1.
States of Mexico
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The states of Mexico are first-level administrative territorial entities of the country of Mexico, which officially is named United Mexican States. There are 31 states in Mexico, Mexico City is a federal entity with a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state, but is not a state itself. The states are divided into municipalities. Notes, Joined the federation with the name of Coahuila y Texas, Joined the federation with the name of Estado de Occidente also recognized as Sonora y Sinaloa. Joined the federation as República Federada de Yucatán formed by the current states of Yucatan, Campeche, became independent in 1841 constituting the second Republic of Yucatán and definitely rejoined in 1848. State of Tabasco seceded from Mexico on two occasions, the first on February 13,1841, rejoining again on December 2,1842, and the second time was from November 9,1846 to December 8 of that year. Includes the remote Revillagigedo Islands, which are federally administered
States of Mexico
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Mexico D.F.
2.
Guerrero
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Guerrero, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guerrero, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 81 municipalities and its capital city is Chilpancingo and it is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Michoacán to the north and west, México and Morelos to the north, Puebla to the northeast and Oaxaca to the east. The state was named after Vicente Guerrero, one of the most prominent leaders in the Mexican War of Independence and it is the only Mexican state named after a president. The modern entity did not exist until 1849, when it was carved out of territories from the states of Mexico, Puebla and Michoacán. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Acapulco, Petatlan, Ciudad Altamirano, Taxco, Iguala, Ixtapa, Zihuatanejo. Today, it is home to a number of communities, including the Nahuas, Mixtecs. It is also home to communities of Afro-Mexicans in the Costa Chica region, geographically, the state is mountainous and rugged with flat areas limited to small mesas and the coast line. Tourism is the single most important economic factor of the state, however, other sources of employment are scarce in the state, which has caused its ranking as number one in the emigration of workers to the United States. The first humans in the territory were nomadic hunter-gatherers who left evidence of their existence in various caves starting about 20,000 years ago. After that, settlements appeared near the coast because of fishing, at these sites, evidence of weaving, ceramics, basketry and other crafts have been found. Around this time, a grain called teocintle, or the forerunner to corn, Olmec influences can be seen in cave paintings such as those found in Juxtlahuaca and well as stone tools and jade jewelry from the time period. Recent evidence indicates that ancient Guerrero cultures may have influenced the development of the Olmecs. Eventually, the peoples of the Mexcala River area developed their own distinctive culture and it is characterized by its own sculpture and ceramics, distinguished by its simplicity. Olmec influence remained with this culture, especially evident in the grouping of villages, construction of ceremonial centers, later, the culture assimilated aspects of the Teotihuacan model, which included the Mesoamerican ball game. In the 8th century, Toltec influence was felt as they traveled the many routes through here in search of tropical bird plumage. From the 12th century to the 15th, the peoples of the state were influence by the Chichimecas. In the 11th century, new migrations entered the area from the north, which included the Nahuas, who occupied what is now the center of the state, the Nahuas established themselves in Zacatula, Atoyac and Tlacotepec, later conquering the areas occupied by the Chontals and Matlatzincas
Guerrero
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Two figures from the Xochipala archeological site
Guerrero
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Flag
Guerrero
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Santa Prisca church in Taxco
Guerrero
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Vicente Guerrero
3.
Time in Mexico
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Mexico uses four main time zones since February 2015, Zona Sureste covers the state of Quintana Roo. Zona Centro covers the eastern three-fourths of Mexico, including Mexico City, Guadalajara, Zona Pacífico covers the states of Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Sinaloa, and Sonora. Zona Noroeste covers the state of Baja California, including Tijuana, in addition, the law dictates that all island territories should fall within the time zone corresponding to their geographic location. Standard time was first defined in Mexico in 1921, when President Álvaro Obregón decreed two time zones, one time zone designated for 90° W covered the states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo. A second time zone designated for 105° W covered the rest of the country, from Baja California to Veracruz and Oaxaca. It was decreed in 1942 that the Hora del Noroeste should cover only the states of Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, the time zone Hora del Sureste was created for tourist reasons in 1981, originally covering the states of Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo. The three states returned one year later to the Hora del Centro, Quintana Roo, however, returned to the Hora del Sureste from October 1997 to August 1998, first observation of DST was in 1931, but only for the state of Baja California. It used the Hora del Centro from April 1 to September 30, until 1996, Baja California was the only Mexican state to officially observe DST every year, coinciding with the observance of DST across the border in San Diego, California. These states abandoned DST the following year and did not return to it until DST was adopted nationwide, daylight saving time has been observed nationwide in Mexico beginning in 1996. But in the rest of the country, daylight saving time is observed between 2 a. m. on the first Sunday in April through 2 a. m. on the last Sunday in October, Quintana Roo and Sonora states do not observe DST. The first is the three or four weeks between the second Sunday in March and the first Sunday in April, the second is the single week between the last Sunday in October and the first Sunday in November. During these periods, clocks in Mexico City match those in Denver rather than those in Chicago, the Mexican Stock Exchange changes its hours during these periods in order to maintain synchronization with the U. S. markets. In 1998 the state of Chihuahua moved from Central time to Mountain time and this is likely because Ciudad Juárez is directly across the border from El Paso, Texas, which is on Mountain Time. Later, in 2001, Mexico experimented with a daylight saving period from the first Sunday in May till the last Sunday in September. When the United States extended their DST period in 2007, the congress refused to do the same for Mexico. For the second time, congress refused to adopt it nationwide, congress refused to approve the change for the third time in a 10-year period, discarding the bill on June 29,2016. Daylight saving time is observed in all parts of the country except for the states of Quintana Roo, and Sonora and this is to coincide with the non-observation in Arizona, with which Sonora shares its northern border. The island territories do not currently observe daylight time either, during non-DST period, Mexico uses 4 different time zones
Time in Mexico
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Winter
4.
Central Standard Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
Central Standard Time Zone
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Regions in the Central Time Zone
5.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
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Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
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G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
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Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
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William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
6.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
UTC-5
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Behind (−)
7.
Iguala
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Iguala, known officially as Iguala de la Independencia, is a historic city located 102 km from the state capital of Chilpancingo, in the Mexican state of Guerrero in southwestern Mexico. The city of Iguala stands on Federal Highway 95 about 130 km SSW of Mexico City, Iguala is the municipal seat of the Municipality of Iguala de la Independencia, located in the north-central part of the state. The city had a 2005 census population of 110,390, the area of the municipality is 567.1 km2. The city is the third-largest community in Guerrero, after Acapulco, general Vicente Guerrero was the first military leader to swear allegiance to the Mexican flag in Acatempan, on March 12,1821. On February 24, the Plan de Iguala had been signed by Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, gaining independence from Spain was represented by the first national flag, known as the Flag of the Three Guarantees, which was made by José Magdaleno Ocampo. Thus, Iguala is called the birthplace of the Flag of Mexico, the governor of Guerrero state, Ángel Aguirre Rivero, resigned amid the scandal. The San Francisco Church is a landmark in the city, built in the 19th century in the Neoclassical style and it is surrounded by Tamarind trees, and for them Iguala is known as la Ciudad Tamarindera. The Lagoon of Tuxpan, is a lake in the city known for its beauty, the Iguala Flag Fair is held in late February annually. It is one of the most important annual festivities for the people of Iguala and it is celebrated with a parade of floats, cockfights, and Mexican handcrafts and folk art exhibitions. Igualas local artisans create gold and silver jewelry
Iguala
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A view of the city of Iguala taken from "Cerro del Tehuhue" Asta Bandera
Iguala
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Iguala
Iguala
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Street scene with the San Francisco Church.
8.
Chilpancingo
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Chilpancingo de los Bravo is the capital and second-largest city of the state of Guerrero, Mexico. In 2010 it had a population of 187,251 people, the municipality has an area of 2,338.4 km2 in the south-central part of the state, situated in the Sierra Madre del Sur, on the bank of the Huacapa River. The city is on Mexican Federal Highway 95 which connects Acapulco to Mexico City and it is served by Chilpancingo National Airport, which is one of the five airports in the state. In pre-Columbian times, the area was occupied by the Olmecs, who built a tunnel network through the mountains. The city of Chilpancingo was founded on November 1,1591 by the Spanish conquistadores, in 1870 it was again declared capital by Governor Francisco O. Arce, due to the opposition led by General Jimenez, who was in possession of the official seat of government at Tixtla. It was not until 1871, when the legislature agreed to a change of venue. During the Mexican Revolution, Chilpancingo was deeply troubled, and had political, battles took place in the vicinity in the 1910s, in which Emiliano Zapata defeated federal forces of Porfirio Diaz, Francisco I. Madero, Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza, a major defeat of Huertas southern forces took place here in March April 1914, the Zapatistas took the town until after the Constitutional Convention. The main objective was to diminish the power of the state government, on April 27,2009 an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.6 was centered near Chilpancingo. In 1869, the Autonomous University of Guerrero was established in Chilpancingo, the city is a producer of processed foods and alcoholic beverages, and is a market for maize, sugarcane, bananas, livestock, and lumber produced in the region. Pezuapan is a site located in Chilpancingo city. It sits on the slope of the Chilpancingo valley. The archaeological vestiges found at the cover the total area of 4000 m2. The dates are from 650 AD to 1150 AD
Chilpancingo
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Collage
Chilpancingo
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Seal
9.
Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexico City
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From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexico City
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Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexico City
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The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexico City
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The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
10.
Aztec
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The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to 16th centuries. The Nahuatl words aztecatl and aztecah mean people from Aztlan, a place for the Nahuatl-speaking culture of the time. Often the term Aztec refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah or Cōlhuah Mexihcah. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization, here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Triple Alliance formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. Subsequently, the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, the term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire such as the Acolhua and Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. In older usage the term was used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic groups. In recent usage these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically the term Aztecan is still used about the branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec, to the Aztecs themselves the word aztec was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather it was a term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl speaking. In the Nahuatl language aztecatl means person from Aztlan and this usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term Aztec is still more common. For the same reason the notion of Aztec civilization is best understood as a horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. Particular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, the Aztec Empire was a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan that extended its power throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partners in the alliance, which was de facto led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, the empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala, the Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 6th century. They populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their influence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices. During the Postclassic period they rose to power at such sites as Tula, in the 12th century the Nahua power center was in Azcapotzalco, from where the Tepanecs dominated the valley of Mexico
Aztec
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The Aztec Pyramid at
St. Cecilia Acatitlan, State of Mexico
Aztec
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Aztec
wood mask
Aztec
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Large ceramic statue of an Aztec Eagle Warrior
Aztec
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Aztec cosmogram in the pre-Hispanic
Codex Fejérváry-Mayer —the fire god
Xiuhtecuhtli is in the center
11.
Glyph
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In typography, a glyph /ˈɡlɪf/ is an elemental symbol within an agreed set of symbols, intended to represent a readable character for the purposes of writing. In Turkish, however, it is not a glyph because that language has two versions of the letter i, with and without a dot. In Japanese syllabaries, a number of the characters are made up of more than one separate mark, however, in some cases, additional marks fulfill the role of diacritics, to differentiate distinct characters. In general, a diacritic is a glyph, even if it is contiguous with the rest of the character, two or more glyphs which have the same significance, whether used interchangeably or chosen depending on context, are called allographs of each other. The term has been used in English since 1727, borrowed from glyphe, from the Greek γλυφή, glyphē, carving, and the verb γλύφειν, glýphein, to hollow out, engrave, carve. The word glyph first came to widespread European attention with the engravings, in archaeology, a glyph is a carved or inscribed symbol. It may be a pictogram or ideogram, or part of a system such as a syllable. In 1897 Dana Evans discovered glyphs written on rocks in the Colorado Desert and these ancient characters have been called the most enlightening discovery in Native American History in the 19th Century. In typography, a glyph has a different definition, it is the specific shape, design. The same is true in computing, in computing as well as typography, the term character refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in natural language writing systems. The range of glyphs required increases correspondingly, in summary, in typography and computing, a glyph is a graphical unit. In graphonomics, the glyph is used for a noncharacter. Most typographic glyphs originate from the characters of a typeface, in the mobile text input technologies, Glyph is a family of text input methods based on the decomposition of letters into basic shapes. In role-playing games, the glyph is sometimes used alongside the word rune in describing magical drawings or etchings. Runes often refer to placing the image on an object or person to empower it, whereas the magic in a glyph lies dormant and is only triggered when the glyph is read or approached
Glyph
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The adjacent characters ſi represented as one glyph
Glyph
–
Various glyphs representing the lower case letter "
a "
12.
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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A Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. Although there is a variation in size, in general all ballcourts are the same shape. Although the alleys in early ballcourts were open-ended, later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, ballcourts were also used for functions other than, or in addition to, ballgames. Ceramics from western Mexico show ballcourts being used for other sporting endeavours, although ballcourts are found within most Mesoamerican sites, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. In contrast, Northern Chiapas and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some sites, including Teotihuacan, Bonampak. At Cantona, for example, the number of ballcourts is likely due to the many. One of the smallest, at Tikal site, is only one-sixth the size of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, the following is a comparison of the size of the playing alleys for several well-known ballcourts. The earliest ballcourts were doubtless temporary marked off areas of compacted soil much like those used to play the modern ulama game, paso de la Amada, Soconusco, along the Pacific coast boasts the oldest ballcourt yet identified, dated to approximately 1400 BC. This narrow ballcourt has an 80 m ×8 m flat playing alley defined by two flanking earthen mounds with benches running along their length. By the Early Classic, ballcourt designs began to feature a pair of mounds set some distance beyond the ends of the alley as if to keep errant balls from rolling too far away. By the Terminal Classic, the end zones of many ballcourts were enclosed, the evolution of the ballcourt is, of course, more complex than the foregoing suggests, and with over 1300 known ballcourts, there are exceptions to any generalization. Open ballcourts continued to be constructed into the Terminal Classic and at smaller sites, some ballcourts featured only one enclosed endzone while some ballcourts endzones are of different depths. During the Formative period, some enclosed ballcourts were entirely rectangular, one such court, at La Lagunita in the Guatemala Highlands, features rounded side walls. Unlike the compacted earth of the alley, the side walls of the formal ballcourts were lined with stone blocks. These walls featured 3 or more horizontal and sloping surfaces, there the vertical surfaces were covered with elaborate reliefs showing scenes, particularly sacrificial scenes, related to the ballgame. Most prominent ballcourts were part of their town or citys central monumental precinct and as such they share the orientation of pyramids, other than this general trend, no consistent orientation of ballcourts throughout Mesoamerica has been found, although some patterns do emerge at the regional level. In the Cotzumalhuapa region, for example, open-ended ballcourts with a north-south orientation were earlier than east-west enclosed courts, stone rings, tenoned into the wall at mid-court, appeared in the Terminal Classic era
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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Ceramic sculpture from a Western Mexican tomb showing players engaged in the Mesoamerican ballgame.
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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One of the ballcourts at
Xochicalco. Note the characteristic -shape, as well as the ring set above the apron at center court. The setting sun of the equinox shines through the ring.
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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Court marker from the Mayan site of
Lubaantun showing two players volleying. Note the rounded bottom that anchors the marker into the court.
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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A ring at Chichen Itza. This ring was set some 6 meters (20 feet) above the playing alley, making it extremely difficult to pass the heavy ball through the hole.
13.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
Mexican Revolution
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Collage of the Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution
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General
Porfirio Díaz, President of Mexico
Mexican Revolution
–
Anti-Diaz newspaper,
Regeneración, the official publication of the
Mexican Liberal Party (PLM).
Mexican Revolution
–
A vanner (1903) at the office of opposition magazine El hijo de Ahuizote reads: "The Constitution has died" (La Constitución ha muerto).
14.
Venustiano Carranza
–
He secured power in Mexico, serving as head of state 1915-1917. With the promulgation of a new revolutionary Mexican Constitution of 1917, he was elected president, known as the Primer Jefe or First Chief of the Constitutionalists, Carranza was a shrewd politician rather than a military man. Maderos challenge to the Díaz regime in the 1910 elections and Maderos Plan de San Luis Potosí to nullify the elections and he was appointed governor of his home state of Coahuila by Madero. When Madero was murdered in February 1913, Carranza drew up the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza became the leader of northern forces opposed to Huerta. He went on to lead the Constitutionalist faction to victory and become president of Mexico and he was far more conservative than either Southern peasant leader Emiliano Zapata or Northern revolutionary general Pancho Villa. Once firmly in power in Mexico, Carranza sought to eliminate his political rivals, Carranza won recognition from the United States, but took strongly nationalist positions. During his administration, the current constitution of Mexico was drafted and adopted, in the 1920 election, in which he could not succeed himself, he attempted to impose a virtually unknown, civilian politician, Ignacio Bonillas, as president of Mexico. Northern generals, who held power, rose up against Carranza under the Plan of Agua Prieta. Carranza was born in the town of Cuatro Ciénegas, in the state of Coahuila, in 1859, to an upper middle-class cattle-ranching family. His father, Jesús Carranza Neira, had been a rancher and mule driver until the time of the Reform War, in which he fought against the Indians, during the Franco-Mexican War, Jesús Carranza became a colonel and was Benito Juárezs main contact in Coahuila. There was a personal connection between the two, with Carranza lending Juárez money while Juárez was in exile. Following the ouster of the French, Juárez rewarded Carranza with land, because of his familys wealth, Venustiano, the eleventh of fifteen children, was able to attend excellent schools in Saltillo and Mexico City. Venustiano studied at the Ateneo Fuente, a famous Liberal school in Saltillo, in 1874, he went to the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria in Mexico City, where he had aspirations to be a doctor. Díazs troops defeated Lerdos, and Díaz and his armies marched into Mexico City in triumph, upon completion of his studies, Carranza returned to Coahuila to raise cattle, since he had an eye disease that prevented him becoming a doctor. He married Virginia Salinas in 1882, and the couple had two daughters, the Carranzas had high ambitions for Venustiano, who would use the family money to advance his political career. In 1887, at age 28, he became president of Cuatro Ciénegas. Carranza remained a Liberal who idolized Benito Juárez, at the same time, he grew disillusioned with the increasingly authoritarian character of the rule of Porfirio Díaz during this period. In 1893,300 Coahuila ranchers organized a resistance to oppose the re-election of Porfirio Díazs supporter José María Garza Galán as Governor of Coahuila
Venustiano Carranza
–
Venustiano Carranza
Venustiano Carranza
–
Bernardo Reyes (1850-1913),
Porfirio Díaz 's "man in the north". Carranza formed a personal friendship with Reyes, and Reyes' patronage was responsible for Carranza's election to the Mexican Congress in 1898.
Venustiano Carranza
–
Francisco I. Madero (1873-1913), the father of the
Mexican Revolution. Because Díaz refused to appoint him as Governor of Coahuila, Carranza became an early supporter of Madero and the Mexican Revolution and in 1910, Madero named Carranza
commander-in-chief of the Revolution in
Coahuila,
Nuevo León, and
Tamaulipas.
Venustiano Carranza
–
General
Alvaro Obregón, who remained loyal to Carranza until 1920
15.
William Spratling
–
William Spratling was an American-born silver designer and artist, best known for his influence on 20th century Mexican silver design. Spratling was born in 1900 in Sonyea, Livingston County, New York, after the deaths of Spratlings mother and sister, he moved to his fathers boyhood home outside of Auburn, Alabama. Spratling graduated from Auburn High School and the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, at the same time, he was an active participant in the Arts and Crafts Club and taught in the New Orleans Art School. During the summers of 1926-1928, Spratling lectured on architecture at the National University of Mexicos Summer School. The highly charged political and social environment in Mexico after the revolution influenced Spratlings decision in 1931 to reestablish a silver industry in Taxco, Taxco was a traditional site of silver mines, but had no native silverworking industry. Spratling began designing works in silver based primarily on pre-Columbian and traditional motifs, Spratling was the primary designer for his workshop, Taller de las Delicias, and was insistent on the high quality of the materials and techniques used in production. Talented maestros shared in the dialogue with Spratling, transforming his design drawings into prototypes in silver. Primarily, Spratlings silver designs drew upon pre-conquest Mesoamerican motifs, with influence from other native, to many, his work served as an expression of Mexican nationalism, and gave Mexican artisans the freedom to create designs in non-European forms. Because of his influence on the design industry in Mexico. The forms that evolved in silver at Las Delicias were admired by visitors to the workshop, in the late thirties, Spratling expanded beyond sales at Las Delicias and into a wholesale business. He employed over 500 artisans in the workshop to meet the demand in the United States for luxury good during World War II, Spratling silver was sold through the Montgomery Ward catalog and at Neiman Marcus and Saks Fifth Avenue. With the cost of moving the workshop to an ancient silver hacienda, La Florida, on June 30,1945, a majority of the shares was sold to North American investor Russell Maguire, whose business practices ultimately took the company into bankruptcy. Spratling had received widespread notoriety as a result of his development of what many considered a model handwrought industry, Spratling recommended the establishment of workshop and exhibit centers in various regions of Alaska organized into a Federation of Alaska Native Arts. Each centers unique production would be out of the traditions in iconography, materials. In 1948, Alaskan World War II veterans were sent to Taxco for instruction in silversmithing, Spratling also produced 200 prototypes as future inspiration for the newly trained Alaskans in their workshop centers. Unfortunately, Congress did not allocate funds and the project was not implemented, in 1952, Spratling reestablished a small workshop at his ranch in Taxco el Viejo and began production of silver jewelry and decorative objects that clearly were influenced by his Alaskan experience. In a 1955 article,25 Years of Mexican Silverware, Spratling expressed his belief that the object in silver should be considered the culmination of a mystical and visionary process. For Spratling, the necessity of direct involvement in every phase of a handwrought industry meant there were contributions to be made by every maestro
William Spratling
–
William Spratling, 1921.
William Spratling
–
Spratling with Candlesticks, 1935.
William Spratling
–
Standing Figure with Elaborate Costume Holding Rattles, 300 BC-AD 300 (Late Pre-Classic), previously in Spratling's collection, now at
Walters Art Museum.
William Spratling
–
Tripod Vase, between 250 and 600 (Early Classic), previously in Spratling's collection, now at
Walters Art Museum.
16.
Precipitation
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
17.
Mexican Federal Highway 95
–
Mexican Federal Highway 95 connects Mexico City to Acapulco, Guerrero. Its also locally known as the Autopista del Sol, the highway is the main road that leads to the Lagunas de Zempoala National Park. At Tlalpan, Mexico City, the serves the Estadio Azteca. It was converted into a solid road and received the name Road to Asia due to the passage of wares along it. Obregón agreed and proceeded to improve the sections from Mexico City to Amacuzac, a year later, he improved the stretch that runs from Chilpancingo to the south towards Acapulco, and also began a better line of road north of Acapulco. After the murder of Escudero in late 1923, the emergence of the Huerta rebellion and pressure from the bourgeoisie in Acapulco, the work would be stopped again for a short period. Between 1924 and 1925, the work was restarted by Amadeo S. Vidales, Federal Highway 95 begins in Mexico City at the end of the avenues Insurgentes and Viaducto Tlalpan. The road begins heading out towards the south for 6.6 kilometres, the next 3.4 kilometres ascend the mountainous areas of the Yoyolica volcano, before passing though the population centre of Los Angeles. The road continues south through the outskirts of the town of Parras which leads to Chichinautzin Microwave Station. Finally, it covers a stretch of 8.6 km to the town of El Capulin, in section, it leaves the Federal District. Leaving Mexico City and San Andres Totoltepec —6.6 km to Los Ángeles —3.4 km Los Ángeles to Parras —10.12 km Parras to El Capulín —8, upon entering Cuernavaca, the road becomes divided Not Free State Road. Leaving the city, the road continues towards the south to the junction with the road to Cuernavaca Airport, in this area there are a number of junctions that connect the villages of Puente Morelos, Xochitepec and Tletama. The road continues south to junction with Highway 166 in the town of Alpuyeca. Highway 166 continues towards the north-west and passes through areas, such as Miacatlán, Mazatepec, Tetecala de las Reformas. Subsequently, the road crosses near the towns of Puente de Ixtla and San Gabriel de las Palmas to where it again with Highway 166. In this area, the road changes direction towards the west through the towns of Huajintlán, Teacalco and this is the last stretch of the highway before entering the state of Guerrero. It continues its path past the area of Tetipac and passing near the town of Acuitlapan and Acamixtla where it reaches the city of Taxco de Alarcón. In this city, the turns to the south again, it passes Tecalpulco, Taxco el Viejo, Campuzano Puente, San Juan de la Union and Mexcaltepec
Mexican Federal Highway 95
–
Mexican Federal Highway 95 junction in Cuernavaca (view from North to South).
Mexican Federal Highway 95
–
Chilpancingo as seen from Federal Highway 95
18.
Zodiac
–
The zodiac is an area of the sky centered upon the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year. The paths of the Moon and visible planets also remain close to the ecliptic, within the belt of the zodiac, in western astrology and astronomy, the zodiac is divided into twelve signs, each sign occupying 30° of celestial longitude. Because the signs are regular, they do not correspond exactly to the boundaries of the twelve constellations after which they are named, the English word zodiac derives from zōdiacus, the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek zōidiakòs kýklos, meaning circle of little animals. Zōidion is the diminutive of zōion, the name reflects the prominence of animals among the twelve signs. The construction of the zodiac is described in Ptolemys vast 2nd century AD work, the term zodiac may also refer to the region of the celestial sphere encompassing the paths of the planets corresponding to the band of about eight arc degrees above and below the ecliptic. The zodiac of a planet is the band that contains the path of that particular body, e. g. the zodiac of the Moon is the band of five degrees above. By extension, the zodiac of the comets may refer to the band encompassing most short-period comets, the division of the ecliptic into the zodiacal signs originates in Babylonian astronomy during the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The zodiac draws on stars in earlier Babylonian star catalogues, such as the MUL. APIN catalogue, around the end of the 5th century BC, Babylonian astronomers divided the ecliptic into twelve equal signs, by analogy to twelve schematic months of thirty days each. Each sign contained thirty degrees of longitude, thus creating the first known celestial coordinate system. Because the division was made into equal arcs, 30° each, in Babylonian astronomical diaries, a planet position was generally given with respect to a zodiacal sign alone, less often in specific degrees within a sign. When the degrees of longitude were given, they were expressed with reference to the 30° of the zodiacal sign, in astronomical ephemerides, the positions of significant astronomical phenomena were computed in sexagesimal fractions of a degree. For daily ephemerides, the positions of a planet were not as important as the astrologically significant dates when the planet crossed from one zodiacal sign to the next. The Babylonian star catalogs entered Greek astronomy in the 4th century BC, Babylonia or Chaldea in the Hellenistic world came to be so identified with astrology that Chaldean wisdom became among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets and stars. Hellenistic astrology derived in part from Babylonian and Egyptian astrology, horoscopic astrology first appeared in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Dendera zodiac, a dating to ca.50 BC, is the first known depiction of the classical zodiac of twelve signs. The earliest extant Greek text using the Babylonian division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30 equal degrees each is the Anaphoricus of Hypsicles of Alexandria. Particularly important in the development of Western horoscopic astrology was the astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy, whose work Tetrabiblos laid the basis of the Western astrological tradition. Under the Greeks, and Ptolemy in particular, the planets, Houses, Ptolemy lived in the 2nd century AD, three centuries after the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes by Hipparchus around 130 BC
Zodiac
–
The Earth in its orbit around the
Sun causes the Sun to appear on the celestial sphere moving over the
ecliptic (red), which is tilted with respect to the equator (blue-white).
Zodiac
–
Wheel of the zodiac: This 6th century mosaic pavement in a synagogue incorporates Greek-Byzantine elements,
Beit Alpha,
Israel.
Zodiac
–
The 1st century BC
Dendera zodiac (19th-century engraving)
Zodiac
–
Angers Cathedral South Rose Window of Christ (centre) with elders (bottom half) and Zodiac (top half). Mediaeval stained glass by Andre Robin after the fire of 1451
19.
Santa Prisca Church (Taxco)
–
It is located on the east side of the main plaza of Taxco, and is one of the few Baroque buildings in the state of Guerrero. The construction was ordered by the Catalan miner José de la Borda, de la Borda was one of the most important mine owners in the region. From 1758 to 1806, the temple was the tallest building in Mexico, the church was built between 1751 and 1758 by José de la Borda, who had made a great fortune in the silver mines surrounding the town. Despite his wealth, however, the opulence of the church nearly bankrupted him, the architectural design was provided by the French architect Diego Durán and the Spanish Cayetano Sigüenza. The altars are also of the Spanish Isidro Vicente and Luis de Balbás. The parish is located in a ravine to the west of the old city of Taxco. It has a Latin cross plan, with a chapel which serves as the altar of the souls. It has Churrigueresque twin towers and a chapel decorated with Talavera tiles, the church is narrower than most due to the lack of flat land on which to build in the area. It is built with stone, flanked by two towers which are plain in the lower half but highly decorated in the upper bell portions. The crown overlooking the main portal has a representation of the Assumption of Mary, the cupola is covered in colored tile. Inside, there are nine floor-to-ceiling altarpieces, all covered in gold, the main altarpiece is dedicated to the church’s two patron saints, Santa Prisca and San Sebastian. In the chapels of the transept of the church are two other important altarpieces, one dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and the other to the Virgin of Rosary. Inside the church are paintings by Miguel Cabrera, called the divine, a Oaxacan painter born in the 17th century, vibrations from blasts in nearby mining operations, earthquakes, and automobile traffic caused cracks in Santa Prisca’s vaults, and a restoration project began in 1997. There is a associated with the Santa Prisca Church. While it was in construction, José de la Borda left Taxco on business to Guanajuato, soon after Borda left, the sky filled with black clouds and cold winds struck the streets, whistling through the towers of the unfinished church. The dark and cold terrified the workmen as the storm approached. Suddenly a large bolt of lightning struck showing a black silhouette that was swooping down on the church. Then it struck the cupola of the church, lighting it brilliantly, all of the tile covering the cupola began to shine with strange lights, allowing the inscription “Gloria a Dios en las alturas y paz en la tierra a los hombres de buena voluntad” to be seen clearly
Santa Prisca Church (Taxco)
–
The Church of Santa Prisca, main representation of the New Spanish baroque in Taxco.
Santa Prisca Church (Taxco)
–
Santa Prisca Church in Taxco
Santa Prisca Church (Taxco)
–
Santa Prisca
20.
Cupola
–
In architecture, a cupola /ˈkjuːpələ/ is a small, most often dome-like, structure on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to light and air. The word derives, via Italian, from the lower Latin cupula small cup indicating a vault resembling an upside down cup. The cupola is a development during the Renaissance of the oculus, an ancient device found in Roman architecture, the chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure. Cupolas often appear as small buildings in their own right and they often serve as a belfry, belvedere, or roof lantern above a main roof. In other cases they may crown a spire, tower, or turret, barns often have cupolas for ventilation. The square, dome-like segment of a North American railroad train caboose that contains the second-level or angel seats is called a cupola. Some armored fighting vehicles have cupolas, called commanders cupola, which is a dome or cylinder with armored glass to provide 360-degree vision around the vehicle
Cupola
–
Cupolas on the towers of
Montefiascone Cathedral, Italy.
Cupola
–
Interior of cupola ceiling in the old
Synagogue of
Győr,
Hungary.
Cupola
–
Ribbed cupola crowns the minaret of the
Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Cupola
–
Inside of Armenian Orthodox church cupola in
Lviv,
Ukraine.
21.
Altarpieces
–
An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing behind the altar of a Christian church. Altarpieces were one of the most important products of Christian art especially from the late Middle Ages to the era of the Counter-Reformation. Large number of altarpieces are now removed from their settings, and often their elaborate sculpted frameworks. Altarpieces seem to have begun to be used during the 11th century, the reasons and forces that led to the development of altarpieces are not generally agreed upon. The habit of placing decorated reliquaries of saints on or behind the altar, as well as the tradition of decorating the front of the altar with sculptures or textiles, an elaborate example of such an early altarpiece is the Pala dOro in Venice. The appearance and development of these first altarpieces marked an important turning point both in the history of Christian art and Christian religious practice, the autonomous image now assumed a legitimate position at the centre of Christian worship. Painted panel altars emerged in Italy during the 13th century, in the 13th century, it is not uncommon to find frescoed or mural altarpieces in Italy, mural paintings behind the altar function as visual complements for the liturgy. These altarpieces were influenced by Byzantine art, notably icons, which reached Western Europe in greater numbers following the conquest of Constantinople in 1204. During this time, altarpieces began to be decorated with an outer. Vigoroso da Sienas altarpiece from 1291 display such an altarpiece and this treatment of the altarpiece would eventually pave the way for the emergence, in the 14th century, of the polyptych. The sculpted elements in the emerging polyptychs often took inspiration from contemporary Gothic architecture, in Italy, they were still typically executed in wood and painted, while in northern Europe altarpieces were often made of stone. The early 14th century saw the emergence, in Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, the Baltic region, by hinging the outer panels to the central panel and painting them on both sides, the motif could be regulated by opening or closing the wings. The pictures could thus be changed depending on liturgical demands, the earliest often displayed sculptures on the inner panels, i. e. displayed when open, and paintings on the back of the wings, displayed when closed. With the advent of winged altarpieces, a shift in imagery also occurred, instead of being centred on a single holy figure, altarpieces began to portray more complex narratives linked to the Christian concept of salvation. As the Middle Ages progressed, altarpieces began to be commissioned more frequently, in Northern Europe, initially Lübeck and later Antwerp would develop into veritable export centres for the production of altarpieces, exporting to Scandinavia, Spain and northern France. By the 15th century, altarpieces were often commissioned not only by churches but also by individuals, families, guilds, the 15th century saw the birth of Early Netherlandish painting in the Low Countries, henceforth panel painting would dominate altarpiece production in the area. In Germany, sculpted wooden altarpieces were instead generally preferred, while in England alabaster was used to a large extent, in England, as well as in France, stone retables enjoyed general popularity. In Italy both stone retables and wooden polyptychs were common, with painted panels and often with complex framing in the form of architectural compositions
Altarpieces
–
The
Ghent Altarpiece (1432) by
Hubert and
Jan van Eyck. Considered one of the masterpieces of
Northern Renaissance art, it is an example of a complex polyptych panel painting
Altarpieces
–
Vigoroso da Siena 's altarpiece from 1291, an example of an early painted panel altarpiece, with the individual parts framed by gables and sculptured elements
Altarpieces
–
The Altarpiece of the Holy Blood, by
Tilman Riemenschneider (1501–1505). An example of an altarpiece with a central, sculpted section and relief wings.
22.
Alexander Von Humboldt
–
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was a Prussian geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher. Humboldts quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography, Humboldts advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in Latin America and his description of the journey was written up and published in an enormous set of volumes over 21 years. Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined and this important work also motivated a holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity. Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin in Prussia on 14 September 1769 and he was baptized as a baby in the Lutheran faith, with the Duke of Brunswick serving as godfather. At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the Seven Years War with the post of Royal Chamberlain and he profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales. He first married the daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Schweder, in 1766, Alexander Georg married Maria Elisabeth Colomb, a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Hollwede, with whom she had a son. Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had three children, a daughter, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander and her first-born son, Wilhelms and Alexanders half-brother, was something of a neer do well, not often mentioned in the family history. Alexander Georg died in 1779, leaving the brothers Humboldt in the care of their emotionally distant mother, Humboldts mother expected them to become civil servants of the Prussian state. The money Baron Holwede left to Alexanders mother became, after her death, instrumental in funding Alexanders explorations, due to his youthful penchant for collecting and labeling plants, shells and insects, Alexander received the playful title of the little apothecary. On April 25,1789, he matriculated at Göttingen, then known for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and his brother Wilhelm was already a student at Göttingen, but they did not interact much since their intellectual interests were quite different. His vast and varied interests were by this time fully developed, at Göttingen he met Georg Forster, a naturalist who had been with Captain James Cook on his second voyage. Humboldt traveled with Forster in Europe, the two traveled to England, Humboldts first sea voyage, The Netherlands, and France. In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, the scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Bankss death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldts work, Humboldts scientific excursion up the Rhine resulted in his 1790 treatise Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein. Humboldts passion for travel was of long standing, Humboldts talents were devoted to the purpose of preparing himself as a scientific explorer. During this period, his brother Wilhelm married, but Alexander did not attend the nuptials, Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains
Alexander Von Humboldt
–
Alexander von Humboldt (by
Joseph Stieler, 1843)
Alexander Von Humboldt
–
The Tegel Palace (or Humboldt Palace), where Alexander von Humboldt and
Wilhelm von Humboldt lived for several years.
Alexander Von Humboldt
–
Portrait of Alexander von Humboldt by Friedrich Georg Weitsch, 1806
Alexander Von Humboldt
–
Geography of Plants, 1805.
Mexico
[ta'sco] (help·info)) is a small city and administrative center of a Taxco de Alarcón Municipality located in the Mexican state of Guerrero. Taxco is located in the north-central part of the state, 36 kilometres (22 miles) from the city of Iguala, 135 kilometres (84 miles) from the state capital of Chilpancingo and 170 kilometres (106 miles) southwest of Mexico City.
Media related to Taxco de Alarcón at Wikimedia Commons
Taxco travel guide from Wikivoyage
