1.
Ticker symbol
–
A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
2.
London Stock Exchange
–
The London Stock Exchange is a stock exchange located in the City of London in the United Kingdom. As of December 2014, the Exchange had a capitalisation of US$6.06 trillion. The Exchange was founded in 1801 and its current premises are situated in Paternoster Square close to St Pauls Cathedral in the City of London, the Exchange is part of the London Stock Exchange Group. London Stock Exchange is one of the world’s oldest stock exchanges, London Stock Exchange Group was created in October 2007 when London Stock Exchange merged with Milan Stock Exchange, Borsa Italiana. The Royal Exchange had been founded by English financier Thomas Gresham on the model of the Antwerp Bourse and it was opened by Elizabeth I of England in 1571. During the 17th century, stockbrokers were not allowed in the Royal Exchange due to their rude manners and they had to operate from other establishments in the vicinity, notably Jonathans Coffee-House. At that coffee house, a broker named John Casting started listing the prices of a few commodities, exchange rates and certain key provisions such as salt, coal, originally, this was not a daily list and was only published a few days of the week. This list and activity was moved to Garraway’s coffee house. Public auctions during this period were conducted for the duration that a length of tallow candle could burn, as stocks grew, with new companies joining to raise capital, the royal court also raised some monies. These are the earliest evidence of organised trading in securities in London. After Greshams Royal Exchange building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London, it was rebuilt and this was a move away from coffee houses and a step towards the modern model of stock exchange. The Royal Exchange not only housed brokers but also merchants and merchandise and this was the birth of a regulated stock market, which had teething problems in the shape of unlicensed brokers. In order to regulate these, Parliament brought out an act in 1697 that levied heavy penalties and it also set a fixed number of brokers, which was later increased as the size of the trade grew. The street in which they were now dealing was known as Exchange Alley, Parliament tried to regulate this and ban the unofficial traders from the Change streets. Traders became weary of bubbles when companies rose quickly and fell, after the Seven Years War, trade at Jonathans coffee house boomed again. In 1773, Jonathan, together with 150 other brokers, formed a club and opened a new and this now had a set entrance fee, through which traders could enter the stock room and trade securities. It was, however, not a location for trading. Fraud was also rife during these times and in order to such dealings
3.
Henry Tate
–
Sir Henry Tate, 1st Baronet was an English sugar merchant and philanthropist, noted for establishing the Tate Gallery, London. Tate was the son of a Unitarian clergyman, when he was 13, he became a grocers apprentice in Liverpool. After a seven-year apprenticeship, he was able to set up his own shop and his business was successful, and grew to a chain of six stores by the time he was 35. In 1859 Tate became a partner in John Wright & Co. sugar refinery, by 1869, he had gained complete control of the company, and renamed it as Henry Tate & Sons. In 1872, he purchased the patent from German Eugen Langen for making sugar cubes, in 1877 he opened a refinery at Silvertown, London, which remains in production. At the time, much of Silvertown was still marshland, Tate was a modest rather retiring man, well known for his concern with workers’ conditions. He built the Tate Institute opposite his Thames Refinery, a bar, Tate rapidly became a millionaire and donated generously to charity. The National Gallery of British Art, nowadays known as Tate Britain, was opened on 21 July 1897, Tate made many donations, often anonymously and always discreetly. He supported alternative and non-establishment causes, there was £10,000 for the library of Manchester College, founded in Manchester in 1786 as a Dissenting academy to provide religious nonconformists with higher education. He also gave the College, £5,000 to promote the ‘theory, in addition he gave £20,000 to the Hahnemann Hospital in Liverpool in 1885. He particularly supported health and education with his money and he also gave £8,000 to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, and £5,000 to the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute, which became the Queens Institute for District Nurses. Tate was made a baronet in 1898, the year before his death, in 1921, after Tates death, Henry Tate & Sons merged with Abram Lyle & Sons to form Tate & Lyle. In 2001, a plaque commemorating Sir Henry was unveiled on the site of his first shop at 42 Hamilton Street. In 2006 a Wetherspoons pub in his town of Chorley was named after the sugar magnate. His mother was Agnes Booth and his father was the Reverend William Tate and he lived at Park Hill by Streatham Common, South London, and is buried in nearby West Norwood Cemetery, the gates of which are opposite a public library that he endowed. Park Hill became a nunnery after his death until refurbishment as housing around 2004, Tate Gallery Tate & Lyle Sir Henry Tate The Sugar Girls blog, Happy Birthday, Henry Tate. http, //www. thepeerage. com/p59124. htm#i591238
4.
Abram Lyle
–
Abram Lyle is noted for founding the sugar refiners Abram Lyle & Sons which merged with the company of his rival Henry Tate to become Tate & Lyle in 1921. He was born on 14 December 1820 in the seaport of Greenock, Renfrewshire, in Scotland and he then joined his fathers cooperage businesses and in partnership with a friend, John Kerr, developed a shipping business, making the Lyle fleet one of the largest in Greenock. The area was heavily involved in the trade with the West Indies. Together with four partners he purchased the Glebe Sugar Refinery in 1865, when John Kerr, the principal partner, died in 1872, Lyle sold his shares and began the search for a site for a new refinery. Together with his three sons he bought two wharves at Plaistow in East London in 1881 to construct a refinery for producing Golden Syrup, the site happened to be around 1.5 miles from the sugar refinery of his rival, Henry Tate. Out of the strong came forth sweetness The brand, sold in a distinctive green, the design of the tin decoration, which includes a biblical quotation, has remained almost unchanged since 1885. In the Book of Judges, Samson was travelling to the land of the Philistines in search of a wife. During the journey he killed a lion, and on his return past the spot he noticed that a swarm of bees had formed a comb of honey in the carcass. Samson later turned this into a riddle at a wedding, Out of the eater came forth meat, there is still a sugar warehouse in the towns Ocean Terminal. He was Provost of Greenock from 1876 to 1879, an elder of St Michaels Presbyterian Church in Greenock, Lyle himself chose the biblical quotation for the syrup tins. He was a man and a strict teetotaller, who once declared that he would rather see a son of his carried home dead than drunk. Lyle was the son of Abram Lyle and Mary Campbell and he married Mary Park, daughter of William Park, on 14 December 1846 and the couple had three sons, Sir Alexander Park Lyle, 1st Bt. Charles Lyle, Sir Robert Park Lyle, 1st and last Bt, Abram died on 30 April 1891
5.
Starch
–
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules, the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin, depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Glycogen, the store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting and it is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process, starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them. The word starch is from a Germanic root with the strong, stiff. Amylum for starch is from the Greek αμυλον, amylon which means not ground at a mill, the root amyl is used in biochemistry for several compounds related to starch. Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha as flour have been identified from grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago, starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago. Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus, the extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79. Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair, persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in production in China. In addition to starchy plants consumed directly,66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year world-wide by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for applications and 60% for food uses. Most green plants use starch as their energy store, an exception is the family Asteraceae, where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide, the glucose is used to make cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts
6.
Splenda
–
It is available in both granular and dissolvable tablet forms. Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose-based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC. The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after their purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015. Since its approval by the United States government in 1998 and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1. 5-billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62% market share. According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U. S. while Equals totaled $48.7 million, according to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is the category leader in table-top sweetener in the US. Sucralose has no content, and Splenda products have a lower caloric content than sugar. The actual energy content of a single-serving of Splenda is 3.36 kcal, 31% of those of a single-serving of granulated sugar. In the United States, it is legally labelled zero calories, U. S. FDA regulations allow this if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed, like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75 kcal per gram. In product testing by Cooks Illustrated, the drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does. However, Cooks Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it, Splenda usually contains 95% dextrose and maltodextrin which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen-oxygen groups on sucrose molecules with three chlorine atoms, the tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions. Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a sugar substitute. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg/kg BW/day. These effects have not been reported in humans, the other ingredients in Splenda—dextrose and maltodextrin—are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption. Sucralose may not be biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds. However, only a small amount is metabolized by the body, on average. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions, the lawsuit was the latest move in a long-simmering dispute
7.
Citric acid
–
Citric acid is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits, in biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent, a citrate is a derivative of citric acid, that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate, when part of a salt, the formula of the citrate ion is written as C6H5O73− or C3H5O33−. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid, it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits. The concentrations of acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons. Within species, these values vary depending on the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown, wehmer discovered Penicillium mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In this production technique, which is still the major route to citric acid used today. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch or other inexpensive sugary solutions, in 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions. This produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction, in 2007, worldwide annual production stood at approximately 1,600,000 tons. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China, citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in a form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in ethanol at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C, citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 5.21,4.28 and 2.92 at 25 °C
8.
High-fructose corn syrup
–
High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology where the enzyme was discovered in 1965. As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have continued to grow over the early 21st Century. Consuming added sugars, particularly as sweetened soft drinks, is linked to weight gain. In the U. S. HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose in the food industry, the relative sweetness of HFCS55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS is the ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to stretch honey, assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods. In apiculture in the United States, HFCS is a substitute for some managed honey bee colonies during times when nectar is in low supply. However, when HFCS is heated to about 45 °C, hydroxymethylfurfural, although some researchers cite honey substitution with HFCS as one factor among many for colony collapse disorder, there is no evidence that HFCS is a solitary cause. Further, compared to honey, HFCS may be a deficiency in the diet for developing genes associated with protein metabolism. In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and it is necessary to carry out the extraction process in the presence of mercuric chloride in order to inhibit endogenous starch-degrading enzymes. High-temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha-amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains – oligosaccharides, glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose, the resulting solution is filtered to remove protein, then using activated carbon, and then demineralized using ion-exchange resins. Some is processed into HFCS90 by liquid chromatography, then mixed with HFCS42 to form HFCS55, the enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation. HFCS is 24% water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0–5% unprocessed glucose oligomers, there are several varieties of HFCS, numbered by the percentage of fructose they contain, HFCS42 is used in beverages, processed foods, cereals, and baked goods. HFCS55 is mostly used in soft drinks, HFCS65 is used in soft drinks dispensed by Coca-Cola Freestyle machines. HFCS90 has some niche uses but is mixed with HFCS42 to make HFCS55. Commercial production of corn syrup began in 1864, in the late 1950s, scientists at Clinton Corn Processing Company of Clinton, Iowa tried to turn glucose from corn starch into fructose, but the process was not scalable
9.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
10.
Earnings before interest and taxes
–
In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
11.
Net income
–
In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
12.
Agribusiness
–
Agribusiness is the business of agricultural production. The term was coined in 1957 by Goldberg and Davis and it includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production, distribution, farm machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well as marketing and retail sales. All agents of the food and fiber value chain and those institutions that influence it are part of the agribusiness system. Within the agriculture industry, agribusiness is used simply as a portmanteau of agriculture and business, there are academic degrees in and departments of agribusiness, agribusiness trade associations, agribusiness publications, and so forth, worldwide. The UNs Food and Agriculture Organization operates a section devoted to agribusiness development which seeks to promote food industry growth in developing nations, in the context of agribusiness management in academia, each individual element of agriculture production and distribution may be described as agribusinesses. However, the term agribusiness most often emphasizes the interdependence of these various sectors within the production chain, among critics of large-scale, industrialized, vertically integrated food production, the term agribusiness is used negatively, synonymous with corporate farming. As such, it is contrasted with smaller family-owned farms. As concern over global warming intensifies, biofuels derived from crops are gaining increased public and scientific attention and this is driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from government subsidies. In Europe and in the US, increased research and production of biofuels has been mandated by law, studies of agribusiness often come from the academic fields of agricultural economics and management studies, sometimes called agribusiness management. To promote more development of economies, many government agencies support the research and publication of economic studies. Some of these studies are on foods produced for export and are derived from agencies focused on food exports and these agencies include the Foreign Agricultural Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Austrade, and New Zealand Trade and Enterprise. The Federation of International Trade Associations publishes studies and reports by FAS and AAFC, ray A. Goldberg coined the term agribusiness together with coauthor John H. Davis. They provided an economic framework for the field in their book A Concept of Agribusiness. That seminal work traces a complex value-added chain that begins with the purchase of seed and livestock. Agribusiness boundary expansion is driven by a variety of transaction costs, manuel Alvarado Ledesma and Peter D. Goldsmith explain the implications of weak institutions on agribusiness investment. According to them weak institutions lead to development and enforcement grounded in the moment, rather than based on precedent. The Globalization of Agribusiness and Developing World Food Systems, southern Innovator Magazine Issue 3, Agribusiness and Food Security, United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
13.
Silvertown
–
It was named after Samuel Winkworth Silvers former rubber factory which opened in 1852, and is now dominated by the Tate & Lyle sugar refinery and the John Knight ABP animal rendering plant. In 1852 S. W. Silver and Co moved to the area from Greenwich and established a rubber works and this subsequently developed into the works of the India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Cable Company, which constructed and laid many submarine cables. By the 1860s a number of manure and chemical works and petroleum storage depots had been set up, in 1864 the area became an ecclesiastical parish of its own, centred on the church of St Marks. Sugar refiners in the area were joined by Henry Tate in 1877 and Abram Lyle in 1881, prior to the merger, which occurred after they had died, the two men were bitter business rivals, although they had never met in person. Tate & Lyle still has two refineries in the area. In 1889 Silvers factory was the scene of a week long strike by the majority of its 3,000 workers. The strikers were demanding pay and were inspired by the recent successes of New Unionism in the East End of London. Management refused to negotiate with the strikers who had popular support. Leading figures in the strike included Tom Mann and Eleanor Marx, the workers were eventually starved back to work, with many being victimised for their role. In the aftermath of the strike, Silvers declared a dividend of 5 percent. Silvers management were congratulated by the rest of the industry for holding a line against New Unionism, on 19 January 1917 parts of Silvertown were devastated by a massive TNT explosion at the Brunner-Mond munitions factory, in what is known as the Silvertown explosion. Seventy three people died and hundreds were injured in one of the largest explosions ever experienced in the British Isles. In the early 20th Century the area suffered greatly from road congestion due to being located between the Thames and the Royal Docks, then the largest and one of the busiest dock groups in the world. The area was cut off for much of the time by lifting bridges over dock entrances and this led in the early 1930s to the construction of the elevated Silvertown Way, one of the earliest urban flyovers. On the first night of The Blitz, Tate and Lyles sugar refinery, John Knights Primrose Soapworks, Silvers was eventually taken over by the British Tyre and Rubber Co, later known as BTR Industries. The site closed in the 1960s and is now the Thameside Industrial Estate, another major local employer was the Loders and Nucoline plant at Cairn Mills, a traditional port oleo industry and formerly part of Unilever. This originally milled seeds but later concentrated on production of fats from palm kernel oil, the district formed part of the County Borough of West Ham in Essex until 1965. On 21 April 2015, Newham Council gave planning permission to The Silvertown Partnership for a new £3. 5billion redevelopment of the area, the 7 million square foot development will provide offices, a tech hub,3,000 new homes and brand experience pavilions
14.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
15.
Liverpool
–
Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
16.
East End of London
–
The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is an area of Central and East London, England, east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, and north of the River Thames. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, the area was notorious for its deep poverty, overcrowding and associated social problems. This has led to the East End’s history of political activism. Another major theme of East End history has been that of migration, Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, Bangladeshis. The East End lies east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, Aldgate Pump on the edge of the City is the symbolic start of the East End and, on the river, Tower Bridge is also sometimes also described in these terms. Beyond these references though, the East End has no official or popularly accepted boundaries, a common preference is to include the modern borough of Tower Hamlets, together with the former parish and borough of Shoreditch. This version makes the East End conterminous with the Tower Division of Middlesex under the borders that area had in the 19th century when the East End completed the process of urbanisation, an alternative definition is based solely on the modern borough of Tower Hamlets. Parts of the old parish and borough of Hackney are sometimes included, while others include areas east of the Lea such as West Ham, East Ham, Leyton, knew not the way to the East End. The East End began with the growth of London beyond the walls, along the Roman Roads leading from Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Building accelerated in the 16th century, and the area that would become known East End began to take shape. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which had its roots in the Bishop of Londons historic Manor of Stepney and owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, for a very long time the East End was physically separated from the Londons western growth by the open spaces known as Moorfields. Shoreditchs boundary with the parish of St Lukes ran through the Moorfields countryside becoming, on urbanisation and that line, with very slight modifications, has also become the boundary of the modern London Boroughs of Hackney and Islington. From the beginning, the East End has always contained some of the poorest areas of London, the main reasons for this include the following, the medieval system of copyhold, which prevailed throughout the East End, into the 19th century. Essentially, there was little point in developing land that was held on short leases, the siting of noxious industries, such as tanning and fulling downwind outside the boundaries of the City, and therefore beyond complaints and official controls. Historically, the East End is arguably conterminous with the Manor of Stepney and this manor was held by the Bishop of London, in compensation for his duties in maintaining and garrisoning the Tower of London. Further ecclesiastic holdings came about from the need to enclose the marshes, Edward VI passed the land to the Wentworth family, and thence to their descendants, the Earls of Cleveland
17.
Tate
–
Tate is an institution that houses the United Kingdoms national collection of British art, and international modern and contemporary art. It is a network of four art museums, Tate Britain, London, Tate Liverpool, Tate St Ives, Cornwall and Tate Modern, London, Tate is not a government institution, but its main sponsor is the UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The name Tate is used also as the name for the corporate body. The gallery was founded in 1897, as the National Gallery of British Art, the Tate Gallery was housed in the current building occupied by Tate Britain, which is situated in Millbank, London. Tate Liverpool has the purpose as Tate Modern but on a smaller scale. All four museums share the Tate Collection, one of the Tates most publicised art events is the awarding of the annual Turner Prize, which takes place at Tate Britain. The original Tate was called the National Gallery of British Art, situated on Millbank, Pimlico, the idea of a National Gallery of British Art was first proposed in the 1820s by Sir John Leicester, Baron de Tabley. It took a step nearer when Robert Vernon gave his collection to the National Gallery in 1847, a decade later John Sheepshanks gave his collection to the South Kensington Museum, known for years as the National Gallery of Art. Henry Tate also donated his own collection to the gallery and it was initially a collection solely of modern British art, concentrating on the works of modern—that is Victorian era—painters. It was controlled by the National Gallery until 1954, in 1926 and 1937, the art dealer and patron Joseph Duveen paid for two major expansions of the gallery building. His father had paid for an extension to house the major part of the Turner Bequest. Henry Courtauld also endowed Tate with a purchase fund, by the mid 20th century, it was fulfilling a dual function of showing the history of British art as well as international modern art. In 1954, the Tate Gallery was finally separated from the National Gallery, later, the Tate began organising its own temporary exhibition programme. In 1979 with funding from a Japanese bank a large extension was opened that would also house larger income generating exhibitions. In 1987, the Clore Wing opened to house the major part of the Turner bequest, in 1988, an outpost in north west England opened as Tate Liverpool. This shows various works of art from the Tate collection as well as mounting its own temporary exhibitions. In 2007, Tate Liverpool hosted the Turner Prize, the first time this has been held outside London and this was an overture to Liverpools being the European Capital of Culture 2008. In 1993, another offshoot opened, Tate St Ives and it exhibits work by modern British artists, particularly those of the St Ives School
18.
Cooper (profession)
–
A cooper is someone in the trade of making utensils and barrels and other accessories, usually out of wood that was steamed, but sometimes using other materials. Traditionally, a cooper is someone who makes wooden, staved vessels, bound together with hoops and possessing flat ends or heads. Examples of a coopers work include casks, barrels, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins and breakers. Traditionally, a hooper was the man who fitted the metal hoops around the barrels or buckets that the cooper had made, the English name Hooper is derived from that profession. With time, many Coopers took on the role of the Hooper themselves, the word cooper is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German kūper cooper from kūpe cask, in turn from Latin cupa tun, barrel. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as cooperage, a cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms barrel-maker, the facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage. There were four divisions in the coopers craft, the dry or slack cooper made containers that would be used to ship dry goods such as cereals, nails, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. The dry-tight cooper made casks designed to dry goods in. Gunpowder and flour casks are examples of a coopers work. The white cooper made straight-staved containers like washtubs, buckets, and butter churns, usually there was no bending of wood involved in white cooperage. The wet or tight cooper made casks for long-term storage and transportation of liquids that could even be under pressure, the general cooper worked on ships, on the docks, and in warehouses, and was responsible for cargo while in storage or transit. With a specialized skill, the general cooper could repair a broken stave without losing the contents of a cask, plastics, stainless steel, pallets, and corrugated cardboard replaced during the last half of the 20th century most wooden containers, and largely made the cooperage trade obsolete. In the 21st century, coopers mostly operate barrel-making machinery and assemble casks for the wine, there is still demand for high-quality wooden barrels, and it is thought that the highest-quality barrels are those hand-made by professional coopers. Examples may be seen in the cooperage at Seguin Moreau, a cooperage which was incorporated into the House of Rémy in 1971 for the purpose of providing casks of oak. Limousin oak is renowned for the rich vanilla-like flavor it imparts to cognac, in the United Kingdom, the trade of master cooper is dwindling, it is thought that the last remaining cooper company in England is a beer barrel manufacturer in Wetherby, West Yorkshire. Wagner, J. B. Cooperage, a treatise on modern practice and methods. National coopers journal, vol.38 CBC article on Englands last master cooper Japanese cooper from Kyoto Cooperage
19.
Sugar refinery
–
A sugar refinery is a refinery which processes raw sugar into white refined sugar or that processes sugar beet to refined sugar. While cane sugar does not need refining to be palatable, sugar from sugar beet is almost always refined to remove the strong, almost always unwanted, the refined sugar produced is more than 99 percent pure sucrose. Whereas many sugar mills only operate during a time of the year during the cane harvesting period. Sugar beet refineries tend to have periods when they process beet but may store intermediate product. Raw sugar is processed into white refined sugar in local refineries. Sugar refineries are located in heavy sugar-consuming regions such as North America, Europe. Since the 1990s many state-of-the art sugar refineries have been built in the Middle East and North Africa region, e. g. in Dubai, the world´s largest sugar refinery company is American Sugar Refining with facilities in North America and Europe. The raw sugar is stored in warehouses and then transported into the sugar refinery by means of transport belts. Many sugar refineries today buy high pol sugar and can do without the affination process, the remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, which is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide that combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, after any remaining solids are filtered out, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through a bed of activated carbon or, in more modern plants, ion-exchange resin. The purified syrup is concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized under vacuum to produce white refined sugar. As in a mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the mother liquor by centrifuging. To produce granulated sugar, in which the individual grains do not clump together. Drying is accomplished first by drying the sugar in a hot rotary dryer, the finished product is stored in large concrete or steel silos. It is shipped in bulk, big bags or 25 –50 kg bags to customers or packed in consumer-size packages to retailers. The dried sugar must be handled with caution, as sugar dust explosions are possible, a sugar dust explosion which led to 13 fatalities was the 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion in Port Wentworth, GA. Molasses Bagasse Press Mud As in many other industries factory automation has been promoted heavily in sugar refineries in recent decades, the production process is generally controlled by a central process control system, which directly controls most of the machines and components. Only for certain special machines such as the centrifuges in the sugar house decentralized PLCs are used for security reasons
20.
Greenock
–
Greenock is a town and administrative centre in the Inverclyde council area in Scotland and a former burgh within the historic county of Renfrewshire, located in the west central Lowlands of Scotland. It forms part of an urban area with Gourock to the west. The 2011 census showed that Greenock had a population of 44,248 and it lies on the south bank of the Clyde at the Tail of the Bank where the River Clyde expands into the Firth of Clyde. The name of the town has had various spellings over time and it was printed in early Acts of Parliament as Grinok, Greenhok, Grinock, Greenhoke, Greinnock, and later as Greinok. Old Presbyterial records used Grenok, a common spelling until it was changed to Greenock around 1700 and it has also been suggested that Grian cnoc or sunny hill could refer to the hill on which the castle and mansion house stood, but this has not found much support. The towns modern indoor shopping centre is called The Oak Mall, the name is also recalled in a local song. Significantly, no green oak appears on the coat of arms which features the three chalices of the Shaw Stewarts, a sailing ship in full sail and two herring above the motto God Speed Greenock. Hugh de Grenock was created a Scottish Baron in 1296, around 1540 the adjoining barony of Finnart was passed to the Schaw family, extending their holdings westward to the boundary of Gourock, and in 1542 Sir John Schaw founded Wester Greenock castle. The coast of Greenock formed a bay with three smaller indentations, the Bay of Quick was known as a safe anchorage as far back as 1164. To its east, a sandy bay ran eastwards from the Old Kirk, the fishing village of Greenock developed along this bay, and around 1635 Sir John Schaw had a jetty built into the bay which became known as Sir Johns Bay. In that year he obtained a Charter raising Greenock to a Burgh of Barony with rights to a weekly market, further east, Saint Laurence Bay curved round past the Crawfurd Barony of Easter Greenock to Garvel Point. When a pier was built making the bay an important harbour, in 1642 it was made into the Burgh of Barony of Crawfurdsdyke, and part of the ill-fated Darien Scheme set out from this pier in 1697. This town was later renamed Cartsdyke, the fishing trade grew prosperous, with barrels of salted herring exported widely, and shipping trade developed. As seagoing ships could not go further up the River Clyde, a separate Barony of Cartsburn was created, the first baron being Thomas Craufurd. The work was completed in 1710, with quays extended out into Sir Johns Bay to enclose the harbour, in 1711 the shipbuilding industry was founded when Scotts leased ground between the harbour and the West Burn to build fishing boats. A whaling business operated for about 40 years, in 1714 Greenock became a custom house port as a branch of Port Glasgow, and for a period this operated from rooms leased in Greenock. Receipts rose rapidly from the 1770s, and in 1778 the custom house moved to new premises at the West Quay of the harbour. By 1791 a new pier was constructed at the East Quay, in 1812 Europes first steamboat service was introduced by PS Comet with frequent sailings between Glasgow, Greenock and Helensburgh, and as trade built up the pier became known as Steamboat Quay
21.
Labour Party (UK)
–
The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
22.
European Economic Community
–
The European Economic Community was a regional organisation which aimed to bring about economic integration among its member states. It was created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, upon the formation of the European Union in 1993, the EEC was incorporated and renamed as the European Community. In 2009 the ECs institutions were absorbed into the EUs wider framework and it gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty. In 1993, a single market was achieved, known as the internal market, which allowed for the free movement of goods, capital, services. In 1994, the market was formalised by the EEA agreement. This agreement also extended the market to include most of the member states of the European Free Trade Association. Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and this was also when the three European Communities, including the EC, were collectively made to constitute the first of the three pillars of the European Union, which the treaty also founded. The EEC was also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking countries and sometimes referred to as the European Community even before it was renamed as such in 1993. In 1951, the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the European Coal and this was an international community based on supranationalism and international law, designed to help the economy of Europe and prevent future war by integrating its members. In the aim of creating a federal Europe two further communities were proposed, a European Defence Community and a European Political Community. While the treaty for the latter was being drawn up by the Common Assembly, the ECSC parliamentary chamber, after the Messina Conference in 1955, Paul Henri Spaak was given the task to prepare a report on the idea of a customs union. The so-called Spaak Report of the Spaak Committee formed the cornerstone of the negotiations at Val Duchesse castle in 1956. Together with the Ohlin Report the Spaak Report would provide the basis for the Treaty of Rome, in 1956, Paul Henri Spaak led the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse castle, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, the resulting communities were the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. These were markedly less supranational than the communities, due to protests from some countries that their sovereignty was being infringed. The first formal meeting of the Hallstein Commission, was held on 16 January 1958 at the Chateau de Val-Duchesse, the EEC was to create a customs union while Euratom would promote co-operation in the nuclear power sphere. The EEC rapidly became the most important of these and expanded its activities, one of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment of common price levels for agricultural products. In 1968, internal tariffs were removed on certain products, another crisis was triggered in regard to proposals for the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, which came into force in 1962
23.
Brussels
–
Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
24.
DuPont
–
In the 20th century, DuPont developed many polymers such as Vespel, neoprene, nylon, Corian, Teflon, Mylar, Kapton, Kevlar, Zemdrain, M5 fiber, Nomex, Tyvek, Sorona, Corfam, and Lycra. DuPont developed Freon for the refrigerant industry, and later more environmentally friendly refrigerants and it also developed synthetic pigments and paints including ChromaFlair. In 2014, DuPont was the fourth largest chemical company based on market capitalization. Its stock price is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, DuPont was founded in 1802 by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, using capital raised in France and gunpowder machinery imported from France. It began as a manufacturer of gunpowder, as du Pont noticed that the industry in North America was lagging behind Europe, the Eleutherian Mills site is now a museum and a National Historic Landmark. DuPont continued to expand, moving into the production of dynamite, in 1902, DuPonts president, Eugene du Pont, died, and the surviving partners sold the company to three great-grandsons of the original founder. Charles Lee Reese was appointed as director and the company began centralizing their research departments, the company subsequently purchased several smaller chemical companies, and in 1912 these actions gave rise to government scrutiny under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The courts declared that the dominance of the explosives business constituted a monopoly. The court ruling resulted in the creation of the Hercules Powder Company, at the time of divestment, DuPont retained the single base nitrocellulose powders, while Hercules held the double base powders combining nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. DuPont subsequently developed the Improved Military Rifle line of smokeless powders, in 1910, DuPont published a brochure entitled Farming with Dynamite. DuPont also established two of the first industrial laboratories in the United States, where began the work on cellulose chemistry, lacquers. DuPont Central Research was established at the DuPont Experimental Station, across the Brandywine Creek from the powder mills. In 1914, Pierre S. du Pont invested in the automobile industry. The following year he was invited to sit on GMs board of directors, the DuPont company would assist the struggling automobile company further with a $25 million purchase of GM stock. In 1920, Pierre S. du Pont was elected president of General Motors, under du Ponts guidance, GM became the number one automobile company in the world. However, in 1957, because of DuPonts influence within GM, in the 1920s, DuPont continued its emphasis on materials science, hiring Wallace Carothers to work on polymers in 1928. Carothers invented neoprene, a rubber, the first polyester superpolymer. The invention of Teflon followed a few years later, DuPont introduced phenothiazine as an insecticide in 1935
25.
Biomaterial
–
A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic or a diagnostic one. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old, the study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products, biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Note that a biomaterial is different from a material, such as bone. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a biomaterial as biocompatible, a biomaterial that is biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another. Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic components, polymers. They are often used and/or adapted for an application, and thus comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments. Such functions may be passive, like being used for a heart valve. Biomaterials are also used every day in applications, surgery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, a biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material. Biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues, such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is a widespread phenomenon, all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals. Examples include silicates in algae and diatoms, carbonates in invertebrates and these minerals often form structural features such as sea shells and the bone in mammals and birds. Organisms have been producing mineralised skeletons for the past 550 million years, other examples include copper, iron and gold deposits involving bacteria. Biologically-formed minerals often have special uses such as sensors in magnetotactic bacteria, gravity sensing devices and iron storage. Self-assembly is the most common term in use in the scientific community to describe the spontaneous aggregation of particles without the influence of any external forces. The fundamental difference in structure is in the spatial scale of the unit cell in each particular case. Molecular self-assembly is found widely in biological systems and provides the basis of a variety of complex biological structures
26.
Polylactic acid
–
In 2010, PLA had the second highest consumption volume of any bioplastic of the world. The name polylactic acid does not comply with IUPAC standard nomenclature, and is ambiguous or confusing, because PLA is not a polyacid. Producers have several routes to usable PLA. Two main monomers are used, lactic acid, and the cyclic di-ester, the most common route to PLA is the ring-opening polymerization of lactide with various metal catalysts in solution, in the melt, or as a suspension. The metal-catalyzed reaction tends to cause racemization of the PLA, reducing its stereoregularity compared to the starting material, another route to PLA is the direct condensation of lactic acid monomers. This process needs to be carried out at less than 200 °C, above that temperature and this reaction generates one equivalent of water for every condensation step, and that is undesirable because water causes chain-transfer leading to low molecular weight material. The direct condensation is performed in a stepwise fashion, where lactic acid is first oligomerized to PLA oligomers. Thereafter, polycondensation is done in the melt or as a solution, water removal by application of a vacuum or by azeotropic distillation is crucial to favor polycondensation over transesterification. Molecular weights of 130 kDa can be obtained this way, even higher molecular weights can be attained by carefully crystallizing the crude polymer from the melt. Carboxylic acid and alcohol end groups are concentrated in the amorphous region of the solid polymer. Molecular weights of 128–152 kDa are obtainable thus, polymerization of a racemic mixture of L- and D-lactides usually leads to the synthesis of poly-DL-lactide, which is amorphous. Use of stereospecific catalysts can lead to heterotactic PLA which has found to show crystallinity. The degree of crystallinity, and hence many important properties, is controlled by the ratio of D to L enantiomers used. Apart from lactic acid and lactide, lactic acid O-carboxyanhydride, a cyclic compound has been used academically as well. This compound is more reactive than lactide, because its polymerization is driven by the loss of one equivalent of carbon dioxide per equivalent of lactic acid, the direct biosynthesis of PLA similar to the polys has been reported as well. As of June 2010, NatureWorks was the producer of PLA in the United States. The second biggest producer of PLA in the world is the weforyou Group with an capacity of pure PLA and compounds of 50. Other companies involved in PLA manufacturing are Evonik Industries, Corbion PURAC Biomaterials who have announced a new 75,000 ton PLA plant in Thailand by 2018, the primary producer of PDLLA is Evonik Industries and Corbion PURAC
27.
Tereos
–
Tereos S. A. is a French maker of sugar, starch and bioethanol. Tereos produces sugar based on sugar beet and sugar cane and it also engages in the production of fondant sugar. Subsidiary Syral processes cereals into a range of native starch, starch sugars, bioethanol and by-products intended for animal feed, the company is headquartered in Lille, France. Tereos originates from the company called Sucreries et Distilleries de l’Aisne, in 1999 SDA merged with Sucrerie-Distillerie d’Artenay into Union SDA. In 2002 sugar company Béghin-Say was taken over by Union SDA and Union des Planteurs de Betteraves à Sucre, in 2007 the starch sugar and bioethanol part of the European starch division of Tate & Lyle known as Amylum group, was bought by starch subsidiary Syral of Tereos. Syral has since closed the Greenwich plant, Tereos Internacional is the main subsidiary of Tereos, created in 2010 as a result of a merger of the Groups assets in Brazil, Europe and Indian Ocean. Tereos Internacional is the third largest sugar processor of the world, the company is based in São Paulo, Brazil. The biggest competitors of Tereos Internacional are the Brazilians Cosan and ETH Bioenergia, the French Louis Dreyfus Group, and the American Archer Daniels Midland
28.
Greenwich Peninsula
–
Greenwich Peninsula is an area of south-east London, England, located in the Royal Borough of Greenwich. The peninsula is bounded on three sides by a loop of the Thames, between the Isle of Dogs to the west and Silvertown to the east, to the south is the rest of Greenwich, to the south-east is Charlton. The peninsula lies within the Royal Borough of Greenwich and this should not be confused with North Greenwich on the Isle of Dogs, at the north side of a former ferry from Greenwich. The peninsulas northernmost point on the riverside is known as Blackwall Point, landmarks include The Dome and the southern end of the Blackwall Tunnel, but the area is now being substantially redeveloped with new homes, offices, schools, a college and parks. The peninsula was drained by Dutch engineers in the 16th century, in the 17th century, Blackwall Point gained notoriety as a location where pirates corpses were hung in cages as a deterrent to other would-be pirates. In the 1690s the Board of Ordnance established a magazine on the west side of the peninsula. Alongside the magazine was a wharf, a house and accommodation for the resident Storekeeper. By 1771 gunpowder was no longer stored at Greenwich, the peninsula was steadily industrialised from the early 19th century onwards. In 1857 a plan was presented to Parliament for a huge dock occupying much of the peninsula, connected to Greenwich Reach to the west and Bugsbys Reach to the east, but this came to nothing. Early industries included Henry Blakeleys Ordnance Works making heavy guns, with other sites making chemicals, submarine cables, iron boats, iron and steel. Henry Bessemer built a works in the early 1860s to supply the London shipbuilding industry. Later came oil mills, shipbuilding, boiler making, manufacture of Portland cement and linoleum, early in the 20th century came bronze manufacturers Delta Metals and works making asbestos and Molassine Meal animal feed. For over 100 years the peninsula was dominated by the gasworks which primarily produced town gas, the gasworks grew to 240 acres, the largest in Europe, also producing coke, tar and chemicals as important secondary products. The site had its own railway system connected to the main railway line near Charlton. There were two huge gas holders, of 8.6 and 12.2 million ft3, originally manufacturing gas from coal, the plant began to manufacture gas from oil in the 1960s. Its peak production of 400 million ft3 per day in the mid 1960s is believed to have been the largest of any site in the world. The discovery of gas reserves in the North Sea soon rendered the complex obsolete. On the eastern shore was Blackwall Point Power Station, the station from the 1890s was replaced in the 1950s by a new station which ceased operation about 1981
29.
Kingsway, London
–
Kingsway is a major road in central London, designated as part of the A4200. It runs from High Holborn, at its end in the London Borough of Camden. It was opened by King Edward VII in 1905, together Kingsway and Aldwych form one of the major north-south routes through central London linking the ancient east-west routes of High Holborn and Strand. The road was purpose-built as part of a redevelopment of the area in the 1900s. Its route cleared away the maze of streets in Holborn such as Little Queen Street. Plans were published by London County Council in 1898 and the road was opened in 1905. It is one of the broadest streets in central London at 100 feet wide, there were several proposed names for the new street, including King Edward VII Street, Empire Avenue, Imperial Avenue and Connecticut Avenue. The name Kingsway was in honour of King Edward VII, who opened the street, in 1958 the disused tunnel was reopened at the southern end to make a new connection, the Strand Underpass, for light traffic between Waterloo Bridge and Kingsway in order to reduce congestion. Also beneath Kingsway was a branch of the Piccadilly tube line from Holborn to the Strand, the branch platform at Holborn station is still used for television and film sets that require underground scenes. During the Second World War the branch was used to store art treasures from the British Museum, on 1 April 2015, electrical cables under the pavement in Kingsway caught fire, leading to serious disruption in central London. The fire continued for the two days, with flames shooting out of a manhole cover from a burst gas main. Several thousand people were evacuated from nearby offices, and several theatres cancelled performances, there was also substantial disruption to telecoms infrastructure. On 8 April, press reports emerged stating that the fire may have started as part of the 2015 Hatton Garden burglary. The original buildings were built between 1903 and 1905 and they were mostly mid-rises in stone, and in various styles including neoclassical and neo-Baroque. Many survive but some have been replaced, as part of the redevelopment a tram tunnel was built underneath the road. The trams ceased to run in the mid 20th century and since 1961 the southern end of the tunnel has been used by cars under the name of the Strand Underpass. The northern entrance to the still exists and can be found at the junction of Southampton Row. Kingsway telephone exchange, a telephone exchange in Chancery Lane
30.
Fairtrade certification
–
The Fairtrade certification initiative was created to form a new method for economic trade. This method takes a stand point, and considers the producers first. The Fairtrade organization forms a partnership between the consumer and the producer, and aims to eliminate other parties within the supply chain, the second part of Fairtrade International is the independent certifier, FLOCert. FLOCert ensures that companies and producers all comply with FLOs standards of trade, Fairtrade International was initially made up of other national fair trade initiatives from around the world, who came together to form one international umbrella organisation. Fairtrade International started with the industry, but now covers a range of products such as cocoa, fruit, cotton, flowers, tea. The established buyers of these make up a niche market. As of 2011,827 producer organizations in 58 developing countries were Fairtrade certified, the effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable, and in some cases workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system. The fair trade movement stemmed from an initiative established by the Dutch development agency, Solidaridad, the agency recognised that the producers were not being treated fairly, and strived to create a more ethical system to trade. The Max Havelaar seal, which was based on a character, was established to license existing roasters and retailers who complied with its fair trade criteria. The seal provided specific benefits for cooperatives of small producers in Mexico, with the aim of balancing the production of crops to be exported. The four benefits in this model of the fairtrade initiative were. An additional 10% of the price for their investment in social and environmental projects. The Solidaridad informed large audiences of the mistreatment of coffee producers and they worked with other associations as well as the mass media to spread the message and create an awareness of their fair trade initiative. Because of their efforts, in 1988 the first bag of Max Hevelaar sealed coffee from Mexico was delivered to Hollands Prince Claus, by the 1990s every western European country had established their own national version of the Max Hevelaar initiative. Between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s, multiple national initiatives following a trade system coexisted within Europe, USA, Canada. 1997 however,17 national initiatives joined forces to create one international umbrella organisation called the Fair Trade Organization, FLO is based in Bonn, Germany, and has quickly become the largest organisation of its kind. FLO also has branches and field workers situated in Africa, Central and South America, the international fair trade label was introduced in 2002 to improve visibility for consumers. A key part of the Fair Trade initiative is to consumers through innovative marketing
31.
United States International Trade Commission
–
The USITC was established by the U. S. Congress on September 8,1916, as the U. S. In 1974, the name was changed to the U. S. International Trade Commission by section 171 of the Trade Act of 1974, the agency has broad investigative powers on matters of trade. The USITC is a resource where trade data is gathered and analyzed. This data is provided to the President and Congress as part of the information on which U. S. international trade policy is based. S, International Trade Commission seeks to, Administer U. S. In so doing, the Commission serves the public by implementing U. S. law and contributing to the development and implementation of sound, senate confirms the six commissioners, who head the USITC. The President and the Secretary of State sign the formal commission, Commissioners terms are nine years, or when fill a vacated seat for the remainder of a term. Their terms are staggered to end 18 months apart, No more than three of the Commissioners may be of the same political party. The Chairman and Vice Chairmans terms are for two years, and successive Chairmen may not be of the political party. Only a Commissioner with more than one year of service may be designated Chairman, if a Section 337 Tariff Act complaint has at least three votes from its six Commissioners, an official investigative hearing will be assigned to an administrative law judge. Several dozen new USITC investigations are filed every year, judicial review is normally exercised by the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. After the parties have had the opportunity to conduct fact and expert discovery to develop their legal positions. There is no jury, rather, it is a bench trial, about three months after considering the arguments of the parties, the ALJ renders an initial determination. The full ITC reviews and may adopt, modify or reverse the ALJs initial determination, the ITCs final determination is usually issued about four months after the ALJs ID. Previous commissioners included, Daniel R. Pearson Shara L. Aranoff Dean A. Pinkert On January 4,1985, the case involved the import of alkaline batteries in competition with Duracell, the American manufacturer that developed them. On August 3,2013, President Barack Obama overturned the decision in investigation No. 337-TA-794 that would have banned Apple Inc. from importing several of its older products, in January 2016 it became known, that the commission was charged with investigating the likely impact of the TPP on the U. S. economy and specific industries. It will calculate the impact on gross domestic product, exports and imports, employment opportunities
32.
Golden syrup
–
It is used in a variety of baking recipes and desserts. It has a similar to honey and is often used as a substitute where honey is unavailable or prohibitively expensive. Many vegans also use it as a honey substitute, molasses, or dark treacle, has a richer colour than golden syrup, and a strong, distinctive flavour. The sugar cane refining process produced a treacle-like syrup that usually went to waste, in 1883, Charles Eastick, a chemist at the Abram Lyle & Sons refinery in Plaistow formulated how it could be refined to make a preserve and sweetener for cooking. The resulting product was marketed commercially in 1885 as golden syrup, however, the name golden syrup in connection with molasses occurs as early as 1840 in an Adelaide newspaper, the South Australian. The tin bears a picture of the carcass of a lion with a swarm of bees. This is a reference to the Biblical story in chapter 14 of the Book of Judges in which Samson was travelling to the land of the Philistines in search of a wife. During the journey he killed a lion, and when he passed the spot on his return he noticed that a swarm of bees had formed a comb of honey in the carcass. Samson later turned this into a riddle at a wedding, Out of the eater came forth meat, in 1904 they were registered together as a trademark, and in 2006 Guinness World Records declared the mark to be Britains oldest brand. Lyles golden syrup was awarded a Royal Warrant in 1911, in 1921 Lyles business merged with Tate, a sugar-refining firm founded by Sir Henry Tate in 1859, to become Tate & Lyle. In 2010 Tate & Lyle sold its sugar refining and golden syrup business to American Sugar Refining, originally, golden syrup was a product made at the white sugar refinery from the recovered mother liquor washed of the raw sugar crystals in the process of creating white sugar. This liquor is known as refiners return syrup. Refiners return syrup begins as a high brix, pale sucrose syrup made from white sugar, the sucrose saturated content of the initial green syrup impedes sugar crystals from dissolving during the process of washing. The purpose is to mix the green syrup with raw sugar crystals to form a magma of 8–10% moisture content at around 60–65 degrees C that is washed with water in a centrifuge. After the first washing the washed off molasses combines with the syrup to generate refiners return syrup. The spent refiners return syrup is sold off to manufacturers for golden syrup production or is sent to a section of the refinery often called the remelt house or boil-out section. Here it is reheated to crystallize and recover the sucrose it contains, the final spent syrup left after the recovery process is sold as treacle. In this process none of the sucrose is ever crystallized from the beet juice, inversion may be done by acid hydrolysis or by adding an enzyme, invertase
33.
American Sugar Refining
–
American Sugar Refining, Inc. is a large cane sugar refining company, with a production capacity of 6.5 million tons of sugar. The company produces a line of consumer, industrial, food service. In 2013, it adopted the brand name ASR Group. Its ownership structure is based on a partnership which includes the Fanjul brothers, the refineries are located in Yonkers, New York Baltimore, Maryland Chalmette, Louisiana – This plant celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2009. In the European Union, the company owns and operates refineries in England and Portugal. The company’s products are sold through a portfolio that includes the premier sugar brands Domino, C&H, Florida Crystals, Redpath. The company is also the majority shareholder of Belize Sugar Industries, american Sugar Refining is owned by Florida Crystals Corporation and the Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida. The main competitor in the USA for refined sugar is Imperial Sugar. American Sugar Refining now own a perpetual worldwide licence to produce and sell Lyles Golden Syrup, a brand of golden syrup. According to a report, the Guinness Book of Records has concluded that the design of the Lyles Golden Syrup tin. Swift & Co. v. United States Domino® C&H® Florida Crystals®, Redpath® Homepage of Florida Crystals Corporation Homepage of Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida
34.
HarperCollins
–
The company is headquartered in New York City and is a subsidiary of News Corp. The worldwide CEO of HarperCollins is Brian Murray, HarperCollins has publishing groups in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and India and China. As of 2017 China provides as the source of manufacturing. The company publishes many different imprints, both former independent publishing houses and new imprints, in 1989, Collins was bought by Rupert Murdochs News Corporation, and the publisher was combined with Harper & Row, which NewsCorp had acquired two years earlier. In 1999, News Corporation purchased the Hearst Book Group, consisting of William Morrow & Company and these imprints are now published under the rubric of HarperCollins. HarperCollins bought educational publisher Letts and Lonsdale in March 2010, in 2011, HarperCollins announced they had agreed to acquire the publisher Thomas Nelson. The purchase was completed on July 11,2012, with an announcement that Thomas Nelson would operate independently given the position it has in Christian book publishing. Both Thomas Nelson and Zondervan were then organized as imprints, or keystone publishing programs, under a new division, key roles in the reorganization were awarded to former Thomas Nelson executives. Brian Murray, the current CEO of HarperCollins, succeeded Jane Friedman who was CEO from 1997 to 2008, notable management figures include Lisa Sharkey, current senior vice president and director of creative development and Barry Winkleman from 1989 to 1994. In April 2012, the United States Department of Justice filed United States v. Apple Inc. naming Apple, HarperCollins, the suit alleged that they conspired to fix prices for e-books, and weaken Amazon. coms position in the market, in violation of antitrust law. The Scranton, PA warehouse closed in September 2013 and a Nashville, TN warehouse, under the name Thomas Nelson, several office positions and departments continued to work for HarperCollins in Scranton, but in a new location. Company officials attribute the closings and mergers to the growing demand for e-book formats. HarperCollins maintains the backlist of many of the originally published by their many merged imprints. Authors published originally by Harper include Mark Twain, the Brontë sisters, authors published originally by Collins include H. G. Wells, Agatha Christie and J. R. R. Tolkien. This is a list of some of the more noted books, N. D. Gone, Clive Barker The Children of Húrin, J. R. R. R. R. They were the home of Maurice Sendak, Shel Silverstein. In 1998, Nordstroms personal correspondence was published as Dear Genius, The Letters of Ursula Nordstrom, Zolotow later became head of the Childrens Books Department, and went on to become the companys first female Vice-President. The Chronicles of Narnia series by C. S. Lewis, HarperCollins has published the following notable childrens books, the I Can Read
35.
The Sugar Girls
–
Written by Duncan Barrett and Nuala Calvi, the book was published by Collins in 2012. The authors were inspired to write it by Jennifer Worths Call the Midwife, the stretch of factories running between Tate & Lyle’s refineries for sugar and syrup was known as the Sugar Mile, and also included Keillers jam and marmalade factory. Tate & Lyles two factories had been built in the nineteenth century by two rival sugar refiners, Henry Tate and Abram Lyle, whose companies had merged in the 1920s. Of all the factories in Silvertown, Tate & Lyles offered the best wages, there were various jobs available to women workers at Tate & Lyles factories, including printing and packing the bags of sugar, and making the tins of Lyles Golden Syrup. Women who worked there showed great loyalty and pride, lilian Clark, a lovelorn can-maker who joined the factory at the age of 23, already scarred by terrible poverty. Joan Cook, a fun-loving sugar-packer who was forced to leave the factory under a cloud when she became pregnant. Joan, a tea girl who punished a male manager who had groped her by running over his feet with her tea trolley, edna, who staged an unofficial strike when the factory was insufficiently heated and the women were instructed to work in their hats and coats. They would take in their dungarees, making them figure-hugging, and stuff their turbans with underwear to make them sit high up on their heads, which was considered fashionable. When we handed in the manuscript of the book, our publishers were a little surprised and this is a lot jollier than we expected, they told us. The book was featured as the Daily Mails Book of the Week on 23 March 2012, if it doesn’t become a TV series to rival Call the Midwife, Ill take my tea with ten sugars. On 8 April 2012, The Sugar Girls debuted at No.10 in the Sunday Times Bestseller List, in the papers end-of-year round-up it ranked second for bestsellers in History, having sold 37,760 copies. The website also includes a blog, where authors Duncan Barrett and Nuala Calvi post images and text relating to Tate & Lyle, the Sugar Girls official website and blog The Newham Recorder
36.
Sugar substitute
–
A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
37.
Sucralose
–
Sucralose is an artificial sweetener and sugar substitute. The majority of ingested sucralose is not broken down by the body, in the European Union, it is also known under the E number E955. Sucralose is about 320 to 1,000 times sweeter than sucrose and it is stable under heat and over a broad range of pH conditions. Therefore, it can be used in baking or in products that require a longer shelf life, the commercial success of sucralose-based products stems from its favorable comparison to other low-calorie sweeteners in terms of taste, stability, and safety. Common brand names of sucralose-based sweeteners are Splenda, Zerocal, Sukrana, SucraPlus, Candys, Cukren, Canderel Yellow also contains sucralose, but the original Canderel and Green Canderel do not. Sucralose was discovered in 1976 by scientists from Tate & Lyle, working with researchers Leslie Hough, while researching ways to use sucrose and its synthetic derivatives for industrial use, Phadnis was told to test a chlorinated sugar compound. Phadnis thought Hough asked him to taste it, so he did and he found the compound to be exceptionally sweet. Tate & Lyle patented the substance in 1976, as of 2008, Sucralose was first approved for use in Canada in 1991. Subsequent approvals came in Australia in 1993, in New Zealand in 1996, in the United States in 1998, by 2008, it had been approved in over 80 countries, including Mexico, Brazil, China, India, and Japan. In 2006, the US Food and Drug Administration amended the regulations for foods to include sucralose as a sweetener in food. In May 2008, Fusion Nutraceuticals launched a product to the market. In April 2015 PepsiCo announced that it would be moving from aspartame to sucralose for most of its drinks in the US. PepsiCo says its decision is a commercial one - responding to consumer preferences, Sucralose is manufactured by the selective chlorination of sucrose in a multistep synthesis, which substitutes three of the hydroxyl groups of sucrose with chlorine atoms. A company realignment announced April 21,2015 moved sucralose production from Tate & Lyles plant on Jurong Island, Singapore to the reopened plant in McIntosh. Sucralose is used as a replacement for, or in combination with, Sucralose is used in products such as candy, breakfast bars and soft drinks. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of higher calorie corn syrup-based additives. Sucralose mixed with maltodextrin or dextrose as bulking agents is sold internationally by McNeil Nutritionals under the Splenda brand name, Sucralose is a highly heat-stable noncaloric sweetener, allowing it to be used in many recipes with little or no sugar. It is available in a form that allows for same-volume substitution with sugar
38.
Fructose
–
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion, fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847. The name fructose was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Miller, pure, dry fructose is a very sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars. Fructose is found in honey, tree and vine fruits, flowers, berries, commercially, fructose is frequently derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and corn. Crystalline fructose is the monosaccharide, dried, ground, and of high purity, high-fructose corn syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose as monosaccharides. Sucrose is a compound with one molecule of glucose covalently linked to one molecule of fructose, all forms of fructose, including fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for palatability and taste enhancement, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods. About 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose are produced annually, leads to adverse health outcomes independent of any effects related to its presence as a component of total and free sugars. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure owing to the stability of its hemiketal and internal hydrogen-bonding and this form is formally called D-fructopyranose. In solution, fructose exists as a mixture of 70% fructopyranose and about 22% fructofuranose. Fructose may be fermented by yeast or bacteria. Yeast enzymes convert sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide released during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with carbonic acid, unless the fermentation chamber is left open to the air. The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in bottled fermented beverages, fructose undergoes the Maillard reaction, non-enzymatic browning, with amino acids. Because fructose exists to an extent in the open-chain form than does glucose. Fructose readily dehydrates to give hydroxymethylfurfural and this process, in the future, may become part of a low-cost, carbon-neutral system to produce replacements for petrol and diesel from plants. The primary reason that fructose is used commercially in foods and beverages, besides its low cost, is its high relative sweetness and it is the sweetest of all naturally occurring carbohydrates. The relative sweetness of fructose has been reported in the range of 1. 2–1.8 times that of sucrose, however, it is the 6-membered ring form of fructose that is sweeter, the 5-membered ring form tastes about the same as usual table sugar. Warming fructose leads to formation of the 5-membered ring form, therefore, the relative sweetness decreases with increasing temperature. The sweetness of fructose is perceived earlier than that of sucrose or glucose, fructose can also enhance other flavors in the system
39.
Gum arabic
–
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is cultivated in Arabia. Gum arabic is a mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is the source of the sugars arabinose and ribose. Gum arabic is used primarily in the industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414, while gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the gum to make a chilled, sweetened. Gum arabics mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue, other substances have replaced it where toxicity is not an issue, and as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. Still, it remains an important ingredient in soft drink syrup, hard gummy candies such as gumdrops, marshmallows, for artists, it is the traditional binder in watercolor paint, in photography for gum printing, and it is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. Pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifying agent, wine makers have used gum arabic as a wine fining agent. It is an important ingredient in shoe polish, and can be used in making homemade incense cones and it is also used as a lickable adhesive, for example on postage stamps, envelopes, and cigarette papers. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment also helps to stop oxidation of aluminium printing plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a printing press. Also called acacia after the source, gum arabic is used as an emulsifier. Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the gum in varying amounts. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint, when all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers. If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity
40.
Dietary fiber
–
Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
41.
Corn syrup
–
Corn syrup is a food syrup which is made from the starch of corn and contains varying amounts of maltose and higher oligosaccharides, depending on the grade. Corn syrup, also known as glucose syrup to confectioners, is used in foods to soften texture, add volume, prevent crystallization of sugar, and enhance flavor. The more general term glucose syrup is used synonymously with corn syrup. Historically, corn syrup was produced by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, the process was invented by the Russian chemist Gottlieb Kirchhoff in 1812. Currently, corn syrup is obtained through a multi-step bioprocess, first, the enzyme α-amylase is added to a mixture of corn starch and water. α-amylase is secreted by various species of the bacterium Bacillus and the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the bacteria were grown, the enzyme breaks down the starch into oligosaccharides, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme glucoamylase, known also as γ-amylase. Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the fungus Aspergillus, the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown, Corn syrup is produced from number 2 yellow dent corn. When wet milled, about 2.3 litres of corn are required to yield an average of 947g of starch, a bushel of corn will yield an average of 31.5 pounds of starch, which in turn will yield about 33.3 pounds of syrup. Thus, it takes about 2,300 litres of corn to produce a tonne of glucose syrup, the viscosity and sweetness of the syrup depends on the extent to which the hydrolysis reaction has been carried out. To distinguish different grades of syrup, they are rated according to their dextrose equivalent, most commercially available corn syrups are approximately 1/3 glucose by weight. Two common commercial corn syrup products are light and dark corn syrup, light corn syrup is corn syrup seasoned with vanilla flavor and salt. )Light corn syrup is clear and tastes moderately sweet. Dark corn syrup is a combination of syrup and molasses, caramel color and flavor, salt. Dark corn syrup is a brown color and tastes much stronger than light corn syrup. Molasses in dark corn syrup enhances its flavor and color and this product is very useful in grade school science projects like the seven layers density column. Corn syrups major uses in commercially prepared foods are as a thickener, Corn syrup is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup, as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup. Glucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the use of high fructose corn syrup production. HFCS is a variant in which enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble, Corn syrup is also available as a retail product
.jpg)
