1.
Regions of New Zealand
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New Zealand is divided into sixteen regions for devolved local government. Eleven are administered by councils, and five are administered by unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands Council is similar to an authority, authorised under its own legislation. The regional councils are listed in Part 1 of Schedule 2 of the Local Government Act 2002, the Act requires regional councils to promote sustainable development – the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of their communities. The current regions and most of their councils came into being through a government reform in 1989 that took place under the Local Government Act 1974. In addition they took over roles that had previously been performed by county councils. Auckland Regional Council, formed in 1989, was replaced by Auckland Council, the boundaries of the regions are based largely on drainage basins. This anticipated the responsibilities of the Resource Management Act 1991, most regional boundaries conform with territorial authority boundaries but there are a number of exceptions. An example is Taupo District, split between four regions, although most of its area is in the Waikato region, property rates are used to fund both regional and territorial government activities. There is often a degree of co-operation between regional and territorial councils as they have complementary roles. Regional councils have these specific functions under the Resource Management Act 1991, notes, These regions have unitary authorities. The Gisborne Region is still widely but unofficially known by its name or as East Coast. Some outlying islands are not included within regional boundaries, the Chatham Islands is not in a region, although its council has some of the powers of a regional council under the Resource Management Act. Councils may use a first past the post or single transferable vote system, the chairperson is selected by the elected council members. The Auckland Regional Council was preceded by the Auckland Regional Authority, the Wellington Regional Council was first formed in 1980 from a merger of the Wellington Regional Planning Authority and the Wellington Regional Water Board. In 1978, legislation was passed enabling the formation of regions with united councils, twenty regions were designated, excluding the Auckland and Wellington areas. For most of the country this was the first regional level of government since the abolition of provinces in 1876, councillors were not elected directly – they were appointed from the various territorial local authorities within the region. For example, in a number of cases the united council took responsibility for the allocation of revenue from regional petrol taxes, the united councils were based in the facilities of the largest TLA in the region and largely dependent on the TLAs for resources
2.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
3.
North Island
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The North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the slightly larger but much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The islands area is 113,729 square kilometres, making it the worlds 14th-largest island and it has a population of 3,596,200. Twelve main urban areas are in the North Island, about 77% of New Zealands population lives in the North Island. Although the island has been known as the North Island for many years, in 2009 the New Zealand Geographic Board found that, along with the South Island, after a public consultation, the board officially named the island North Island or Te Ika-a-Maui in October 2013. In prose, the two islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite articles. It is normal to use the preposition in rather than on, for example Hamilton is in the North Island, maps, headings, tables and adjectival expressions use North Island without the. According to Māori mythology, the North and South Islands of New Zealand arose through the actions of the demigod Māui, Māui and his brothers were fishing from their canoe when he caught a great fish and pulled it from the sea. While he was not looking his brothers fought over the fish and this great fish became the North Island and thus a Māori name for the North Island is Te Ika-a-Māui. The mountains and valleys are believed to have formed as a result of Māuis brothers hacking at the fish. Until the early 20th Century, an alternative Māori name for the North Island was Aotearoa, in present usage, Aotearoa is a collective name for New Zealand as a whole. The sub-national GDP of the North Island was estimated at US$102.863 billion in 2003, the island has an extensive flora and bird population, with numerous National Parks and other protected areas. Nine local government regions cover the North Island and all its adjacent islands, healthcare in the North Island is provided by fifteen District Health Boards. Organised around geographical areas of varying sizes, they are not coterminous with the Local Government Regions
4.
Stratford, New Zealand
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Stratford is the only town in Stratford District, and the seat of the Taranaki Region, in New Zealands North Island. It lies beneath the slopes of Mount Taranaki/Egmont, approximately halfway between New Plymouth and Hawera, near the geographic centre of the Taranaki Region. The town has a population of 5,650, making it the 47th largest urban area in New Zealand, and the fourth largest in Taranaki. The Stratford District has a population of 9,300, and a area of 2,163.35 km². Stratford is at the junction of State Highway 3 and State Highway 43, on State Highway 3 New Plymouth is 39 km north, Inglewood 21 km north, Eltham 11 km south and Hawera 30 km south. On State Highway 43 Taumarunui is 146 km to the east and this road is known as The Forgotten World Highway, due the scarcity of settlement along the road in contrast to its earlier history. A sign reads No Petrol for 140 km, Stratford railway station is the junction of the Marton–New Plymouth and Stratford–Okahukura lines. The south-eastern face of Mount Taranaki is in the Stratford district, from the peak the boundaries run almost due east and due south. Pembroke Road winds up the slope from Stratford to a carpark and lookout at The Plateau. Manganui skifield is a hike from the carpark, across the Manganui Gorge. On the south-eastern face of the mountain, Manaia Road gives access to Dawson Falls, the natural Wilkies Pools are a short hike above the lodge. The Taranaki volcanic ring plain provides a steady contour with a gradient, upon which Stratford. The easy gradient and rich soils and the high level of rainfall provide high quality pasture. Within this area the ring plain is drained by three river catchments, the Manganui River catchment to the north, the Waingongoro River catchment to the south, the headwaters of the Patea River are on the eastern face of Mount Taranaki, above Stratford. From there the river flows eastwards, its upper catchment taking in a area of land between the Manganui River catchment to the north and the Waingongoro River catchment to the south. Stratford is on the banks of the Patea River, at the junction of the Patea River and Paetahi Stream, approximately 15 km east of the headwaters. Due to the width of the catchment, the southern boundary of the town is on the Patea/Waingongoro divide. Beyond Stratford the catchment widens significantly to include a number of ancient swamps, including Ngaere and Toko and this area is dominated by steep sandstone, greywacke and mudstone hills and winding valleys
5.
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities,12 city councils,53 district councils, Auckland Council, six territorial authorities also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. A unitary authority may also have local boards, currently only Auckland Council has them, territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupo District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions, Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations, the boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities from 200 to 75, the new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list,1991, Invercargill re-proclaimed a city,1992, Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region,2004, Tauranga became a city again on 1 March. 2006, Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch City as a result of 2005 referendum,2010, Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council. Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commissions site, the split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council. Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area, tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District. Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with areas of the current Papakura District. The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils, the National-led Government responded within about a week
6.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
7.
Stratovolcano
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A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a profile and periodic explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high viscosity, the magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of silica, with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as 15 km, stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes, two famous stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius, famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives, in modern times, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo have erupted catastrophically. Existence of stratovolcanoes has not been proved on other bodies of the solar system with one exception. Their existence was suggested for some isolated massifs on Mars, e. g. Zephyria Tholus, stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones, forming chains along plate tectonic boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust or another oceanic plate. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed dewatering, and occurs at pressures and temperatures for each mineral. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, when the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber under or within the volcano. There, the low pressure allows water and other volatiles dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle of the cone is overcome. In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force, as a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the chamber, the magma degasses explosively. The gases and water out with speed and force. Since 1600 CE, nearly 300,000 people have killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by flows and mudflows, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes
8.
Mount Taranaki
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Mount Taranaki, or Mount Egmont, is an active but quiescent stratovolcano in the Taranaki region on the west coast of New Zealands North Island. Although the mountain is commonly referred to as Taranaki, it has two official names under the alternative names policy of the New Zealand Geographic Board. The 2518-metre-high mountain is one of the most symmetrical volcanic cones in the world, there is a secondary cone, Fanthams Peak,1,966 metres, on the south side. Because of its resemblance to Mount Fuji, Taranaki provided the backdrop for the movie The Last Samurai, for many centuries the mountain was called Taranaki by Māori. The Māori word tara means mountain peak, and naki is thought to come from ngaki, meaning shining and it was also named Pukehaupapa and Pukeonaki by iwi who live in the region in ancient times. Cook described it as of a height and its top coverd with everlasting snow. Which afforded a good aspect, being clothed with wood. When Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne made landfall off Taranaki on 25 March 1772 he named the mountain Pic Mascarin and he was unaware of Cooks earlier visit. It appeared as Mount Egmont on maps until 29 May 1986, the Egmont name still applies to the national park that surrounds the peak and geologists still refer to the peak as the Egmont Volcano. Taranaki is geologically young, having commenced activity approximately 135,000 years ago, the most recent volcanic activity was the production of a lava dome in the crater and its collapse down the side of the mountain in the 1850s or 1860s. Between 1755 and 1800, an eruption sent a pyroclastic flow down the mountains northeast flanks, the last major eruption occurred around 1655. Recent research has shown that over the last 9,000 years minor eruptions have occurred roughly every 90 years on average, Taranaki is unusual in that it has experienced at least five of its major eruptions by the method of cone collapse. Few volcanoes have undergone more than one cone collapse, the vast volume of material involved in these collapses is reflected in the extensive ringplain surrounding the volcano. There is also evidence of lahars being a result of eruption. Much of the region is at risk from lahars, which have reached as far as the coast, a volcanic event is not necessary for a lahar, even earthquakes combined with heavy rain or snow could dislodge vast quantities of unstable layers resting on steep slopes. Many farmers live in the paths of such possible destructive events, although volcanic eruptions are notoriously chaotic in their frequency, some scientists warn that a large eruption is overdue. Research from Massey University indicates that significant seismic activity is likely again in the next 50 years, prevailing winds would probably blow ash east, covering much of the North Island, and disrupting air routes, power transmission lines and local water supplies. Taranaki sits on the remains of three older volcanic complexes that lie to the northwest, the Indo-Australian Plate is slowly moving relative to the magma source that feeds these volcanoes
9.
New Plymouth
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New Plymouth is the major city of the Taranaki Region on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. It is named after the British city of Plymouth from where the first English settlers migrated, the New Plymouth District includes New Plymouth City and several smaller towns. The New Plymouth District is the 10th largest district in New Zealand, the district has a population of 74,184 – about two-thirds of the total population of the Taranaki Region. This includes New Plymouth City, Waitara, Inglewood, Oakura, Okato, the city itself is a service centre for the regions principal economic activities including intensive pastoral activities as well as oil, natural gas and petrochemical exploration and production. It is also the financial centre as the home of the TSB Bank. As described under awards, New Plymouth won multiple awards in 2008, the city was in 2010 chosen as one of two walking & cycling Model Communities by the government. Based on New Plymouths already positive attitude towards cyclists and pedestrians and it is also noted for being a coastal city with a mountain within 30 minutes drive, where residents and visitors to New Plymouth can snowboard, ski, water ski and surf all in the same day. In 1828 Richard Dicky Barrett set up a trading post at Ngamotu after arriving on the trading vessel Adventure, Barrett traded with the local Māori and helped negotiate the purchase of land from them on behalf of the New Zealand Company. Settlers were selected by the Plymouth Company, which was set up to attract emigrants from the West Country of England, the first of the towns settlers arrived on the William Bryan, which anchored off the coast on 31 March 1841. The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 created the New Plymouth Province, with a Provincial Council given jurisdiction over an area of 400, five years later the name of the province changed to Taranaki Province. The province was abolished in 1876, a Town Board was formed in 1863 and in August 1876 the town was constituted as a borough. Its new status did little to overcome some outside perceptions, however, I find a great liking for this slow, old hole. It is a quiet, unassuming place and has not done so much to attract immigrants and settlers by exaggerating reports, as some districts have done. The Fitzroy Town District was merged with New Plymouth borough in August 1911, Vogeltown, Frankleigh Park and Westown were added a year later, by 1913 the town had a population of 7538. New Plymouth was declared a city in 1949, every three years the Mayor,14 councillors and 16 community board members are elected by the New Plymouth Districts enrolled voters. The full council, sub-committees and standing committees meet on a six-weekly cycle, the Policy and Monitoring standing committees have delegated authority from the council to make final decisions on certain matters, and they make recommendations to the council on all others. The four community boards–Clifton, Waitara, Inglewood and Kaitake–as well as the subcommittees, New Plymouth District Councils annual operating revenue for 2008/2009 is more than $188 million. The current Mayor of New Plymouth is Andrew Judd, in May 2016 Judd announced that he will not run for mayor again in the upcoming local government elections
10.
Inglewood, New Zealand
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Inglewood is a town in the Taranaki Region of New Zealands North Island. The population was 3,090 in the 2006 Census, an increase of 144 from 2001, in 2013 it had risen to 3,243. Inglewood is located 16 kilometres southeast of New Plymouth on State Highway 3, the town lies 200 metres above sea level. It is a town servicing a mainly dairy farming region. Although close to New Plymouth, the town has the usual stores and services for town, Inglewood was named by Philip Colin Threkeld for Inglewood Forest in Cumberland, United Kingdom. The settlement was founded in 1873, and its name rapidly progressed from Moatown to Milton, a number of buildings are listed by Heritage New Zealand. Of those, the Railway Station and Yard is the one listed as Category I. The Shoe Store Building on the corner of Rata and Richmond Streets is one of eight listed as Category II, Inglewood was home to the Moa-Nui Co-operative Dairies factory. In 1992, Moa-Nui merged with Kiwi Co-operative Dairies and processing was centralised at Kiwis Whareroa factory near Hawera, until comparatively recently, the dual chimneys of the factory could be seen from miles away. Inglewood has produced a share of All Blacks, and also a leading contemporary artist, Michael Stevenson. Toy Museum and Factory makes cast metal toys and is located with the information centre on the main street. Established by Barry Young, it is now operated by Richard Jordan, Inglewood has a number of coeducational schools. Inglewood High School is a school with a decile rating of 6. The school was established in 1957, Inglewood School and St Patricks School are full primary schools with decile ratings of 5 and rolls of 333 and 77, respectively. Inglewood school was founded in 1875, St Patricks is a state integrated Catholic school. Fleur Beale, fiction writer Henry Brown, sawmiller and Member of the House of Representatives Dave Loveridge, All Black Steve Crow, index to Te Moa,100 years history of the Inglewood community, 1875-1975, n. p. n. p. A collection of papers on the history of the Brown family, the Rev. Henry Handley Brown,110,100 years, 1896-1996, Inglewood, The Lodge Mackie, G. A collection of papers on the history of the Brown family, the Rev. Henry Handley Brown, ltd, Inglewood, R. W. Brown Gifford, John E. p. n. p
11.
Waitara, New Zealand
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Waitara is a town in the northern part of the Taranaki region of the North Island of New Zealand. Waitara is located just off State Highway 3,15 kilometres northeast of New Plymouth and its population was 6312 in the 2013 census, an increase of 24 from 2006. Waitara was the site of the outbreak of the Taranaki Wars in 1860 following the purchase of land for English settlers from its Māori owners. Disputes over land that was confiscated by the Government continue to this day. The commonly accepted meaning of the name Waitara is mountain stream, in 1867 the settlement was named Raleigh, after Sir Walter Raleigh. It reverted to its name with the establishment of the borough of Waitara in 1904. Prior to European colonisation, Waitara lay on the overland route between the Waikato and Taranaki districts. Vestiges of numerous pā on all strategic heights in the district indicate close settlement and closely contested possession, just before and in early European times, by various tribes. Some Te Atiawa were taken to Waikato as prisoners and slaves, pākehā settlers who came to New Plymouth in the 1840s and 1850s viewed nearby Waitara as the most valuable of Taranakis coastal lands because of its fertile soil and superior harbour. The company claimed that Te Atiawa had either abandoned the land or lost possession of it, tensions between settlers and local Māori began as early as July 1842, when settlers who had taken up land north of the Waitara River were driven from their farms. A year later 100 men, women and children sat in a path to disrupt the surveying of land for sale. They established substantial cultivations of wheat, oats, maize and potatoes, selling it to settlers and also for export, the Waitangi Tribunal noted that the group allegedly eventually owned 150 horses and up to 300 head of cattle. In 1857 the issue came to a head with the offer for sale of land at Waitara and at Turangi, further to the north, by two individuals, Ihaia Te Kirikumara and a minor chief, Pokikake Te Teira. The dispute ultimately led to the outbreak of war in Waitara on 17 March 1860, the war, in which 2300 Imperial troops fought about 1400 Māori, ran for 12 months before a ceasefire was negotiated. Later campaigns during the war included the major British defeat in the Battle of Puketakauere, close to Te Kohia pā, on 27 June 1860 which cost the lives of 32 Imperial troops and of five Māori. A major British sapping operation at the strongly defended Te Arei pā up the Waitara River began in February 1861, as a result of this operation, Colour Sergeant John Lucas was awarded the Victoria Cross. For further information see First Taranaki War In May 1863 war resumed in Taranaki, in 1884 the Government returned as Native reserves 103,000 hectares of the 526,000 hectares of Taranaki land it had confiscated, although the land remained in government control. By 1990 half of the reserves had been sold to Pakeha settlers by the Native Trustee without reference to Maori, the remainder was leased to settlers with Maori receiving only a peppercorn rental return
12.
Hawera
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Hawera is the second-largest town in the Taranaki region of New Zealands North Island, with a population of 11,800. It is near the coast of the South Taranaki Bight, Hawera is 75 kilometres south of New Plymouth on State Highway 3 and 30 minutes drive from Mount Taranaki. It is located on State Highway 45, known as Surf Highway 45 for its numerous surf beaches, State Highway 45 passes through Manaia, Opunake and Oakura en route to New Plymouth. Kaponga is a 20-minute drive to the north-west, Hawera is Māori for burnt place, from fighting between two local sub-tribes, which culminated in the setting ablaze of the sleeping whare of the tribe under attack. The name became apt when the town suffered extensive blazes in 1884,1888, for this reason a large water tower was built in the centre of town to increase water pressure, and this became one of Taranakis best-known landmarks. After falling into disrepair the tower was closed to the public in 2001, Hawera is also home to Tawhiti Museum, well known for its hand-crafted life-sized wax sculptures depicting scenes of local heritage and history, and its scale models of local Maori pa. The Whareroa dairy factory,4 km south-southwest of the township, is the largest dairy complex in the world in terms of output, the complex is owned by Fonterra, having been built by the former Kiwi Co-operative Dairies Limited. During peak season, the complex employs 1,000 people, electricity and heat used at Whareroa is generated by an on-site gas-fired power plant, with excess electricity fed into the national grid. Hawera Primary School was established in 1875 and it developed into a District High School in 1901. The current high school opened as Hawera Technical High School in 1919, the intermediate school opened in 1961. The Western Institute of Technology at Taranaki has a campus in Hawera, Hawera High School is a secondary school with a roll of approximately 758. Hawera Intermediate is a school with a roll of 295. Hawera Primary School, Ramanui School, Tawhiti School and Turuturu School are contributing primary schools with rolls of 212,46,293 and 192 respectively, Hawera Primary celebrated its 125th jubilee in 2000. Ramanui school celebrated its 50th jubilee in 2003, Hawera Christian School and St Josephs School are state integrated full primary schools with rolls of 32 and 246 respectively. Te Kura Kaupapa Maori o Ngati Ruanui is a primary school with a roll of 56. It is a Kura Kaupapa Māori school which teaches in the Māori language, aroha Awarau, award-winning journalist and three time winner of the Ronald Hugh Morrieson Award. Is a senior writer at New Zealand Womans Weekly and is a news editor for the Womans Day magazine. Cameron Brewer, Auckland Councillor Alan Brough, actor, comedian, tim Chadwick, artist & published author Prof Geoffrey Duncan Chisholm, surgeon Ben Hurley, New Zealand comedian and 7 Days actor
13.
Eltham, New Zealand
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Eltham is a small inland town in South Taranaki, New Zealand, located 50 kilometres south of the city of New Plymouth and southeast of the volcanic cone of Mount Taranaki/Egmont. Stratford is 11 kilometres north, Kaponga 13 km west, state Highway 3 runs through the town. Eltham is South Taranakis second largest town, population was 1980 in the 2006 Census, a decrease of 120 from 2001. Eltham is known as the cradle of the Taranaki dairy industry and it was also the first place to export butter to England. Settlement began in Eltham in the 1870s with blocks of forested land being taken up mainly to the north of Mountain Road. A profusion of sawmilling companies cleared the district which when grassed was found to be ideal for dairy farming, in 1884, the year Eltham was declared a town district, settlers, mainly from England, arrived there and the town had a population of 25. Eltham was declared a borough in 1901, and became part of South Taranaki District with the local body amalgamations of 1989, the towns main industry is cheese production, with much of Mainland Cheeses specialty range such as feta and camembert being produced in the Bridge Street factory. Cheese has been used as a symbol of the town, and to reinforce this view. Elthams other significant industry is the Riverlands freezing works, which has a plant in Bulls. Both plants can process up to 1250 head of cattle daily, Eltham is also the gateway to Lake Rotokare, a scenic, natural lake surrounded by native bush, and to the man-made Lake Rotorangi. The two main watercourses which run through Eltham itself are the Mangawharawhara Stream, and the Waingongoro River, Eltham and the surrounding community enjoys a full library and council service. Services provided include being able to register your dog, pay rates or inquire about obtaining a building permit. The LibraryPlus is also a NZ Post agency, other services include a Tot Time for the under 5s and regular ‘coffee and blog’ meetings for locals to learn about new technologies in a friendly environment. The LibraryPlus also has three APN computers, offering internet and Skype to the public. Eltham School is a full primary school, with a decile rating of 3. The school was founded in 1886, South Taranaki District Council Eltham School website
14.
Opunake
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Opunake is a small town on the southwest coast of Taranaki in New Zealands North Island. It is located 45 kilometres southwest of New Plymouth, rahotu is 16 km to the northwest. Manaia is 29 km to the southeast, state Highway 45 passes through the town. The town has a population of 1,360, the town was settled in the 1880s. It was intended to be a port but, other than a jetty constructed in 1891. Opunake is the centre for the dairy industry, and is also a popular tourist spot. The beach is composed of volcanic blacksand and there are rock pools to be found on the north-west end of the beach at low tide. Currently an artificial surfing reef is under construction in the corner of the beach. The Opunake and surrounding community has a South Taranaki District Council LibraryPlus, a statue of Peter Snell was unveiled on Saturday 19 May 2007 to celebrate the fame of this son of Opunake. Other notable people born in Opunake include former All Black captain Graham Mourie, prop Carl Hayman, assorted Wall Murals called Reflections of Opunake 1900 -2000 Commissioned by the Egmont Arts Council. Designed and Painted by Mural Artist Dennis Lattimer during April/May 2002, Opunake, Taranaki, North Island, New Zealand. Opunake High School is a secondary school with a roll of 331 students as of July 2016. The school celebrated its 75th jubilee in 2000, Opunake School, St Josephs School, and Te Kura Kaupapa Maori o Tamarongo are full primary schools with rolls of 190,108 and 15 respectively. St Josephs is a state integrated Catholic school, Te Kura Kaupapa Maori o Tamarongo is a Kura Kaupapa Māori school which teaches in the Māori language. Opunake Branch Opunake Website Opunake High School website Opunake School website St Josephs School website
15.
South Taranaki Bight
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The South Taranaki Bight is a large bay that extends south and east from the south coast of Taranaki in New Zealands North Island. With more symmetry than poetry or originality, it is matched by the North Taranaki Bight to the north of Cape Egmont, the size of the bight depends to a large extent on the source referring to it. Strict definitions refer to it stretching from the mouth of the Kaupokonui Stream south of Mount Taranaki to the mouth of the Patea River, more loose descriptions consider the entire lower North Island west coast as far as Waikanae on the Kapiti Coast to be part of the bight. Point off Kahurangi Point in nearby is also an area where blue whales frequent
16.
Mount Tongariro
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Mount Tongariro is a compound volcano in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of the North Island of New Zealand. It is located 20 kilometres to the southwest of Lake Taupo, Mount Tongariro is part of the Tongariro volcanic centre, which consists of four massifs made of andesite, Tongariro, Kakaramea, Pihanga, and Ruapehu. The andesitic eruptions formed Tongariro, a stratovolcano, reaching a height of 1,978 metres. Tongariro is composed of layers of lava and tephra and first erupted 275,000 years ago. Tongariro consists of at least 12 cones, Ngauruhoe, while often regarded as a separate mountain, is geologically a cone of Tongariro. It is also the most active vent, having erupted more than 70 times since 1839, activity has also been recorded at other vents in recent history. Te Māri Craters erupted in 2012, for the first time since 1897, red Crater last erupted ash in 1926 and contains active fumaroles. There are many craters on the massif, water has filled some of these to form the Blue Lake. Unlike nearby Mt. Ruapehu, no glaciers exist on Tongariro today, however, geomorphological evidence in the form of moraines and cirques indicates the former presence of mountain glaciers. Mount Tongariro is in the Tongariro National Park, New Zealands first national park and it was set aside in 1887 by Te Heuheu Tukino IV, paramount chief of the Māori Ngati Tuwharetoa iwi and made a national park in order to preserve its natural beauty. The park also includes the peaks of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, both of which lie to the southwest of Tongariro, the national park is a dual World Heritage Site for its outstanding natural and intangible cultural values. The popular hiking route called Tongariro Alpine Crossing passes between Tongariro and Ngauruhoe, Mount Tongariro and its surroundings are also one of the several locations which Peter Jackson chose to shoot the The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. At 11,50 pm on 6 August 2012, Mt Tongariro had what was believed to be a hydrothermal eruption after a month of increased activity. The eruption occurred at the Te Māri Craters, which had dormant since 1897. The eruption occurred in a new vent below the Upper Te Māri crater, an ash cloud 6.1 kilometres high deposited ash into the surrounding area, especially to the east of the volcano. The ash cloud travelled 250 kilometres in four hours, NIWA reported the ash cloud contained about 10,000 cubic metres of ash, and that the ash cloud was 25 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide 39 minutes after the eruption. Ash and the smell of sulphur was reported in Napier and Hastings, the smell of sulphur was also reported in Wellington, Nelson and Blenheim. A layer of ash 10–15 mm thick settled on farmland 5 to 10 kilometres east of Mount Tongariro, particle sizes were between 2 and 3mm
17.
Mount Ngauruhoe
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Mount Ngauruhoe is an active stratovolcano or composite cone in New Zealand, made from layers of lava and tephra. It is the youngest vent in the Tongariro volcanic complex on the Central Plateau of the North Island, although seen by most as a volcano in its own right, it is technically a secondary cone of Mount Tongariro. The volcano was named by Ngātoro-i-rangi, an ancestor of the local Māori iwi, local traditions say that Ngātoro-i-rangi called volcanic fire from his homeland Hawaiki which eventually emerged at Ngauruhoe. The name either commemorates his slave, who had died from the cold before the fire arrived, Ngauruhoe erupted 45 times in the 20th century, most recently in 1974. Fumaroles exist inside the crater and on the rim of the eastern. Climbers who suffer from asthma may be affected by the strong sulphurous gases emitted from the crater, Ngauruhoe is no longer showing signs of any significant unrest and the Volcanic Alert Level has been reduced to zero. A significant increase in activity in May 2006 prompted the alert level to be raised to one. Over the next two years GeoNet recorded an average of 5 to 30 earthquakes a day close to Ngauruhoe, since mid-2008 the number of volcanic earthquakes close to Ngauruhoe has declined to the background level. Regular measurements of gas levels and the temperature of a summit gas vent have failed to record any significant changes over the last two and a half years. “Since mid-2008 the number of earthquakes has returned to a level of a few per week” GNS Science accordingly reduced the alert level for Ngauruhoe to Level 0 on 2 December 2008. An increase in activity in March 2015 resulted in the alert level being raised to Level 1. The anomalous activity was deemed to have subsided after three weeks, and the level was lowered back to Level 0. The mountain is climbed from the western side, from the Mangatepopo track. From the Mangatepopo hut to the base of the mountain takes a steady 1 1⁄2 hour walk, the track then climbs very steeply to the base of the climb. In summer the climb is difficult due to the loose tephra that gives way underfoot, in the summer of 2010 a climber was seriously injured by falling rock. In winter, snow consolidates the tephra, as the slope is about 45 degrees, kicking steps is essential, and this requires fitness. After rain, the snow may be covered by ice which is treacherous, ice axes, crampons and ropes are recommended in midwinter. Climbers should practice self arrest with ice axes on the lower slopes if icy conditions prevail, experienced and fit climbers can attempt the climb from the northern side by cutting across the lava flows in the Mangatepopo valley from the Mangatepopo hut
18.
Mount Ruapehu
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Mount Ruapehu, or just Ruapehu, is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand. It is 23 kilometres northeast of Ohakune and 23 km southwest of the shore of Lake Taupo. The North Islands major skifields and only glaciers are on its slopes, Ruapehu, the largest active volcano in New Zealand, is the highest point on the North Island and has three major peaks, Tahurangi, Te Heuheu and Paretetaitonga. The deep, active crater is between the peaks and fills with Crater Lake between major eruptions, Ruapehu is largely composed of andesite and began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart, in 1895,1945, minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls. Between major eruptions, warm acidic Crater Lake forms, fed by melting snow, major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse,1945 eruption and aftermath The 1945 eruption emptied Crater Lake and dammed the outlet with tephra. The crater slowly refilled with water, until on 24 December 1953 the tephra dam collapsed causing a lahar in the Whangaehu River and it was already known that the river had partially undermined one of the bridge piers and the lahar finished the job, causing the bridge to collapse. Although warned of the bridge, the train driver was unable to stop the train in time. 1995-96 eruptions Spectacular eruptions occurred during 1995 and 1996, Ruapehu had been showing signs of increased activity since late November 1994, with elevated Crater Lake temperatures and a series of eruptions that increased in intensity over about nine months. Several lahars were observed, both in the Whangaehu River and other areas of the mountain, between 18 September and 25 September 1995, indicating Crater Lake was being emptied by the eruptions. The Department of Conservation immediately issued warnings and advised people to keep off the mountain. The eruption cloud disrupted air travel, occasionally closing airports and the central North Island airspace, black sand-like ash fell on surrounding farmland and stock had to be moved. The ash also entered streams and was washed into the pen stocks, episodic eruptions continued until the end of November 1995. A web camera, dubbed the worlds first Volcano Cam, was set up, since then Ruapehu has been monitored by at least one and sometimes several volcano cams. Another, smaller, eruption phase began on the morning of 17 June 1996, despite a series of small eruptions that spread thin layers of ash across both Whakapapa and Turoa ski areas, the ski fields opened for the 1996 season. Turoa closed on 29 September – earlier than usual, while Whakapapa stayed open until Labour Weekend, after the 1996 eruption it was recognised that a catastrophic lahar could again occur when Crater Lake bursts the volcanic ash dam blocking the lake outlet
19.
Egmont National Park
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Egmont National Park is located south of New Plymouth, close to the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. Taranaki has been the Māori name for the mountain for many centuries, the park, established in 1900, is dominated by the dormant volcano of Mount Taranaki. Since the area has high rainfall and a mild coastal climate there is a lush rainforest covering the foothills. In these old growth forests the Crown Fern, Blechnum discolor, is a dominant understory plant species, notable among the geographical features of the park is its clear radial drainage pattern, which can be discerned in the satellite picture at right. The Ahukawakawa Swamp is a rare high-altitude sphagnum moss wetland located between Mt Taranaki and the Pouakai range and it contains many endemic species adapted to acid soils and low temperatures
20.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
21.
John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont
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John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont PC, FRS was a British politician, political pamphleteer, and genealogist who served as First Lord of the Admiralty. He was the son and heir of John Perceval, 1st Earl of Egmont by his wife Catherine Parker, daughter of Sir Philip Parker and he was baptised at the Palace of Westminster, London. Perceval sat in the Irish House of Commons for Dingle between 1731 and 1749, in April 1748, he was created Lord of the Bedchamber to the Prince of Wales. He served as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1763 to 1766, from 1751 to 1757, he designed and created Enmore Castle at Enmore in Somerset, which received the dismissive mockery of Horace Walpole. His first marriage was on 15 February 1737 to Lady Catherine Cecil, by her he had five sons and two daughters, John Perceval, 3rd Earl of Egmont, eldest son and heir. Cecil Parker Perceval, born 19 Oct.1766 was married to Thomas Wynn, Margaret Perceval and she survived her husband and died at Langley, Buckinghamshire, on 11 June 1784, aged 53. Lord Perceval died 4 December 1770 at Pall Mall, London, Mount Egmont in New Zealand was named after him by James Cook in recognition of his encouragement of Cooks first voyage. Since the 1980s, the mountain has two names, either Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont, to give equal recognition to its Māori. Earl of Egmont This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Egmont. Perceval, John, second earl of Egmont, John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont Manuscripts of the Earl of Egmont. Diary of Viscount Percival 1920 access date 3 March 2015 Enmore Castle
22.
Dairy farming
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Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for long-term production of milk, which is processed for eventual sale of a dairy product. Although any mammal can produce milk, commercial farms are typically one-species enterprises. In developed countries, dairy farms typically consist of high producing dairy cows, other species used in commercial dairy farming include goats, sheep, and camels. In Italy, donkey dairies are growing in popularity to produce an alternative source for human infants. Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years, historically it has been one part of small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms doing only dairy production have emerged, in the 1800s von Thünen argued that there was about a 100 mile radius surrounding a city where such fresh milk supply was economically viable. Centralized dairy farming as we understand it primarily developed around villages and cities, near the town, farmers could make some extra money on the side by having additional animals and selling the milk in town. The dairy farmers would fill barrels with milk in the morning and bring it to market on a wagon, until the late 19th century, the milking of the cow was done by hand. For most herds, milking took place twice a day. Feeding could occur simultaneously with milking in the barn, although most dairy cattle were pastured during the day between milkings, such examples of this method of dairy farming are difficult to locate, but some are preserved as a historic site for a glimpse into the days gone by. One such instance that is open for this is at Point Reyes National Seashore, dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years. Historically it has one part of small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms doing only dairy production have emerged, the first milking machines were an extension of the traditional milking pail. The early milker device fit on top of a milk pail. Following each cow being milked, the bucket would be dumped into a holding tank and these were introduced in the early 20th century. This developed into the Surge hanging milker, prior to milking a cow, a large wide leather strap called a surcingle was put around the cow, across the cows lower back. The milker device and collection tank hung underneath the cow from the strap and this innovation allowed the cow to move around naturally during the milking process rather than having to stand perfectly still over a bucket on the floor. The next innovation in automatic milking was the milk pipeline, introduced in the late 20th century and this uses a permanent milk-return pipe and a second vacuum pipe that encircles the barn or milking parlor above the rows of cows, with quick-seal entry ports above each cow
23.
Fonterra
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Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited /ˈfɒnˌtɛrə/ is a New Zealand multinational dairy co-operative owned by around 10,500 New Zealand farmers. The company is responsible for approximately 30% of the worlds dairy exports, the name Fonterra comes from Latin fons de terra, meaning spring from the land. In New Zealand, as in most Western countries, dairy co-operatives have long been the main structure in the industry. The first dairy co-operative was established in Otago in 1871, by 1920, there were 600 dairy processing factories of which about 85% were owned by co-operatives. By the late 1990s, there were four co-operatives, the Waikato-based New Zealand Dairy Group, Fonterra effectively has monopsony control of the New Zealand domestic and export dairy industry. The two smaller co-operatives, Tatua and Westland, did not join Fonterra, preferring to remain independent, the company has an annual turnover of around NZ$17 billion. Its core business consists of exporting dairy products under the NZMP brand and it also operates a fast-moving consumer goods business for dairy products, Fonterra Brands. Fonterra has a number of subsidiaries and joint-venture companies operating in markets around the world, also in 2005 the company made moves towards purchasing Australian companies Dairy Farmers and National Foods. It also converted its 50 per cent stake in Victoria dairy producer Bonlac to full ownership, at this time $1 billion of Fonterras revenue was from Australian sales, which was 14 per cent of the dairy products it sells around the world. In June 2008, the acquired the yoghurt and dairy dessert business of Nestlé Australia. In 2010, US embassy cables leaked by Wikileaks suggested New Zealand had only sent troops to Iraq in 2003, following the initial invasion, the aim was to give more access to funds for global growth. Praised by some as a move which would allow better access to outside capital. Despite including a range of safeguards, farmers were concerned at the risk of losing control. The board responded in 2008 by shelving the November 2007 proposal, in September 2009, the board announced a three-step process to revamp Fonterra’s capital structure. The new approach abandoned thoughts of a listing of Fonterra shares and retained 100% farmer control. A key goal of the structure changes was to stop large amounts of money washing in. Under the previous structure, farmers matched their shareholding with their production by owning one co-operative share for each kilogram of milksolids produced annually. If their milk production dropped in any season, they could redeem shares back to the co-operative, consequently, Fonterra faced the risk of losing large amounts of share capital through redemptions during times of declining milk production
24.
Maui gas field
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It is located in the Tasman Sea,35 km off the coast of Taranaki and to the southwest of New Plymouth. It covers an area of 157 square kilometres and is located in 110 metres of water, the gas field was discovered in 1969 by a joint venture of Royal Dutch/Shell, British Petroleum and Todd Petroleum. It was considered a giant field at the time of discovery, government investment led to a government organisation later called Petrocorp taking a 50% interest. This was later bought out by Fletcher Challenge Energy, by the end of the Maui gas contract in 2009, the Maui Mining Companies were made up of Shell, OMV New Zealand, and Todd Energy. Two platforms operate in the field, full production from Maui A began in 1979, much of the gas from Maui was used to supply the Motunui synthetic petrol plant from 1986 until it ceased operation in 2004. An onshore naphtha refining plant was installed in 1999, the floating production storage and offloading vessel Whakaaropai was installed as part of the final development phases in 1996, for the production of oil from Maui B. It was sold in 2005 when the oil reserves had been exhausted. Gas is piped to power stations for electricity generation in Taranaki, Huntly, electricity production from the gas grew steadily from the 1970s, with it providing 30% of New Zealands electricity in 2002. Production declined in the 2000s as the gas was depleted, providing just 16% of the electricity in 2005. The gas is distributed through high-pressure pipelines for industrial and domestic use around the North Island. This used 30% of the gas produced in 2005, in 2005, the Maui fields oil reserves were estimated to be 92% depleted, and the Maui field gas reserves were estimated to be 91% depleted. In 2014, the New Zealand government revised its estimates of natural gas reserves. The biggest news of the recalculation involves one of the oldest gas producers, when the offshore Maui field was discovered in 1969 and developed 10 years later, it was forecast it would be exhausted in 30 years. But now its remaining proved reserves have been doubled to 133 PJ, Energy in New Zealand Oil and gas industry in New Zealand Field summary at Todd Energy website
25.
Motunui
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Motunui is a settlement in northern Taranaki, in the North Island of New Zealand. It is located on State Highway 3 close to the shore of the North Taranaki Bight, Motunui is the location of the Motunui methanol plant, the largest in the world at the time of construction. It was opened in 1986 to convert natural gas to methanol, the plant was one of the Think Big projects of the Third National Government. The plant instead produced methanol for export, production of methanol ceased in 2004 as the approaching depletion of the Maui gas field raised gas prices. In 2005, an unmanned production station for the new offshore Pohokura oil/gas field was constructed immediately west of the Motunui plant and this began commercial production in September 2006. In 2008, methanol train No.2 was recommissioned followed by train No.1 in 2012, currently owned and operated by Methanex, the plants two trains have a total annual production capacity of 2.4 million tonnes of methanol
26.
Kapuni
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Kapuni is a small hydrocarbons field and drilling site in the North Island of New Zealand. It is located within a farming area in Taranaki,85 km south of New Plymouth. It is the second largest onshore field in New Zealand after the Maui gas field off the Taranaki coast. Economically viable quantities of oil and gas were discovered in 1959 by a Royal Dutch/Shell-British Petroleum-Todd consortium, the site has 13 wells which surround a central production station. Energy in New Zealand Oil and gas industry in New Zealand Kapuni Branch railway Crown Minerals Kapuni page Shell-Todd Kapuni page
27.
Pohokura field
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The Pohokura field is an oil and gas field located 4 km offshore of north Taranaki in New Zealand, in approximately 30 m of water. The field was discovered in 2000 by Fletcher Challenge and has ultimate recoverable reserves of 1,227 Bcf of gas and 61 mmbbls of oil, the field has 6 offshore and 3 onshore wells, with the production station located on shore, adjacent to the Motunui methanol plant. The production station is unmanned, and is operated from a room in New Plymouth. The first commercial production was in September 2006, in 2009, Pohokura was the largest gas producing field in New Zealand, producing 42% of total production. Pohokura is owned by Shell, OMV and Todd Energy, and is operated by Shell, Energy in New Zealand Oil and gas industry in New Zealand Todd Energy website Shell Todd Oil Pohokura website
28.
Tasman Sea
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The Tasman Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between Australia and New Zealand. It measures about 2,000 kilometres across and about 2,800 kilometres from north to south, the sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, who was the first recorded European to encounter New Zealand and Tasmania. The British explorer Captain James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman Sea in the 1770s as part of his first voyage of exploration. The Tasman Sea is informally referred to in both Australian and New Zealand English as The Ditch, for example, crossing the Ditch means travelling to Australia from New Zealand, or vice versa. The diminutive term The Ditch used for the Tasman Sea is comparable to referring to the North Atlantic Ocean as The Pond, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Tasman Sea as follows, On the West. From the South East Rock to the North point of Three Kings Islands thence to North Cape in New Zealand, a line joining the South extreme of the foul ground off Cape Palliser and the Lighthouse on Cape Campbell. A line joining the Light on Waipapapa Point with East Head of Stewart Island, a line running from South West Cape, Stewart Island, through The Snares to North West Cape, Auckland Island, through this island to its Southern point. A line joining the Southern point of Auckland Island to South East Cape, the Tasman Seas mid-ocean ridge developed between 85 and 55 million years ago as Australia and Zealandia broke apart during the breakup of supercontinent Gondwana. It lies roughly midway between the continental margins of Australia and Zealandia, much of Zealandia is submerged, so the ridge runs much closer to the Australian coast than New Zealands. The first successful flight over the sea was accomplished by Charles Kingsford Smith later that year, the first person to row solo across the sea was Colin Quincey in 1977. The next successful crossing was completed by his son, Shaun Quincey in 2010. Axis naval activity in New Zealand waters Crossing the Ditch List of seas Media related to Tasman Sea at Wikimedia Commons
29.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
30.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
31.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
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Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Fiji
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Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fijis principal cruise port, about three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levus coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi or Lautoka. Viti Levus interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain, Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry. The countrys currency is the Fijian dollar, Fijis local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development. The majority of Fijis islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago, today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm, a republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups détat. In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power, later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, an election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimaramas FijiFirst party won with 59. 2% of the vote, Fijis main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name Fiji is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows, Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. Feejee, the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, the first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago
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China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
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Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
United Kingdom
Australia
South Africa
Philippines
India
Fiji
China
Netherlands
United States
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