1.
Geneva
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Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic, the municipality has a population of 198,072, and the canton has 484,736 residents. In 2014, the compact agglomération du Grand Genève had 946,000 inhabitants in 212 communities in both Switzerland and France, within Swiss territory, the commuter area named Métropole lémanique contains a population of 1.25 million. This area is essentially spread east from Geneva towards the Riviera area and north-east towards Yverdon-les-Bains, Geneva is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed, Geneva was ranked as the worlds ninth most important financial centre for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centres Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe behind London and Zürich. A2009 survey by Mercer found that Geneva has the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world, the city has been referred to as the worlds most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital. In 2009 and 2011, Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar, with the spelling Genava, probably from a Celtic toponym *genawa- from the stem *genu-, in the sense of a bending river or estuary. The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin was known as pagus major Genevensis or Comitatus Genevensis, the name takes various forms in modern languages, Geneva /dʒᵻˈniːvə/ in English, French, Genève, German, Genf, Italian, Ginevra, and Romansh, Genevra. The city in origin shares its name, *genawa estuary, with the Italian port city of Genoa, Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Romans took it in 121 BC. It became Christian under the Late Roman Empire, and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the bishopric of Vienne in the 4th. In the Middle Ages, Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, around this time the House of Savoy came to dominate the city. In the 15th century, a republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council. In 1541, with Protestantism in the ascendancy, John Calvin, by the 18th century, however, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own. France also tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, in 1798, revolutionary France under the Directory annexed Geneva. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on 1 June 1814, in 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted. Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of international organizations. Geneva is located at 46°12 North, 6°09 East, at the end of Lake Geneva. It is surrounded by two chains, the Alps and the Jura
2.
University of Geneva
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The University of Geneva is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin as a theological seminary and it remained focused on theology until the 17th century, when it became a center for Enlightenment scholarship. In 1873, it dropped its religious affiliations and became officially secular, today, the university is the second-largest university in Switzerland by number of students. In 2009, the University of Geneva celebrated the 450th anniversary of its founding, at least 40% of the students come from foreign countries. In 2015, it was ranked 58th worldwide by the Shanghai ranking, in 2011, it was ranked 73rd worldwide by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, and 69th in the QS World University Rankings. UNIGE is a member of the League of European Research Universities the Coimbra Group, the University of Geneva is located in several districts in the eastern part of the city and in the nearby city of Carouge, and the different buildings are sometimes very distant from each other. The oldest building is the Collège Calvin, and is not anymore a university building, built between 1868 and 1871, Uni Bastions is the symbol of Genevas academic life. It is located in the middle of a park and is host to the faculty of Protestant Theology and its architecture was inspired by Le Corbusier. It hosts the Rectorat and the administration of the University and it is Switzerlands biggest building dedicated to social sciences. It currently hosts the Faculty of Law, of Economics and Social Sciences, of Psychology and Education, the University of Geneva is structured in various faculties which are representing teaching, research and service to society in the various disciplines. Founded in 1876, ranked one of the top 100 medical schools in the world and it is one of the larger faculties of the University of Geneva in terms of budget and number of employees. Notable research areas include neuroscience, genetics, and transplantation and it is closely associated with Switzerlands largest hospital complex, the University Hospitals of Geneva. Since 1981, the Faculty of Medicine is located in the buildings of CMU in Champel, the faculty of Humanities and Arts has various departments and research centers. GSEM is a new faculty and exists since January 2014, the creation of the GSEM faculty is a result of a merger between two former departments, Economics and HEC. Students of the GSEM Faculty benefit from a degree in English. This new curriculum is in place since fall 2015, the GSEM counts more than 1.700 students and 200 lecturers. The Executive Education counts more than 1.500 participants and over 45 programs (including an Executive MBA, a number of research institutes provide avenues for graduate studies at Master’s and Doctoral levels. The Faculty Geneva School of Social Sciences, was founded on 1 January 2014, the faculty was created in 1890
3.
Contemporary philosophy
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The phrase contemporary philosophy is a piece of technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specific period in the history of Western philosophy. However, the phrase is often confused with philosophy, postmodern philosophy. No longer will researches usually be embodied in books addressed to anyone who might be interested in the matter of the field. Philosophy underwent this process toward the end of the 19th century, Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, in the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model. James Campbell describes the professionalisation of philosophy in America as follows, philosopher Michael Sandels book Justice, Whats the Right Thing to Do. Both works became New York Times best sellers, the Association has three divisions - Pacific, Central and Eastern. Each division organises an annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which attracts around 2,000 philosophers. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USAs largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the professions top honors. The largest academic organization devoted to furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology. Concerning professional journals today, a 2009 survey of professional philosophers asked them to rank the highest quality general philosophy journals in English. The directory is published two years, alternating with its companion volume, the International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers. Since the start of the 21st century, philosophers have seen the growing utilization of blogs as a means of professional exchange. In bringing attention to the experience of women in the profession, as a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact. Also working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B, achenbach and Michel Weber who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework. Contemporary continental philosophy began with the work of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Adolf Reinach, and Martin Heidegger and this development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic. Analytic philosophy dominates in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Continental philosophy prevails in France, Italy, Spain, and parts of the United States
4.
St Antony's College, Oxford
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St Antonys College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The colleges areas of specialist study include Europe, Russia and the former Soviet states, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, Japan, China, and South and South East Asia. The college is located in North Oxford, with Woodstock Road to the west, Bevington Road to the south, as of 2012, St Antonys had an estimated financial endowment of £30m. St Antonys was founded in 1950 as the result of the gift of Sir Antonin Besse of Aden, in 1947, Besse was considering giving around £2 million to the University of Oxford to found a new college. Ultimately, on the advice of his solicitor, R Clyde, the university was initially unreceptive to the offer, and recommended that Besse instead devote his funds to improving the finances of some of the poorer existing colleges. Eventually Besse acquiesced, contributing a total of £250,000 in varied amounts to the colleges, Keble, Worcester, St Peters, Wadham, Exeter, Pembroke, Lincoln. The attention of the university turned to providing the new college, by then called St Antonys. Ripon Hall was initially considered as an option for a building in which to house the college. None of these options proved tenable, and the college began to look elsewhere and it is said that Besse became very frustrated with the university and its apparent disinterest in his project at this point, and almost gave up any hope of its completion. However the college acquired its current premises at 62 Woodstock Road in 1950. The College first admitted students in Michaelmas Term 1950 and received its Royal Charter in 1953, a supplementary charter was granted in 1962 to allow the College to admit women as well as men, and in 1963 the College became a full member of the University of Oxford. By 1952 the number of students at St Antonys had increased to 27 and by the end of the decade that number had risen to 260, since then, St Antonys has almost constantly been financially insecure. This led to the cancellation of a number of proposed physical developments at its site on Woodstock Road, the college is still true to its founding principle, remaining one of the most international colleges of the university, and home to many of Oxfords region-specific study departments. The colleges name alludes to its founder, whose name, Antonin Besse, is derived from the linguistic root. For a long time it was not made clear whether Anthony the Great or Anthony of Padua was the intended namesake. Despite this, the banner is flown each year on both saints days as a matter of tradition, and a statue of the wrong Anthony, Anthony of Padua. The order commissioned Charles Buckeridge, an architect of some renown. Whilst initially there were plans to enlarge the convent with an extension, for which place was made in the buildings design
5.
Islamic studies
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Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture. Islamic studies can be seen under at least two perspectives, From a secular or neutral point of view, Islamic studies do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture independent of faith. In this respect, Islamic studies neither engage in shaping Muslim faith by making Islamic theology, from a Muslim point of view, Islamic studies also do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture, but from a faithful perspective. Historically, both perspectives had been separated by the separation of the Western and Islamic worlds. They differed in their understanding of academia and were organized either in universities or madrasas, scholars of Islamic studies are called by their special field of study, as e. g. historian, sociologist, or political scientist, or in general a scholar of Islamic studies. The professional title Islamicist is dated, scholars of Islamic studies from a faithful point of view can be historians etc. too, yet they also can be called Muslim scholar, teacher of religion, cleric, or Ulama. In a Muslim context, Islamic studies is the term for the Islamic sciences. Specialists in the discipline apply methods adapted from several fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history. Scholars in the field of academic Islamic studies are often referred to as Islamicists, in fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of Oriental studies. This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, the first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies. Some orientalists praised the tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant, leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke s study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher s work on the prophetic tradition. Western orientalists and Muslim scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way and they did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. To understand the history of Islam provides the basis to understand all aspects of Islam. Themes of special interest are, Historiography of early Islam History of the Quran Historicity of Muhammad Early Muslim conquests Kalam is one of the sciences of Islam. In Arabic, the word means discussion and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic, a scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. Islamic eschatology Sufism is a tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism, while other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love
6.
Muhammad Asad
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Muhammad Asad was a Jewish-born Austro-Hungarian journalist, traveler, writer, linguist, thinker, political theorist, diplomat and Islamic scholar. Asad was one of the most influential European Muslims of the 20th century, by the age of thirteen, young Weiss had acquired a passing fluency in Hebrew and Aramaic, other than his native languages German and Polish. By his mid-twenties, he could read and write in English, French, Persian, in Mandatory Palestine, Weiss engaged in arguments with Zionist leaders like Chaim Weizmann, voicing his reservations about some aspects of the Zionist Movement. After traveling across the Arab World as a journalist, he converted to Islam in 1926, during his stay in Saudi Arabia, he spent time with Bedouins and enjoyed close company of Ibn Saud—the founder of modern Saudi Arabia. He also carried out a mission for Ibn Saud to trace the sources of funding for the Ikhwan Revolt. Due to these activities, he was dubbed in a Haaretz article as Leopold of Arabia—hinting similarity of his activities to those of Lawrence of Arabia and he also spent five years in internment by the British Government at the outbreak of World War II. In the West, Asad rose to prominence as a writer with his best-selling autobiography, later, after seventeen years of scholarly research, he published his magnum opus, The Message of the Quran—an English translation and commentary of the Quran. The book, along with the translations of Pickthall and Yusuf Ali, is regarded as one of the most influential translations of the modern era, an ardent proponent of Ijtihad and rationality in interpreting religious texts, he dedicates his works to People who Think. In 2008, the square to the UN Office in Vienna was named Muhammad Asad Platz in commemoration of his work as a religious bridge-builder. Asad has been described by his biographers as Europes gift to Islam, Leopold Weiss was born on 2 July 1900 to a Jewish family in Lemberg, Galicia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Weiss was a descendant of a line of Jewish rabbis, however, his father, Akiva Weiss, broke from tradition. Leopold received an education and was proficient in Hebrew from an early age. He studied the Jewish Bible or Tanakh, the text and commentaries of the Talmud, the Mishna and Gemara, also delving into the intricacies of Biblical exegesis, at the age of fourteen he made an escape from school and joined the Austrian army under a false name. After a week or so, his father traced him with the help of the police, after abandoning university in Vienna, Weiss drifted aimlessly around 1920s Germany, working briefly for the expressionist film director Fritz Lang. By his own account, after selling a jointly written film script, he splurged the windfall on a party at an expensive Berlin restaurant. In 1922 Weiss moved to the British Mandate of Palestine, staying in Jerusalem at the house of his maternal uncle Dorian Feigenbaum at his invitation, Feigenbaum was a psychoanalyst, and a disciple of Freud and later founded the Psychoanalytic Quarterly. He picked up work as a stringer for the German newspaper Frankfurter Zeitung, one of the most prestigious newspapers of Germany and Europe and his pieces were noteworthy for their understanding of Arab fears and grievances against the Zionist project. Weiss made the trip, which lasted two years, Asad spoke of Islam thus, Islam appears to me like a perfect work of architecture
7.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
8.
Professor (highest academic rank)
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Professor is the highest academic rank at universities and other institutions of higher education in parts of the world. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in most Commonwealth nations and northern Europe, professor is the title of the most senior academics at a university. It may come with the honor of being an endowed professorship. A professor is an accomplished and recognized academic, and the title is in most cases awarded only after decades of scholarly work to senior academics. The word professor is used in other, lower titles such as Assistant Professor and Associate Professor, particularly in United States. Professor is the North American equivalent of Professor in other countries and uniquely signifies that the academic has been awarded tenure
9.
Doshisha University
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Doshisha University, also referred to as Dodai, is a private university in Kyoto City, Japan. Established in 1875, it is one of Japans oldest private institutions of higher learning and it is one of the Japanese Global 30 universities and one of the Kankandoritsu, a group of the four leading private universities in western Japans Kansai region. Doshisha was founded by Joseph Hardy Neesima as Doshisha English School, the university now encompasses 14 faculties and 16 graduate schools with numerous affiliated institutions including Doshisha Womens College of Liberal Arts. Doshisha University was founded in 1875 as Doshisha English School by Protestant educator Niijima Jō, as a young man, Niijima left Japan for the United States in 1864, despite the ban on overseas travel then imposed on Japanese nationals. He studied at Phillips Academy and Amherst College, and returned to Japan in 1874, the next year, Niijima established the Doshisha School with the assistance of Canadian Methodist missionary G. G. Cochran. Niijima served as president of the university from 1875 to 1890, by 1920, Doshisha was granted university status and developed into a full-fledged university in the Anglo-American academic tradition. During World War II, its buildings were given Japanese names, the prewar conditions were restored after the surrender of Japan. The first graduate programs were instituted in 1953. Doshisha also houses the Kyoto Consortium for Japanese Studies, another program affiliated with American universities, Doshisha University is one of the most prestigious universities in Japan today, with particularly strong influence in the Kansai region. The university has been ranked 12th and 14th in 2009 and 2010 respectively in the ranking Truly Strong Universities by Toyo Keizai, the university is considered one of the most selective private universities in Japan. The acceptance rate for the 40,924 applicants for the 2014 academic year was 35. 6%, the libraries at the Imadegawa and Kyotanabe campuses hold more than 2.5 million volumes. As of 2013, Doshisha University employs 777 full-time and 1,411 part-time faculty members across its Kyoto campuses, in terms of research, Doshisha has filed the 36th-highest number of patents in the nation. Doshisha University has two campuses at Imadegawa in central Kyoto and at Kyotanabe in southern Kyoto. Imadegawa is the campus, located in the former residence of Satsuma Domain. It has been in use since the school was founded, located in the center of Kyoto City, the campus is situated next to Shōkoku-ji, overlooking Kyoto Imperial Palace. Five buildings in the Imadegawa campus have been designated as Important Cultural Properties of Japan, including Doshisha Chapel and this campus is primarily for the liberal arts, business, theology, and law faculties. The Kyotanabe Campus was opened in 1986, in Kyōtanabe, Kyoto and is part of Kansai Science City, over 195 acres in area, it serves primarily as the campus for the science and engineering faculties. In 2012, a new Karasuma Campus was established approximately 300 meters from the Imadegawa Campus, the Karasuma Campus houses the International Education Institute, the Graduate School of Global Studies, and the Faculty of Global and Regional Studies
10.
Doha
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Doha is the capital city and most populous city of the State of Qatar. Doha has a population of 1,351,000 in a city proper with the close to 1.5 million. The city is located on the coast of the Persian Gulf in the east of the country and it is Qatars fastest growing city, with over 50% of the nations population living in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and it is also the economic center of the country. Doha was founded in the 1820s as an offshoot of Al Bidda and it was officially declared as the countrys capital in 1971, when Qatar gained independence. As the commercial capital of Qatar and one of the emergent financial centers in the Middle East, Doha is considered a city by the Globalization. Doha accommodates Education City, a devoted to research and education. The city was host to the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. It was also selected as host city of a number of sporting events, including the 2006 Asian Games, in December 2011, the World Petroleum Council held the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha. Additionally, the city hosted the 2012 UNFCCC Climate Negotiations and is set to host a number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. In May 2015, Doha was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, La Paz, Durban, Havana, Beirut, the name Doha may have originated from the Arabic Ad-Dawḥa, the big tree. The reference might be to a prominent tree that stood at the site where the fishing village arose. Alternatively, it may have derived from dohat — Arabic for bay or gulf — referring to the Doha Bay area surrounding the Corniche. The city of Doha was formed after seceding from another local settlement known as Al Bidda, the earliest documented mention of Al Bidda was made in 1681, by the Carmelite Convent, in an account which chronicles several settlements in Qatar. In the record, the ruler and a fort in the confines of Al Bidda are alluded to, carsten Niebuhr, a European explorer who visited the Arabian Peninsula, created one of the first maps to depict the settlement in 1765 in which he labelled it as Guttur. David Seaton, a British political resident in Muscat, wrote the first English record of Al Bidda in 1801 and he refers to the town as Bedih and describes the geography and defensive structures in the area. He stated that the town had recently settled by the Sudan tribe. Seaton attempted to bombard the town with his warship, but returned to Muscat upon finding that the waters were too shallow to position his warship within striking distance. In 1820, British surveyor R. H. Colebrook, who visited Al Bidda and he wrote, The same year, an agreement known as the General Maritime Treaty was signed between the East India Company and the sheikhs of several Persian Gulf settlements
11.
UK Foreign Office
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The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office, is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting and promoting British interests worldwide and it was created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office. The head of the FCO is the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and this position is regarded as one of the four most prestigious appointments in the Cabinet, alongside those of Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary. Together with the Prime Minister, these are the Great Offices of State, the FCO is managed from day-to-day by a civil servant, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, who also acts as the Head of the Her Majestys Diplomatic Service. This position is held by Sir Simon McDonald, who took office on 1 September 2015, safeguarding the UK’s national security by countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, and working to reduce conflict. Building the UK’s prosperity by increasing exports and investment, opening markets, ensuring access to resources, supporting British nationals around the world through modern and efficient consular services. The two departments foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office, the Home Office is technically the senior. One of the most influential Times journalists was Valentine Chirol, British Ambassadors across Europe communicated with him on a number of political and local issues. Twentieth century During World War I, the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department, the FCO was formed in 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997. From 1997, this became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development, the National Archives website contains a Government timeline to show the departments responsible for Foreign Affairs from 1945. When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, one of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, the new strategic framework consists of three core elements, A flexible global network of staff and offices, serving the whole of the UK Government. Three essential services that support the British economy, British nationals abroad and these services are delivered through UK Trade & Investment, consular teams in Britain and overseas, and UK Visas and Immigration. In August 2005 a report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay, the report severely criticised the FCOs management structure, noting, The Foreign Office could be slow to act. Delegation is lacking within the management structure, the FCO could feasibly cut 1200 jobs. At least £48 million could be saved annually, the Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had implemented the reports recommendations
12.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
13.
Foreign Policy
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Foreign Policy is an American news publication, founded in 1970 and focused on global affairs, current events, and domestic and international policy. It produces content daily on its website, and in six print issues annually, Foreign Policy is under the leadership of CEO and Editor of The FP Group David Rothkopf, who joined FP in that role 2012 after being a regular contributor to the publication since 1997. Foreign Policy magazine and ForeignPolicy. com are published by The FP Group, the FP Group also produces FP Events, Foreign Policys events division, launched in 2012. Huntington hoped it would be serious but not scholarly, lively, in the Spring of 1978, after six years of close partnership, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace acquired full ownership of Foreign Policy. In 2000, a change was implemented from a slim quarterly academic journal to a bi-monthly magazine. Also, it launched international editions in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, in September 2008, Foreign Policy was bought by The Washington Post Company. In 2012, Foreign Policy grew to become the FP Group – an expansion of Foreign Policy magazine to include ForeignPolicy. com, in December 2013, FP expanded and modernized ForeignPolicy. com as part of a complete website redesign. The new site was designed to present FPs readers with an array of editorial features. Morning Brief - FPs daily digest of top global news, flash Points - Weekly reader of highlights from foreignpolicy. com delivered every Friday morning. Democracy Lab Weekly Brief - Reporting on a world in transition, south Asia Daily - A daily synthesis of news about Afghanistan, Pakistan and India Mideast Daily Brief - A daily morning overview of major news in the region. com. FP is the independent magazine that has won consecutive digital national magazine awards every year from being established in 2009. 2014 Foreign Policy received its first design recognition for The Surveillance State, “Turtle Bay, ” the reported blog by journalist Colum Lynch, won the Digital National Magazine Award for best reporting for a series of hard-hitting investigative articles about the United Nations. 2010 Foreign Policy’s “The Best Defense” column authored by Tom Ricks received the Digital National Magazine Award for best blog,2009 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category. Forbes RealClearWorld designated ForeignPolicy. com as a top international news site,2008 Folio Magazine Gold Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, What America Must Do by Kenneth Rogoff, Jan/Feb 2008. FPs What America Must Do feature received the Eddie Award as a Gold Winner for the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category for a Single Article, Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, A World Enslaved by Benjamin Skinner, Mar/Apr 2008. Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, media Industry Newsletters Best of the Web Award in the blog category for Passport a blog by the editors of Foreign Policy. 2007 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category, Foreign Policy was presented as a Gold Winner by the Eddie Awards for “Who Wins in Iraq, ” in the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category. 2003 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for Outstanding Achievement, FP Top 100 Global Thinkers Foreign Policy of the United States Official website Foreign Policy Passport at Foreign Policy
14.
Salafi movement
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It advocated a return to the traditions of the devout ancestors. Some scholars define this movement as Modernist Salafism, some 21st-century scholars have suggested there was a medieval form of Salafism, but there is little evidence of this. Generally scholars believe the Modernist form has been superseded since the century by what is called Purist Salafism. The Salafist doctrine can be summed up as taking a fundamentalist approach to Islam, emulating Muhammad and his earliest followers – al-salaf al-salih and they reject religious innovation or bidah, and support the implementation of sharia. The Salafi movement is described as being synonymous with Wahhabism. At other times, Salafism has been described as a hybrid of Wahhabism, Salafism has become associated with literalist, strict and puritanical approaches to Islam. Particularly in the West it is associated with Salafi jihadists, who espouse jihad as an expression of Islam against those they deem to be enemies of Islam. In legal matters, Salafis are divided between those who, in the name of independent legal judgement, reject strict adherence to the four Sunni schools of law, and others who remain faithful to these. Salafism takes its name from the Arabic term salaf, used to identify the earliest Muslims and they consider a hadith that quotes Muhammad saying, The best of my community are my generation, the ones who follow them and the ones who follow them. As a call to Muslims to follow the example of those first three generations, known collectively as the salaf. or pious Predecessors, the salaf are believed to include Muhammad himself, the Companions, the Followers, and the Followers of the Followers. Since the fifth Muslim generation or earlier, Sunni theologians have used the examples of the Salaf to understand the texts and tenets of Islam, according to Bernard Haykel, temporal proximity to the Prophet Muhammad is associated with the truest form of Islam among many Sunni Muslims. Salafis believe that the Quran, the Hadith and the consensus of approved scholarship, the Salafi dawa is a methodology, but it is not a madhhab in fiqh as is commonly misunderstood. Salafis may be influenced by the Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali or the Hanafi schools of Sunni fiqh, Salafis condemn certain common practices among Muslims such as polytheism and tawassul of religious figures. In North African cultures for instance, historically there were practices to venerate the graves of Islamic prophets and saints, Salafis place great emphasis on practicing actions in accordance with the known sunnah, not only in prayer but in every activity in daily life. For instance, many are careful always to use three fingers when eating, to water in three pauses, and to hold it with the right hand while sitting. In legal matters, Salafis are divided between those who, in the name of independent legal judgement, reject strict adherence to the four schools of law and others who remain faithful to these. Salafi scholars from Saudi Arabia are generally bound by Hanbali fiqh and advocate following an Imam rather than having individuals try to interpret, other Salafi scholars, however, believe that taqlid is unlawful. From their perspective, Muslims who follow a madhab without searching personally for direct evidence may be led astray, the latter group of scholars include Rashid Rida, al-Khajnadee, Muhammad Abduh, Saleem al-Hilali and Nasir al-Din al-Albani
15.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
16.
Hassan al-Banna
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Al-Bannas writings marked a watershed in Islamic intellectual history by presenting a modern ideology based on Islam. Al-Banna considered Islam to be a system of life, with the Quran as the only acceptable constitution. He called for Islamization of the state, the economy, al-Bannas ideology involved criticism of Western materialism, British imperialism, and the traditionalism of Egyptian ulema. He appealed to Egyptian and pan-Arab patriotism but rejected Arab nationalism, the Muslim Brotherhood advocated gradualist moral reform and had no plans for violent takeover of power. Jihad of the spirit was a key notion in their program, under al-Bannas leadership, the organization embarked on a wide-ranging campaign of social engagement with a particular emphasis on public health improvements. He allowed formation of a military wing which took part in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Al-Banna argued that the state should enforce Islamic public morality through censorship and application of corporal punishments. Nonetheless, his thought was open to Western ideas and some of his writings quote European authors instead of Islamic sources, al-Banna was assassinated by Egyptian secret police in 1949. His son-in-law Said Ramadan emerged as a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1950s. Hassan al-Banna was born on 14 October 1906 in Mahmudiyya, a rural Nile Delta town located northwest of Cairo in Beheira Governorate. His father, Sheikh Ahmad Abd al-Rahman al-Banna al-Saati, was a Hanbali imam, muezzin, and mosque teacher, Sheikh Ahmad was also known for his work as a Hanbali scholar, particularly his classifications of the traditions of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Shaybani. These classifications became known as musnad al-fath al-rabbani, through this work, Sheikh Ahmad forged connections with Islamic scholars that proved useful when his son moved to Cairo in 1932. In addition to his exposure to Hanbali Puritanism, Hassan al-Banna was inspired by Rashid Ridas magazine. He was also influenced by Sufism as a youth in Mahmudiyya. He attended weekly Hadra and was a member of the al-Hassafiyya Sufi order, although al-Banna was only thirteen years old during the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, it was the event that first exposed him to Egyptian nationalist politics. In his personal accounts, al-Banna connected himself with the activism of the time. In spite of his age, al-Banna participated in demonstrations in Damanhur, self-published political pamphlets. However, during the 1920s economic crisis, the family had trouble sustaining the upkeep of their property, in Mahmudiyya, al-Banna studied in the village mosque with Sheikh Zahran
17.
Muslim Brotherhood
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The Society of the Muslim Brothers, shortened to the Muslim Brotherhood, is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. The Brotherhoods stated goal is to instill the Quran and the Sunnah as the reference point for. Ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community, as a Pan-Islamic, religious, and social movement, it preached Islam, taught the illiterate, and set up hospitals and business enterprises. The Arab Spring brought it legalization and substantial power at first. The Brotherhood itself claims it is a peaceful, democratic organization, according to a spokesman, the Muslim Brotherhood believe in reform, democracy, freedom of assembly, press, etc. We believe that the reform is the true and natural gateway for all other kinds of reform. We have announced our acceptance of democracy that acknowledges political pluralism, the rotation of power. Its founder, Hassan Al-Banna, was influenced by Islamic modernist reformers Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, with the group structure and it downplayed doctrinal differences between schools emphasizing the political importance of worldwide unity of the Muslim Nation. Al-Banna believed the Quran and Sunnah constitute a perfect way of life, Islamic governments must be based on this system and eventually unified in a Caliphate. The Brotherhood preaches that Islam will bring justice, the eradication of poverty, corruption and sinful behavior. On the issue of women and gender the Muslim Brotherhood interprets Islam conservatively, there have been breakaway groups from the movement, including the Al-Gamaa al-Islamiyya and Al Takfir Wal Hijra. Prominent figures of the Brotherhood include Sayyid Qutb, an influential and anti-Semitic thinker of Islamic supremacism. Osama bin Laden criticized the Brotherhood, and accused it of betraying jihad, the Brotherhoods most frequently used slogan is Islam is the Solution. Another well known slogan is God is our objective, dying in the way of God is our highest hope. On the Brotherhoods green logo is emblazoned وَأَعِدُّواْ - taken from sūrat l-anfāl, according to academic Khalil Yusuf its motto was traditionally Believers are but Brothers. The Muslim Brotherhood position on political participation varied according to the situation of each branch. For many years its stance was collaborationist in Kuwait and Jordan, for pacific opposition in Egypt, armed opposition in Libya, (A book on the document was published under the name, La conquête de lOccident, Le projet secret des Islamistes by Sylvain Besson. These parties are staffed by Brotherhood members but they are independent from the Muslim Brotherhood to some degree
18.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
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Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death. Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year, Nassers popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria, in 1962, Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nassers supporters gained power in several Arab countries and he began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypts defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Nasser resigned, after the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit, Nasser suffered a heart attack and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world, Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity, modernization policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos, Alexandria, the first son of Fahima and Abdel Nasser Hussein. Nassers father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt and raised in Alexandria and his parents married in 1917, and later had two more boys, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nassers family traveled frequently due to his fathers work, in 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in 1923, to Khatatba, where Nassers father ran a post office. Nasser attended a school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo. Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays and he stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died giving birth to his third brother, Shawki. Nasser later stated that losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy and he adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the years end. In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and it was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society, called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitutions annulment by Prime Minister Ismail Sidqi, Nasser was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out. When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and he took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the schools paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled Voltaire, the Man of Freedom. Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policemans bullet, the incident garnered his first mention in the press, the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded
19.
French literature
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This article is a general introduction to French literature. For detailed information on French literature in specific periods, see the separate historical articles in the template to the right. Literature written in French language, by citizens of nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, Morocco. As of 2006, French writers have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, France itself ranks first in the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country. French literature has been for French people an object of pride for centuries. The French language is a dialect derived from Latin and heavily influenced principally by Celtic. Today, French schools emphasize the study of novels, theater, the literary arts are heavily sponsored by the state and literary prizes are major news. The Académie française and the Institut de France are important linguistic and artistic institutions in France, Literature matters deeply to the people of France and plays an important role in their sense of identity. As of 2006, French literary people have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, a writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form. For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. M. G, le Clézio 2014 – Patrick Modiano Grand Prix de Littérature Policière – created in 1948, for crime and detective fiction. Grand Prix du roman de lAcadémie française – created 1918, Prix Décembre – created in 1989. Prix Femina – created 1904, decided each year by an exclusively female jury, Prix Goncourt – created 1903, given to the author of the best and most imaginative prose work of the year. Prix Goncourt des Lycéens – created in 1987, Prix Littéraire Valery Larbaud – created in 1957. Prix Médicis – created 1958, awarded to an author whose fame does not yet match their talent, Prix Renaudot – created in 1926. Prix Tour-Apollo Award – 1972–1990, given to the best science fiction published in French during the preceding year. Prix des Deux Magots – created in 1933, a short history of French literature Burgwinkle, William, Nicholas Hammond, and Emma Wilson, eds. The Cambridge history of French literature Cobb, Richard, Promenades, an appreciation of modern French literature Harvey, Paul. The Oxford companion to French literature Denis Hollier, ed, a New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press,1989,1150 pp. France, Peter
20.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
21.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
22.
Lancy
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Lancy is a municipality of the Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. Lancy is first mentioned in 1097 as Lanciaco meaning fearless, Lancy has an area, as of 2009, of 4.77 square kilometers. Of this area,0.25 km2 or 5. 2% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,4.26 km2 or 89. 3% is settled,0.02 km2 or 0. 4% is either rivers or lakes. Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 8. 2% of the area while housing and buildings made up 45. 7%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other developed areas made up 2. 7% of the area while parks. Out of the land,5. 0% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1. 5% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land,3. 4% is used for growing crops and 1. 5% is pastures, all the water in the municipality is flowing water. The municipality is located on the bank of the Rhone river. It consists of the villages of Grand-Lancy and Petit-Lancy as well as the hamlets of Pesay, Saint-Georges, La Tour, La Vendée, Lancy has a population of 31,359. As of 2008,35. 0% of the population are resident foreign nationals, over the years 1999–2009 the population changed at a rate of 12%. It changed at a rate of 6. 2% due to migration, most of the population speaks French, with Portuguese being second most common and Italian being third. There are 883 people who speak German and 10 people who speak Romansh, as of 2008, the gender distribution of the population was 48. 2% male and 51. 8% female. The population was made up of 8,568 Swiss men and 5,311 non-Swiss men, there were 9,994 Swiss women and 4,938 non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality 4,565 or about 17. 8% were born in Lancy and lived there in 2000. There were 6,166 or 24. 0% who were born in the canton, while 4,305 or 16. 8% were born somewhere else in Switzerland. In 2008 there were 200 live births to Swiss citizens and 119 births to non-Swiss citizens, in same time span there were 132 deaths of Swiss citizens and 31 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 68 while the population increased by 88. There were 93 Swiss men and 78 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland, at the same time, there were 263 non-Swiss men and 246 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland
23.
University of Fribourg
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The University of Fribourg is a university in the city of Fribourg, Switzerland. The roots of the university can be traced back to 1580, in 1763, an Academy of law was founded by the state of Fribourg which formed the nucleus of the present Law Faculty. The University of Fribourg was finally created in 1889 by an Act of the parliament of the Swiss Canton of Fribourg, the University of Fribourg is Switzerland’s only bilingual university and offers full curricula in both French and German, two of Switzerlands national languages. Students number about 10,000, there are about 200 tenured professors and 700 other academic teaching, the Misericorde Campus, constructed between 1939–42, was designed by the architects Honegger and Dumas, students of Swiss architect Le Corbusier. There are five faculties, Catholic theology, law, natural sciences, humanities, the university owes its earliest origin to the foundation of the Jesuit College St. Michel on Belze Hill by Peter Canisius in 1580 at the invitation of the government of Fribourg. In 1763, an Academy of Law was founded, housed in the Albertinium, in 1834, the cantonal library was formed from works brought to Fribourg for safekeeping. The College St. Michel was closed following the expulsion of the Jesuits from Fribourg after the defeat in the Sonderbund war. In 1886, Georges Python, founder of the cantonal bank and he raised funds through a lottery and was granted some 2,500,000 CHF by the canton. The cantonal library became integrated with that of the university and the Academy became the Faculty of Law. In 1939, the university moved to a new campus constructed on the cemetery of Misericorde, ceding St. Michel to one of Fribourgs gymnasia. The Perolles campus was constructed on the site of a wagon factory. Although many lectures were originally in Latin, Fribourg is now the only French/German bilingual university in the world, the town itself is 70% French and 30% German. To commemorate the centerary of the university, La Poste issued a stamp depicting the figures Science, in 2005, the university inaugurated its Perolles 2 campus, to which the Faculty of Economics and Social Science relocated. The university has the third largest collection of Biblical antiquities in the world after the British Museum, Fribourg has also developed FriMat, a centre of excellence in nanotechnology. The academic degrees were the Demi-Licence, Licence, DEA / DESS, the university now follows the requirements of the Bologna process. The University of Fribourg launched for the 2009–2010 academic year a new postgraduate law programme, the Master of Laws in Cross-Cultural Business Practice, Fribourg has no central campus and its buildings are located throughout the city. Leonard - University Stadium The Fribourg University is divided in five faculties and they follow courses and seminars in the fields of philosophy, historical sciences, languages, literature, education, psychology or social sciences. The Faculty of Law has about 1,900 students, the program includes national and international law, both subjects areas can be followed bilingual
24.
University of Notre Dame
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The University of Notre Dame du Lac is a Catholic research university located adjacent to South Bend, Indiana, in the United States. In French, Notre Dame du Lac means Our Lady of the Lake and refers to the patron saint. The main campus covers 1,250 acres in a setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the Word of Life mural. The school was founded on November 26,1842, by Father Edward Sorin, CSC, Today, many Holy Cross priests continue to work for the university, including the president of the university. Notre Dame is a large, four-year, highly residential research university, undergraduate students are organized into four colleges, and the Architecture School. The latter is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the globally renowned annual Driehaus Architecture Prize, the university offers over 50 foreign study abroad yearlong programs and over 15 summer programs. It maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. Over 80% of the universitys 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 29 single-sex residence halls, each with its own traditions, legacies, events, the university counts approximately 120,000 alumni. The universitys athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish, other ND sport teams, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have accumulated 16 national championships. The Notre Dame Victory March is often regarded as the most famous, started as a small all-male institution in 1842 and charter in 1844, Notre Dame reached international fame at the beginning of the 20th century. Ever since, the University has seen growth, and under the leadership of the next two presidents, Rev. Malloy and Rev. Jenkins, many infrastructure and research expansions have been completed. In 1842, the Bishop of Vincennes, Célestine Guynemer de la Hailandière, offered land to Father Edward Sorin of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on the condition that he build a college in two years. Sorin arrived on the site with eight Holy Cross brothers from France and Ireland on November 26,1842 and he soon erected additional buildings, including the Old College, the first church, and the first main building. They immediately acquired two students and set about building additions to the campus, Notre Dame began as a primary and secondary school, but soon received its official college charter from the Indiana General Assembly on January 15,1844. Under the charter the school is named the University of Notre Dame du Lac. Because the university was only for male students, the female-only Saint Marys College was founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross near Notre Dame in 1844. The first degrees from the college were awarded in 1849, the university was expanded with new buildings to accommodate more students and faculty. With each new president, new programs were offered and new buildings built to accommodate them
25.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
26.
Patriot Act
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The USA PATRIOT Act is an Act of Congress that was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26,2001. With its ten-letter abbreviation expanded, the title is Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept. Following a lack of Congressional approval, parts of the Patriot Act expired on June 1,2015, with the passage of the USA Freedom Act on June 2,2015, the expired parts were restored and renewed through 2019. However, Section 215 of the law was amended to stop the National Security Agency from continuing its mass phone data collection program, instead, phone companies will retain the data and the NSA can obtain information about targeted individuals with permission from a federal court. From broad concern felt among Americans from both the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks, Congress rushed to pass legislation to strengthen security controls. On October 23,2001, Republican Rep. Jim Sensenbrenner introduced H. R.3162 incorporating provisions from a previously sponsored House bill, the next day, the Act passed the House 357 to 66, with Democrats comprising the overwhelming portion of dissent. The three Republicans voting no were Robert Ney of Ohio, Butch Otter of Idaho and Ron Paul of Texas, on October 25, the Act passed the Senate by 98 to 1. Since its passage, several legal challenges have been brought against the act, many provisions of the act were to sunset beginning December 31,2005, approximately four years after its passage. In July 2005, the U. S. Senate passed a bill with substantial changes to several sections of the act. The two bills were reconciled in a conference committee that was criticized by Senators from both the Republican and Democratic parties for ignoring civil liberty concerns. The bill, which removed most of the changes from the Senate version, passed Congress on March 2,2006, Title I authorizes measures to enhance the ability of domestic security services to prevent terrorism. The title established a fund for counter-terrorist activities and increased funding for the Terrorist Screening Center which is administered by the FBI, the military was authorized to provide assistance in some situations that involve weapons of mass destruction when so requested by the Attorney General. The National Electronic Crime Task Force was expanded, along with the Presidents authority and it primarily made amendments to FISA, and the ECPA, and many of the most controversial aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act reside in this title. In particular, the title allows government agencies to gather foreign intelligence information from both U. S. and non-U. S, Citizens, and changed FISA to make gaining foreign intelligence information the significant purpose of FISA-based surveillance, where previously it had been the primary purpose. However, that this wall even existed was found by the Federal Surveillance Court of Review to have actually been a long-held misinterpretation by government agencies, also removed was the statutory requirement that the government prove a surveillance target under FISA is a non-U. S. Citizen and agent of a power, though it did require that any investigations must not be undertaken on citizens who are carrying out activities protected by the First Amendment. The title also expanded the duration of FISA physical search and surveillance orders, the scope and availability of wiretapping and surveillance orders were expanded under Title II. The Act allowed any district judge in the United States to issue such surveillance orders
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Erasmus University Rotterdam
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Erasmus University Rotterdam is a public university located in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the city that also houses the largest port in Europe. The university is named after Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, a 15th-century humanist, the university has seven faculties and focuses on four areas. In 2013, Erasmus University Rotterdam was ranked top ten business schools in Europe by Financial Times. In 2015, Erasmus University Rotterdam is ranked by Times Higher Education as 20th in Europe and 72nd in the world, with its social sciences as 40th, and clinical health as 35th in the world. Erasmus University concentrates on issues of management, organisation and policy in the public and private sectors on the one hand, as well as on the field of sickness, Erasmus University Rotterdam has existed in its present form since 1973. Its history, however, dates back to 1913, the year in which the Netherlands School of Commerce was founded through private initiative with broad support from the Rotterdam business community. The statutory recognition of higher education in commerce and economics as an academic discipline resulted in 1939 in a change of name, the NHH became the NEH or Netherlands School of Economics. The growing complexity of society led in the 1960s to the arrival of the faculties of Law and Social Sciences, followed in later decades by Philosophy, History and Arts, and Business Administration. Together with the Sophia Childrens Hospital and the Daniel den Hoed Clinic, it forms the University Hospital Rotterdam, Erasmus University Rotterdam has bundled its education and research in four areas. This domain includes the Erasmus MC, the Institute of Health Policy and Management, Erasmus MC is the new name for the university medical centre in Rotterdam, which is a merger of the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences and the University Hospital Rotterdam. The biomedical cluster plays a role in the field of genomics and bioinformatics. The Forensic Molecular Biology department works together with the Netherlands Forensic Institute, major long-term genetic epidemiological studies among the elderly and children are Erasmus Rotterdam Health for the Elderly and Generation R respectively. The institute of Health Policy and Management forms a bridge between medicine and the sciences on the one hand and social sciences on the other. The institute for Medical Technology Assessment conducts health economic research in collaboration with both the Erasmus MC and the institute of Health Policy and Management and this area includes the Erasmus School of Economics and the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University. Its economics programmes and management programmes attract students and postgraduates from all over the world, the research schools Erasmus Institute for Management and the Tinbergen Institute attract PhD students, research fellows, PostDocs and visiting professors of repute from all corners of the world. The research focuses on the organisation of business and society and this area has ground in common not only with economics and management, but also with medicine and health sciences. As one of four concentrations of Erasmus University, culture is defined broadly with focus on the areas of media, cultural economics, primary research is on society and the arts, including cultural policy, media, and social identity in modern society. Faculty has particular strengths in research, and the students tend to graduate with strong research skills for academic and field placement
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Press TV
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Press TV is a 24-hour English language news and documentary network, affiliated with Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting. IRIB is state-owned but independent of the Iranian government in its management, IRIBs head is appointed directly by the supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, and is considered to be close to the countrys conservative political faction. Press TV is headquartered in Tehran, and has offices and bureaus around the world, including London, Beirut, Damascus, Kabul, and we want to show that there is a different view. Iran, and the Shias in particular, have become a point of world propaganda. From the media point of view, we are trying to give an eye to Western audiences. Sarafraz explained that our experience tells us that pictorial reflection of news, the networks website launched in late January 2007. Test satellite transmissions were conducted in late April 2007, the channel launched on 3 July 2007. On 18 March 2009, Press TV launched a new website with a graphical user interface. Press TV is state-funded and is a division of the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting and it is the only legal TV and radio broadcaster inside the country. Press TVs headquarters are located in Tehran, as of 2009, the annual budget of Press TV is 250 Billion rials. Press TV offers round-the-clock news bulletins every half-hour, a series of repeating commentary programmes and round-table panel discussions, in May 2009, Press TV CEO Mohammad Sarafraz announced that Press TV would provide viewers with more newscasts while cutting down on its news analysis programs. According to mediachannel. org, the government aims to use Press TV to counter what it sees as a stream of Western propaganda against Iran as well as offer an alternative view of world news. The two networks focus on issues in the Middle East such as the United States’ occupation of neighbouring Iraq. Currently, viewers can watch Press TV and the English, Arabic, Official satellite footprint maps and satellite enthusiast-maintained transponder change notifications are also available and may at times be necessary to consult. In 2012, the Anti-Defamation League issued a report alleging that Press TV has been broadcasting what the ADL says are examples of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories, the station has been criticized for anti-Americanism and uncritical embrace of conspiracy theories. Mehdi Hasan of the New Statesman has argued that engaging with Iran, no matter who is in charge in Tehran, is a prerequisite for peace, the very fact that Press TV is Iranian-owned makes it the ideal English-language platform on which to do so. The BBC journalist Linda Pressly has described Press TV as pro-Palestinian, opposed to sanctions against Iran, nick Ferrari, a former presenter of one of Press TVs shows, told The Times that Press TV’s news coverage had been reasonably fair until the 2009 election—but not any longer. Press TV began its activities in London during 2007, Roshan Muhammed Salih was Press TVs London news editor and chief correspondent
29.
Islamophobia
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Islamophobia or Muslimophobia refers to fear, prejudice, hatred or dislike directed against Islam or Muslims, or towards Islamic politics or culture. The introduction of the term was justified by the assessment that anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are still debated, some people also question the validity of the term. The academics S. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live, in German, Islamophobie and Islamfeindlichkeit are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means hatred of Muslims, the word Islamophobia is a neologism formed from Islam and -phobia, a suffix used in English to form nouns with the sense ‘fear of ——’, ‘aversion to ——’. The compound form Islamo- contains the thematic vowel -o-, and is found in earlier coinages such as Islamo-Christian from the 19th century, Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended. In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, chaired by Gordon Conway, the Commissions report, Islamophobia, A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, the symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia. The presentations from the symposium were turned into a volume, Sayyid. Thinking Through Islamophobia, Global Perspectives New York, Columbia University Press, nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely. The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition, several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s, so have Maud Olofsson, and Jan Hjärpe, among others. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness. On occasion race does come into play, diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on race or religion. Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims, according to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism wrapped in religious terms. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance defines Islamophobia as the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and it has also been defined as fear of Muslims and Islam, rejection of the Muslim religion, or a form of differentialist racism. The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels
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University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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H-1B visa
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The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa in the United States under the Immigration and Nationality Act, section 101. It allows U. S. employers to employ foreign workers in specialty occupations. S. Effective January 17,2017, USCIS modified the rules to allow a period of up to 60 days. Likewise, the worker must possess at least a bachelors degree or its equivalent and state licensure. H-1B work-authorization is strictly limited to employment by the sponsoring employer, on March 3,2017 the U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Service announced on their website that starting from April 3,2017 they will temporarily suspend premium processing for all H-1B visa petitions until further notice, the duration of stay is three years, extendable to six years. This is backed up by the Immigration and Nationality Act 106a) and this exception originated with the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act of 2000 section 104a. The maximum duration of the H-1B visa is ten years for exceptional United States Department of Defense project related work, a time increment of less than three years has sometimes applied to citizens of specific countries. Despite a limit on length of stay, no requirement exists that the individual remain for any period in the job the visa was issued for. This is known as H-1B portability or transfer, provided the new employer sponsors another H-1B visa, under current law, H-1B visa has no stipulated grace period in the event the employer-employee relationship ceases to exist. The current law limits to 65,000 the number of foreign nationals who may be issued a visa or otherwise provided H-1B status each fiscal year. Laws exempt up to 20,000 foreign nationals holding a masters or higher degree from U. S. universities from the cap on H-1B visas. In addition, excluded from the ceiling are all H-1B non-immigrants who work at universities, non-profit research facilities associated with universities, universities can employ an unlimited number of foreign workers as cap-exempt. This also means that contractors working at but not directly employed by the institutions may be exempt from the cap as well, Free Trade Agreements carve out 1,400 H-1B1 visas for Chilean nationals and 5,400 H-1B1 visas for Singapore nationals. However, if these reserved visas are not used, then they are available in the next fiscal year to applicants from other countries. In past years, the cap was not always reached, for example, in FY1996, the INS announced on August 20,1996 that a preliminary report indicated that the cap had been exceeded, and processing of H-1B applications was temporarily halted. However, when more accurate numbers became available on September 6, it became apparent the cap had not been reached after all, and processing resumed for the remainder of the fiscal year. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services starts accepting applications on the first business day of April for visas that count against the fiscal year starting in October, for instance, H-1B visa applications that count against the FY2013 cap were submitted starting Monday,2012 April 2
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United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
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U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
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ICE has two primary components, Homeland Security Investigations and Enforcement and Removal Operations. ICE is charged with the investigation and enforcement of over 400 federal statutes within the United States, ICE is led by a director who is appointed at the sub-Cabinet level by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. ICE is the second-largest criminal investigative agency in the U. S. government after the FBI, U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement was formed pursuant to the Homeland Security Act of 2002 following the events of September 11,2001. Consequently, ICE is the largest investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security, the Federal Protective Service was later transferred from ICE to the National Protection and Programs Directorate effective October 28,2009. In 2003, Asa Hutchinson moved the Federal Air Marshals Service from the Transportation Security Administration to ICE, U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for identifying and eliminating border, economic, transportation, and infrastructure security vulnerabilities. There is an estimate of more than 20,000 ICE employees in approximately over 400 offices within the United States including 46 other countries. The organization is composed of two law enforcement directorates and several divisions each headed by a director who reports to an Executive Associate Director. The divisions of ICE provide investigation, interdiction and security services to the public, HSI agents can be requested to provide security for VIPs, and also augment the U. S. Secret Service during overtaxed times such as special security events and elections, HSI was formerly known as the ICE Office of Investigations. HSI has more than 6,500 special agents, making it the largest investigative entity in the Department of Homeland Security, the Office of Intelligence is a subcomponent of HSI that employs a variety of special agents and Intelligence Research Specialists to facilitate HSIs tactical and strategic intelligence demands. Collectively, these intelligence professionals collect, analyze, and disseminate intelligence for use by the elements of DHS. The Office of Intelligence works closely with the components of other federal, state. HSI agents assigned to FIGs generally focus on Human Intelligence collection, International Operations, formerly known as the Office of International Affairs, is a subcomponent of HSI with agents stationed in 60 locations around the world. HSIs foreign offices, known as Attaché Offices, work with governments to identify. Seventeen HSI field offices maintain a Special Response Team that operates similarly to a federal SWAT element for the area of responsibility. There is also a team of instructors and coordinators stationed full-time in Columbus and these teams primarily deploy to handle high-risk operations, but also assist in events such as Hurricane Katrina, the Haiti earthquake 2010, and other natural disasters around the globe. SRT is a collateral duty open to HSI agents assigned to an office with a certified team, to qualify, candidates must pass a physical fitness test, qualify with multiple firearms by shooting 90% or better in full tactical gear, and pass an oral interview process. If a candidate passes these stages and is voted on the team, they are then designated Green Team members
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American Civil Liberties Union
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It works through litigation and lobbying. The ACLU has 1,000,000 members and a budget of over $100 million. Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in almost all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have established by its board of directors. The two organizations share office space and employees, during the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLUs cases involved the defense of Communist party members, in 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps, during the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-Communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party. By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, in the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War, in the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 election, the ACLUs current membership is more than 1.2 million, the ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2015. The president acts as chairman of the ACLUs board of directors, leads fundraising, the executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, the organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions, in 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Fords right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists, in 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Spocks anti-war activism. In 1973, there was conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon. In 2005, there was conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes. Membership dues are treated as donations, members choose the amount they pay annually, in the year ending March 31,2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs, management, and fundraising
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American Academy of Religion
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The American Academy of Religion is the worlds largest association of scholars in the field of religious studies and related topics. It is a member association, serving as a professional. It has some 10,000 members worldwide, with the largest concentration being in the United States, AAR members are university and college professors, independent scholars, secondary teachers, clergy, seminarians, students, and interested lay-people. AAR was founded in 1909 as the Association of Biblical Instructors in American Colleges, the name was changed to National Association of Biblical Instructors in 1933. The American Academy of Religion was adopted as the name in 1963 to reflect its broader. Presidents of the AAR have included well-known scholars such as Judith Plaskow, Mark Juergensmeyer, Wendy Denier, Emilie Townes, Peter J. Paris, Rebecca Chopp, and Elizabeth A. Clark. AAR publishes the Journal of the American Academy of Religion, generally recognized as the academic journal in the field of religious studies. Religious Studies News is the newspaper of record for the organization. AAR presents awards each year to notable books in the study of religion and it offers three categories of Awards for Excellence, Analytical-Descriptive Studies, Historical Studies, and Constructive-Reflective Studies. AAR hosts an Annual Meeting each year in November, the AAR Annual Meeting is the worlds largest meeting for religious studies scholars. Some 10,000 people attend the AAR Annual Meeting, the location of the changes each year. The AAR Annual Meeting program is developed entirely by volunteers involved in program units representing disciplines and sub-disciplines within the field, AAR offers activities on a regional level for its members. Professional development resources such as grants, career services. AAR also advocates the importance of the study of religion on institutional and national levels. Official website Past presidents of the AAR AAR Book Award Recipients
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American Association of University Professors
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The American Association of University Professors is an organization of professors and other academics in the United States. AAUP membership is about 47,000, with over 500 local campus chapters and 39 state organizations, founded in 1915 by Arthur O. Rudy Fichtenbaum is the current president. Among the events led to its founding was the dismissal of eugenicist, economics professor. The AAUPs Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure is the articulation of these principles and practices. The associations procedures ensuring academic due process remain the model for professional employment practices on campuses throughout the country, the association suggests that The principles of Academic Freedom and Tenure date back to a 1925 conference. The AAUP offers the original principles, including the 1940 interpretations of the statement and a 1970 interpretation, the statement is straightforward, based on three principles of academic freedom. The second principle of freedom is that teachers should have the same freedom in the classroom. The third asserts that college and university professors are citizens and should be free to speak, based upon five principles, the statement on academic tenure is equally simple and to the point. The first principle maintains that the terms of appointment are to be stated in writing, the second details the conditions and length of time professors are given to attain tenure. The third notes that during the period before attaining tenure. Detailing terms for appeal of the decision to deny tenure, the fourth point notes that both faculty and the governing board should judge whether tenure is to be granted or denied. The final point suggests that if the faculty member is not granted tenure appointment for reasons of financial restraint upon the university, noting the Supreme Court Case Keyishian v. The commentary iterates key points of the 1940 interpretations, refinements to the statement were introduced in subsequent years, culminating in the 1966 Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities. This statement was formulated by the American Association of University Professors, the American Council on Education. The statement clarifies the roles of governing boards, faculties. The document does not provide for a blueprint to the governance of higher education, nor was the purpose of the statement to provide principles for relations with industry and government. Rather, the statement aimed to establish a vision for the internal governance of institutions. Student involvement is not addressed in detail, the statement concerns general education policy and internal operations with an overview of the formal roles for governing structures in the organization and management of higher education
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PEN American Center
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PEN America Center, founded in 1922 and based in New York City, works to advance literature, defend free expression, and foster international literary fellowship. As of 2016, the name was shortened to PEN America, PEN America has a membership of over 4,400 writers, editors, and translators. PEN America is one of two PEN centers located in the USA, the other is PEN Center USA in Los Angeles which covers writers west of the Mississippi. “MEMBERS OF PEN pledge themselves to do their utmost to dispel race, class, there is also a Reader tier of membership open to the general public, as well as a Student membership. In March 2015, Andrew Solomon was elected president of PEN America, in collaboration with its partners, PEN America confers over 20 distinct awards, fellowships, grants and prizes each year, awarding nearly $315,000 to writers and translators. These awards seek to honor everyone from emerging writers to leaders in the field, PEN America awards have been characterized as being among the major literary awards in America. PEN America is a literary journal that publishes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, conversation, criticism, graphic narrative. As a mission it seeks to champion international authors and provide insight into the minds of contemporary writers through provocative symposia. It was founded in 2000, and named one of that years Ten Best New Magazines by Library Journal, work from recent issues has been selected for Best American Essays and the Pushcart Prize. Contributors include Paul Auster, Michael Cunningham, Nikki Giovanni, Marilynne Robinson, Salman Rushdie, Susan Sontag, John Edgar Widem, and many others. The program seeks to provide a place for inmates to express themselves freely with paper and pen, consisting of more than seventy mentors working with close to one hundred inmates, the Mentor Program continues to be the most interactive and engaging projects in the Prison Writing Program. The program is organized so that each mentor corresponds with the prisoner a minimum of three times, the PEN Writers’ Emergency Fund is an emergency fund for professional—published or produced—writers in acute, emergency financial crisis. Depending on the situation, the Fund gives grants of up to $2,000, PEN’s bedrock work is long-term advocacy on behalf of individual writers who are being persecuted because of their work. With help from its members and supporters, PEN carries out campaigns to win their release and ensure they are safe and can write and publish freely. They send letters to the concerned and lobby their own governments to campaign for the release of detained writers and for investigations in cases of torture. The program is designed in response to a study conducted by PEN America in 2015 to explore possible ways to enhance support for individual artists at risk. This survey revealed a number of challenges in the current landscape of support, the committee is currently cochaired by Allison Martin Powell and Mary Ann Newmann. There are PEN members working as translators in more than 25 different languages, the series launched September 21,2016 with comedians in conversation at Joes Pub, the beloved dinner club at the Public Theater
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First Amendment to the United States Constitution
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It was adopted on December 15,1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification, initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, in Near v. Minnesota and New York Times v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered mere admonitions to state legislatures, after a brief debate, Masons proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions, opposition to ratification was partly based on the Constitutions lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states and this language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendments intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25,1789, and adopted on December 15,1791. In Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court used these words to declare that it may be accepted almost as a declaration of the scope. Congress was deprived of all power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. In these two sentences is found the distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, in the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and State. That wall must be high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach, in Torcaso v. Watkins, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office
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Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights and protects a person from being compelled to be a witness against themselves in a criminal case. A defendant cannot be compelled to become a witness at his own trial, if, however, they choose to testify, they are not entitled to their right, and inferences can be drawn from a refusal to answer a question during cross-examination. The Amendment requires that felonies be tried only upon indictment by a grand jury, federal grand juries can force people to take the witness stand, but defendants in those proceedings have Fifth Amendment privileges until they choose to answer any question. To claim the privilege for failure to answer when being interviewed by police, the Amendments Double Jeopardy Clause provides the right to be tried only once in federal court for the same offense. The Amendment also has a Due Process Clause as well as an equal protection requirement. Finally, the Amendment requires that the power of eminent domain be coupled with just compensation for those whose property is taken and this draft was edited by Congress, all the material before the first ellipsis was placed at the end, and some of the wording was modified. After approval by Congress, the amendment was ratified by the states, the grand jury is a pre-constitutional common law institution, and a constitutional fixture in its own right exclusively embracing common law. The process applies to the states to the extent that the states have incorporated grand juries and/or common law, most states have an alternative civil process. Many constitutional restrictions that apply in court or in other situations do not apply during grand jury proceedings, also, an individual does not have the right to have an attorney present in the grand jury room during hearings. Currently, federal law permits the trial of misdemeanors without indictments, additionally, in trials of non-capital felonies, the prosecution may proceed without indictments if the defendants waive their Fifth Amendment right. Grand jury indictments may be amended by the only in limited circumstances. In Ex Parte Bain,121 U. S.1, United States v. Miller,471 U. S.130 partly reversed Ex parte Bain, now, an indictments scope may be narrowed by the prosecution. Thus, lesser included charges may be dropped, but new charges may not be added, the Grand Jury Clause of the Fifth Amendment does not protect those serving in the armed forces, whether during wartime or peacetime. Members of the militia called up to serve with federal forces are not protected under the clause either. In OCallahan v. Parker,395 U. S.258 and that decision was overturned in 1987, when the Court held that members of the militia in actual service may be tried for any offense without indictments. The grand jury indictment clause of the Fifth Amendment has not been incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment and this means that the grand jury requirement applies only to felony charges in the federal court system. While many states do employ grand juries, no defendant has a Fifth Amendment right to a jury for criminal charges in state court. States are free to abolish grand juries, and many have replaced them with preliminary hearing, the historical origin of infamous crime comes from the infamia, a punishment under Roman law by which a citizen was deprived his citizenship
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