1.
De Havilland Sea Vixen
–
The de Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen is a twin boom, twin-engined 1950s–60s British two-seat jet fighter operated by the Fleet Air Arm. It was designed by de Havilland during the late 1940s at its facility in Hatfield, developed from an earlier first generation jet fighter, the Sea Vixen was a carrier-based fleet defence fighter that served into the 1970s. Initially produced by de Havilland, it was known as the Hawker Siddeley Sea Vixen after de Havilland became a part of the Hawker Siddeley group in 1960. The Sea Vixen had the distinction of being the first British two-seat combat aircraft to achieve supersonic speed, operating from British aircraft carriers, it was used in combat in Tanganyika and in Yemen during the Aden Emergency. In 1972, the Sea Vixen was phased out in favour of the mach 2-capable McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II interceptor, a single example remains airworthy today in the UK and is displayed regularly at airshows. In 1946, the de Havilland Aircraft Company conducted discussions with the British Admiralty on its requirements for a future jet-powered all-weather fighter aircraft and it would also have a moderate wing loading for manoeuvrability at altitude and acceptable take-off and landing performance from carriers. Highly effective flaps would be needed for landing, De Havilland decided to pursue development of a design to meet the requirements of the Royal Navy. The proposed aircraft, which was designated as the DH110 by de Havilland, was a twin-engined all-weather fighter. The DH 110s design shared the layout of the de Havilland Vampire and Venom, had an all-metal structure, a 45° swept wing. It was to be powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines, each capable of generating 7,500 lbf of thrust, once in flight, the DH110 had the distinction of being the first British two-seat combat aircraft to achieve supersonic speed. In response, nine DH110 prototypes were ordered for the RAF, the RAF decided to cut its order to two prototypes. Despite this setback, de Havilland elected to work on the DH110 while trying to recapture official interest in the type. On 26 September 1951, a prototype was completed and conducted its maiden flight from Hatfield Aerodrome. Early flight tests of the prototype demonstrated that the aircrafts performance exceeded expectations, by the following year, however, tragedy struck while the DH110 was demonstrated at the Farnborough Airshow on 6 September 1952. Following a demonstration of its ability to break the barrier during a low level flight. Debris landed in the midst of spectators and killed 31 people, subsequent investigation of the accident traced the failure to faulty design of the end sections of the main spar, which resulted in the outer ends of the wings shearing off during a high-rate turn. One of the hit an area crowded with spectators at the end of the runway. Other spectators were injured by debris from the cockpit landing close to the main spectator enclosures alongside the runway, in response to the loss of the first prototype de Havilland introduced modifications to the design which were implemented on the remaining second prototype
2.
Air show
–
An air show, is a public event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators, usually by means of aerobatics. Air shows without aerobatic displays, having only aircraft displayed parked on the ground, are called static air shows, in the United States, some of the larger airshows are headlined by military jet demonstration teams including the U. S. Navy Blue Angels and USAF Thunderbirds. The Canadian Forces Snowbirds will headline many airshows in Canada and the United States, some air shows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities, military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military. Air show seasons vary around the world, the United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons, in Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Self-Defense Forces bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for acts, the off-season does not mean a period of inactivity, pilots. The type of displays seen at an event are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather, most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions, most exhibitors will plan full, rolling and flat display for varying weather and airspace conditions. The types of shows vary greatly, Air Displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Shows dont always take place over airfields, some have held over the grounds of stately homes or castles. Before the Second World War, air shows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days, while the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration. Specialist aerobatic aircraft have piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end, solo military jet demos, also known as tactical demo, feature one aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of aircraft used in combat operations. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a pass, double Immelmans. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect
3.
TAROM
–
Compania Națională de Transporturi Aeriene Române TAROM S. A. doing business as TAROM, is the flag carrier and oldest currently operating airline of Romania, based in Otopeni near Bucharest. Its headquarters and its main hub are at Henri Coandă International Airport and it is currently the largest airline operating in Romania based on international destinations, international flights and the second largest measured by fleet size and passengers carried. The brand name is an acronym for Romanian, Transporturile Aeriene Române, over ninety-seven percent of TAROM is owned by the Romanian Government. The airline transported almost 2.4 million passengers in 2015, the airline joined SkyTeam on 25 June 2010. The history of Romanian National Air Transport Company can be traced back from 1920, the airline used French-built Potez 15 aircraft for its passenger/mail service between Paris and Bucharest via several cities in Central Europe. In 1925, the city of Galați became the first destination in Romania served by regular flights followed, from 24 June 1926, by a service to Iași. Ten de Havilland DH.9 and five Ansaldo A.300, in addition to the Potez aircraft, in 1928 the airline changed its name to SNNA. In 1930, the company adopted the name LARES while 1937 saw the merger of LARES with its competitor, domestic operations were started from Bucharest on 1 February 1946, when TARS took over all air services and aircraft from LARES. Over the following decade, the companys Soviet share was purchased by Romanian government and, on 18 September 1954, by 1960, TAROM was flying to a dozen cities across Europe. 1966 saw the operation of its first transatlantic flight, on 14 May 1974, it launched a regular service to New York City. Being part of the group of airlines within Eastern Bloc states meant that for much of its history TAROM has operated Soviet-designed aircraft. As was the case with a number of nations, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by Romania. Five examples were owned by TAROM, which leased the aircraft to other operators. Plans were made to acquire Vickers VC10 aircraft as well, but in the end the Soviets did not allow it, with 59 aircraft in operation, in the late 70s, TAROM had the largest fleet in the Eastern Bloc, after Aeroflot. In 1978, a contract was signed with the UK enabling Rombac to manufacture the BAC One Eleven at Romaero, meanwhile, the 707 and Il-62 long-range aircraft were operating New York, Abu-Dhabi-Bangkok-Singapore, and Karachi-Beijing. TAROM was the only Eastern Bloc airline to operate flights to Tel Aviv, after the collapse of the communist regime in 1989, the airline, operating a fleet of 65 aircraft of six basic types, was able to acquire more Western-built jets. By 1993, TAROM had introduced long-haul flights to Montreal and Bangkok using Ilyushin Il-62, during the 1990s, TAROM replaced its long-haul fleet of Boeing 707s and IL-62s with Airbus A310s. TAROM terminated loss-making domestic services to Craiova, Tulcea, Caransebeș, and Constanța, and focused its activity on service to key destinations in Europe,2004 was the first profitable year of the last decade
4.
Boeing 737 Classic
–
The Boeing 737 Classic is the -300/-400/-500 series of the Boeing 737, so named following the introduction of the -600/-700/-800/-900 series. They are short- to medium-range, narrow-body jet airliners produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the Classic series was introduced as the new generation of the 737. Produced from 1984 to 2000,1,988 aircraft were delivered, development began in 1979, and in 1980 preliminary aircraft specifications were released at the Farnborough Airshow. In March 1981, USAir and Southwest Airlines each ordered 10 aircraft, the wing incorporated a number of changes for improved aerodynamics. The wing tip was extended 9 inches, the leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps were adjusted. The flight deck was improved with the optional EFIS, and the passenger cabin incorporated improvements similar to those on the Boeing 757, Boeing selected the CFM56-3 to exclusively power the 737-300 variant. The 737 wings were closer to the ground than previous applications for the CFM56, the overall thrust was also reduced, from 24,000 to 20,000 lbf, mostly due to the reduction in bypass ratio. The prototype of the -300 rolled out of the Renton plant on January 17,1984, after it received its flight certification on November 14,1984, USAir received the first aircraft on November 28. A very popular aircraft, Boeing received 252 orders for it in 1985, the 300 series remained in production until 1999 when the last aircraft was delivered to Air New Zealand on December 17,1999, registration ZK-NGJ. The 737-300 can be retrofitted with Aviation Partners Boeing winglets, the 737-300 retrofitted with winglets is designated the -300SP. Used passenger -300 aircraft have also converted to freighter versions. The 737-300 has been replaced by the 737-700 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family, the 737-400 design was launched in 1985 to fill the gap between the 737-300 and the 757-200, and competed with the Airbus A320 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80. It stretched the 737-300 another 10 ft to carry up to 188 passengers and it included a tail bumper to prevent tailscrapes during take-off, and a strengthened wing spar. The prototype rolled out on January 26,1988, and flew for the first time on 19 February 1988, the aircraft entered service on September 15,1988, with launch customer Piedmont Airlines. The 737-400F was not a model delivered by Boeing, but a 737-400 converted to freighter, the Boeing 737-400 never included winglets as an option, just like the Boeing 737-600. Alaska Airlines was the first to one of their 400s from regular service to an aircraft with the ability to handle ten pallets. The airline has also converted five more into fixed combi aircraft for half passenger and these 737-400 Combi aircraft are now in service. The 737-400 was replaced by the 737-800 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family, the fuselage length of the -500 is 1 ft 7 in longer than the 737-200, accommodating up to 140 passengers
5.
United Airlines
–
United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
6.
Boeing 777
–
The Boeing 777 is a family of long-range wide-body twin-engine jet airliners developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the worlds largest twinjet and has a seating capacity of 314 to 396 passengers. Developed in consultation with eight major airlines, the 777 was designed to replace older wide-body airliners, as Boeings first fly-by-wire airliner, it has computer-mediated controls. It was also the first commercial aircraft to be designed entirely with computer-aided design, the 777 is produced in two fuselage lengths as of 2017. The original 777-200 variant entered service in 1995, followed by the extended-range 777-200ER in 1997. The stretched 777-300, which is 33.25 ft longer, the initial 777-200, -200ER and -300 versions are equipped with General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engines. The 777-200LR is the worlds longest-range airliner, able to fly more than halfway around the globe, the 777 first entered commercial service with United Airlines on June 7,1995. It has received more orders than any other wide-body airliner, as of February 2017,60 customers had placed orders for 1,903 aircraft of all variants, with 1,467 delivered. The most common and successful variant is the 777-300ER with 709 delivered and 807 orders, Emirates operates the largest 777 fleet, with 157 passenger and freighter aircraft as of July 2016. The 777 has been involved in six hull losses as of October 2016, the 777 ranks as one of Boeings best-selling models. Airlines have acquired the type as a comparatively fuel-efficient alternative to other wide-body jets and have deployed the aircraft on long-haul transoceanic routes. Direct market competitors include the Airbus A330-300, newly launched Airbus A350 XWB, the 787 Dreamliner, which entered service in 2011, shares design features and a common type rating for pilots with the 777. The new 777X series is planned to service by 2020. In the early 1970s, the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, the mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports, under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. The trijet 777 was later dropped, following marketing studies that favored the 757 and 767 variants, Boeing was left with a size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, McDonnell Douglas was working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10, while Airbus was developing its A330 and A340. The initial proposal featured a fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767
7.
Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
8.
Aircraft
–
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
9.
Taxiway
–
A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a surface such as asphalt or concrete. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds and this allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or take off in a shorter interval of time. Most airports do not have a speed limit for taxiing. There is a rule on safe speed based on obstacles. Operators and aircraft manufacturers might have limits, typical taxi speeds are 20-30 knots. Normal Centerline A single continuous line,15 centimetres to 30 centimetres in width. Enhanced Centerline The enhanced taxiway center line marking consists of a line of yellow dashes on either side of the taxiway centerline. Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet before a runway holding position marking, the enhanced taxiway centerline is standard at all FAR Part 139 certified airports in the USA. Taxiway Edge Markings Used to define the edge of the taxiway when the edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement, continuous markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width, spaced 15 centimetres apart. They divide the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft. Dashed markings define the edge of a taxiway on a surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft. These markings consist of a double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width. These lines are 15 feet in length with 25 foot gaps, taxi Shoulder Markings Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft load, Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow lines perpendicular to the taxiway edge, from taxiway edge to pavement edge, about 3 metres. These markings are located on side of the taxiway. Surface Painted Location Signs Black background with an inscription and yellow. Where necessary, these markings supplement location signs located alongside the taxiway and these markings are located on the right side of the centerline
10.
Hangar
–
A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other such as wood. The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart, of Germanic origin, from Frankish *haimgard, from *haim, hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carriers and ships. The Wright brothers stored and repaired their aircraft in a wooden hangar constructed in 1902 at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina for their glider, after completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped, bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft and set up his headquarters in the unused shed. In Britain, the earliest aircraft hangars were known as aeroplane sheds and these were built in 1910 for the Bristol School of Flying and are now Grade II* Listed buildings. Examples of the latter survive at Farnborough, Filton and Montrose airfields, during World War I, other standard designs included the RFC General Service Flight Shed and the Admiralty F-Type of 1916, the General Service Shed and the Handley Page aeroplane shed. Airship hangars or airship sheds are generally larger than conventional aircraft hangars, most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks to keep the gas from exploding. Hangars that held several airships were at risk from chain-reaction explosions, for this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were built to house only one or two such craft. During the Golden Age of airship travel from 1900, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build, steel rigid airship hangars are some of the largest in the world. Hangar 1, Lakehurst, is located at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, the structure was completed in 1921 and is typical of airship hangar designs of World War I. The site is best known for the Hindenburg disaster, when on May 6,1937, Hangar No.1 at Lakehurst was used to build and store the American USS Shenandoah. The hangar also provided service and storage for the airships USS Los Angeles, Akron, Macon, as well as the Graf Zeppelin and the Hindenburg. The largest hangars ever built include the Goodyear Airdock measuring 1, 175x325x211 feet, the Goodyear Airdock, is in Akron, Ohio and the structure was completed on November 25,1929. The Airdock was used for the construction of the USS Akron and her sister ship, Hangar One at Moffett Federal Field, is located in Mountain View, California. The structure was completed in 1931, the US Navy established more airship operations during WWII. As part of this ten lighter-than-air bases across the United States were built as part of the defense plan. Hangars at these bases are some of the worlds largest freestanding timber structures, an alternative to the fixed hangar is a portable shelter that can be used for aircraft storage and maintenance
11.
Runway
–
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
12.
Takeoff
–
Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle or animal goes from the ground to flying in the air. For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition from moving along the ground on a runway, for balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed-wing aircraft, no runway is needed. Takeoff is the opposite of landing, for light aircraft, usually full power is used during takeoff. Large transport category aircraft may use a power for takeoff. In some emergency cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the aircrafts performance, before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed, the nose is raised to a nominal 5°–15° nose up pitch attitude to increase lift from the wings and effect liftoff. For most aircraft, attempting a takeoff without a pitch-up would require cruise speeds while still on the runway, fixed-wing aircraft designed for high-speed operation have difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during takeoff. These are deployed from the wing before takeoff, and retracted during the climb and they can also be deployed at other times, such as before landing. The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air, a headwind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range, light aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, take off at around 55 knots. Ultralights have even lower takeoff speeds, for a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually dependent on the aircraft weight, the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft are designed for short takeoff and landing, which they achieve by becoming airborne at very low speeds. The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft weight, lift coefficient. Air density is affected by such as field elevation and air temperature. Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-Speeds, V1, VR, below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted, above V1 the pilot continues the takeoff and returns for landing. After the co-pilot calls V1, he/she will call VR or rotate, the VR for transport category aircraft is calculated such as to allow the aircraft to reach the regulatory screen height at V2 with one engine failed. This speed must be maintained after a failure to meet performance targets for rate of climb. In a single-engine or light aircraft, the pilot calculates the length of runway required to take off and clear any obstacles
