleta
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Pueblo of Isleta is an unincorporated community Tanoan pueblo in Bernalillo County, New Mexico, United States, originally established around the 14th century. Its people are recognized as a Native American tribe. Pueblo of Isleta is located in the Middle Rio Grande Valley,13 miles south of Albuquerque and it is adjacent to and east of the main section of Laguna Pueblo. The pueblo was built on a reef of lava running across an ancient Rio Grande channel. The Isleta Pueblo Historic District is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and it enlarged their communal territory by 50%. The tribe had worked for more than 20 years to acquire this land and it is so far the largest such acquisition handled under the President Barack Obama administration. The population of Pueblo of Isleta consists of mostly the Southern Tiwa ethnic group and they speak Isletan Tiwa, one of the two varieties or dialects of the Southern Tiwa language, part of the Tanoan language family. The other variety is spoken at Sandia Pueblo, in August 2015, the tribe announced that the Tiwa language would be taught to children at Isleta Elementary School, following the schools transfer from federal to tribal control. In 2016 the Kellogg Foundation made grants totaling $148,000 for development of the language, Tiwa-English program. Culturally, Pueblo groups have been divided usually into two group classifications, a Western Pueblo group and an Eastern Pueblo group. Other scholars classify the pueblos into three groups, the Western, Eastern, and Keresan Pueblo groups. In either system, Pueblo of Isleta is considered an Eastern Pueblo group, the adjacent Laguna Pueblo is a Central—Keresan Pueblo group. The Pueblo of Isleta has a tribal government. Their tribal constitution was approved in March 27,1947, there are thirteen articles with the constitution. They have three branches of government, legislative, executive, and judicial, the Isleta Tribal Council has 7 members, each elected for two-year terms. Their duties are outlined within Article V - Legislative Branch of the constitution, the governor is the top executive officer and is elected democratically. In mid-October, nominations are taken, and an election is held the last Saturday in November. The newly elected governor selects two lieutenant governors, a sheriff, and an under-sheriff to assist during his/her governorship, the governor is bound by Article IV - Executive Branch of the constitution
38.
Carl Jung
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability
United States (
New Mexico)
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service.
