1.
De Havilland Sea Vixen
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The de Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen is a twin boom, twin-engined 1950s–60s British two-seat jet fighter operated by the Fleet Air Arm. It was designed by de Havilland during the late 1940s at its facility in Hatfield, developed from an earlier first generation jet fighter, the Sea Vixen was a carrier-based fleet defence fighter that served into the 1970s. Initially produced by de Havilland, it was known as the Hawker Siddeley Sea Vixen after de Havilland became a part of the Hawker Siddeley group in 1960. The Sea Vixen had the distinction of being the first British two-seat combat aircraft to achieve supersonic speed, operating from British aircraft carriers, it was used in combat in Tanganyika and in Yemen during the Aden Emergency. In 1972, the Sea Vixen was phased out in favour of the mach 2-capable McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II interceptor, a single example remains airworthy today in the UK and is displayed regularly at airshows. In 1946, the de Havilland Aircraft Company conducted discussions with the British Admiralty on its requirements for a future jet-powered all-weather fighter aircraft and it would also have a moderate wing loading for manoeuvrability at altitude and acceptable take-off and landing performance from carriers. Highly effective flaps would be needed for landing, De Havilland decided to pursue development of a design to meet the requirements of the Royal Navy. The proposed aircraft, which was designated as the DH110 by de Havilland, was a twin-engined all-weather fighter. The DH 110s design shared the layout of the de Havilland Vampire and Venom, had an all-metal structure, a 45° swept wing. It was to be powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines, each capable of generating 7,500 lbf of thrust, once in flight, the DH110 had the distinction of being the first British two-seat combat aircraft to achieve supersonic speed. In response, nine DH110 prototypes were ordered for the RAF, the RAF decided to cut its order to two prototypes. Despite this setback, de Havilland elected to work on the DH110 while trying to recapture official interest in the type. On 26 September 1951, a prototype was completed and conducted its maiden flight from Hatfield Aerodrome. Early flight tests of the prototype demonstrated that the aircrafts performance exceeded expectations, by the following year, however, tragedy struck while the DH110 was demonstrated at the Farnborough Airshow on 6 September 1952. Following a demonstration of its ability to break the barrier during a low level flight. Debris landed in the midst of spectators and killed 31 people, subsequent investigation of the accident traced the failure to faulty design of the end sections of the main spar, which resulted in the outer ends of the wings shearing off during a high-rate turn. One of the hit an area crowded with spectators at the end of the runway. Other spectators were injured by debris from the cockpit landing close to the main spectator enclosures alongside the runway, in response to the loss of the first prototype de Havilland introduced modifications to the design which were implemented on the remaining second prototype
2.
Air show
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An air show, is a public event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators, usually by means of aerobatics. Air shows without aerobatic displays, having only aircraft displayed parked on the ground, are called static air shows, in the United States, some of the larger airshows are headlined by military jet demonstration teams including the U. S. Navy Blue Angels and USAF Thunderbirds. The Canadian Forces Snowbirds will headline many airshows in Canada and the United States, some air shows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities, military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military. Air show seasons vary around the world, the United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons, in Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Self-Defense Forces bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for acts, the off-season does not mean a period of inactivity, pilots. The type of displays seen at an event are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather, most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions, most exhibitors will plan full, rolling and flat display for varying weather and airspace conditions. The types of shows vary greatly, Air Displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Shows dont always take place over airfields, some have held over the grounds of stately homes or castles. Before the Second World War, air shows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days, while the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration. Specialist aerobatic aircraft have piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end, solo military jet demos, also known as tactical demo, feature one aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of aircraft used in combat operations. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a pass, double Immelmans. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect
3.
TAROM
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Compania Națională de Transporturi Aeriene Române TAROM S. A. doing business as TAROM, is the flag carrier and oldest currently operating airline of Romania, based in Otopeni near Bucharest. Its headquarters and its main hub are at Henri Coandă International Airport and it is currently the largest airline operating in Romania based on international destinations, international flights and the second largest measured by fleet size and passengers carried. The brand name is an acronym for Romanian, Transporturile Aeriene Române, over ninety-seven percent of TAROM is owned by the Romanian Government. The airline transported almost 2.4 million passengers in 2015, the airline joined SkyTeam on 25 June 2010. The history of Romanian National Air Transport Company can be traced back from 1920, the airline used French-built Potez 15 aircraft for its passenger/mail service between Paris and Bucharest via several cities in Central Europe. In 1925, the city of Galați became the first destination in Romania served by regular flights followed, from 24 June 1926, by a service to Iași. Ten de Havilland DH.9 and five Ansaldo A.300, in addition to the Potez aircraft, in 1928 the airline changed its name to SNNA. In 1930, the company adopted the name LARES while 1937 saw the merger of LARES with its competitor, domestic operations were started from Bucharest on 1 February 1946, when TARS took over all air services and aircraft from LARES. Over the following decade, the companys Soviet share was purchased by Romanian government and, on 18 September 1954, by 1960, TAROM was flying to a dozen cities across Europe. 1966 saw the operation of its first transatlantic flight, on 14 May 1974, it launched a regular service to New York City. Being part of the group of airlines within Eastern Bloc states meant that for much of its history TAROM has operated Soviet-designed aircraft. As was the case with a number of nations, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by Romania. Five examples were owned by TAROM, which leased the aircraft to other operators. Plans were made to acquire Vickers VC10 aircraft as well, but in the end the Soviets did not allow it, with 59 aircraft in operation, in the late 70s, TAROM had the largest fleet in the Eastern Bloc, after Aeroflot. In 1978, a contract was signed with the UK enabling Rombac to manufacture the BAC One Eleven at Romaero, meanwhile, the 707 and Il-62 long-range aircraft were operating New York, Abu-Dhabi-Bangkok-Singapore, and Karachi-Beijing. TAROM was the only Eastern Bloc airline to operate flights to Tel Aviv, after the collapse of the communist regime in 1989, the airline, operating a fleet of 65 aircraft of six basic types, was able to acquire more Western-built jets. By 1993, TAROM had introduced long-haul flights to Montreal and Bangkok using Ilyushin Il-62, during the 1990s, TAROM replaced its long-haul fleet of Boeing 707s and IL-62s with Airbus A310s. TAROM terminated loss-making domestic services to Craiova, Tulcea, Caransebeș, and Constanța, and focused its activity on service to key destinations in Europe,2004 was the first profitable year of the last decade
4.
Boeing 737 Classic
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The Boeing 737 Classic is the -300/-400/-500 series of the Boeing 737, so named following the introduction of the -600/-700/-800/-900 series. They are short- to medium-range, narrow-body jet airliners produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the Classic series was introduced as the new generation of the 737. Produced from 1984 to 2000,1,988 aircraft were delivered, development began in 1979, and in 1980 preliminary aircraft specifications were released at the Farnborough Airshow. In March 1981, USAir and Southwest Airlines each ordered 10 aircraft, the wing incorporated a number of changes for improved aerodynamics. The wing tip was extended 9 inches, the leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps were adjusted. The flight deck was improved with the optional EFIS, and the passenger cabin incorporated improvements similar to those on the Boeing 757, Boeing selected the CFM56-3 to exclusively power the 737-300 variant. The 737 wings were closer to the ground than previous applications for the CFM56, the overall thrust was also reduced, from 24,000 to 20,000 lbf, mostly due to the reduction in bypass ratio. The prototype of the -300 rolled out of the Renton plant on January 17,1984, after it received its flight certification on November 14,1984, USAir received the first aircraft on November 28. A very popular aircraft, Boeing received 252 orders for it in 1985, the 300 series remained in production until 1999 when the last aircraft was delivered to Air New Zealand on December 17,1999, registration ZK-NGJ. The 737-300 can be retrofitted with Aviation Partners Boeing winglets, the 737-300 retrofitted with winglets is designated the -300SP. Used passenger -300 aircraft have also converted to freighter versions. The 737-300 has been replaced by the 737-700 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family, the 737-400 design was launched in 1985 to fill the gap between the 737-300 and the 757-200, and competed with the Airbus A320 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80. It stretched the 737-300 another 10 ft to carry up to 188 passengers and it included a tail bumper to prevent tailscrapes during take-off, and a strengthened wing spar. The prototype rolled out on January 26,1988, and flew for the first time on 19 February 1988, the aircraft entered service on September 15,1988, with launch customer Piedmont Airlines. The 737-400F was not a model delivered by Boeing, but a 737-400 converted to freighter, the Boeing 737-400 never included winglets as an option, just like the Boeing 737-600. Alaska Airlines was the first to one of their 400s from regular service to an aircraft with the ability to handle ten pallets. The airline has also converted five more into fixed combi aircraft for half passenger and these 737-400 Combi aircraft are now in service. The 737-400 was replaced by the 737-800 in the Boeing 737 Next Generation family, the fuselage length of the -500 is 1 ft 7 in longer than the 737-200, accommodating up to 140 passengers
5.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
6.
Boeing 777
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The Boeing 777 is a family of long-range wide-body twin-engine jet airliners developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the worlds largest twinjet and has a seating capacity of 314 to 396 passengers. Developed in consultation with eight major airlines, the 777 was designed to replace older wide-body airliners, as Boeings first fly-by-wire airliner, it has computer-mediated controls. It was also the first commercial aircraft to be designed entirely with computer-aided design, the 777 is produced in two fuselage lengths as of 2017. The original 777-200 variant entered service in 1995, followed by the extended-range 777-200ER in 1997. The stretched 777-300, which is 33.25 ft longer, the initial 777-200, -200ER and -300 versions are equipped with General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, or Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engines. The 777-200LR is the worlds longest-range airliner, able to fly more than halfway around the globe, the 777 first entered commercial service with United Airlines on June 7,1995. It has received more orders than any other wide-body airliner, as of February 2017,60 customers had placed orders for 1,903 aircraft of all variants, with 1,467 delivered. The most common and successful variant is the 777-300ER with 709 delivered and 807 orders, Emirates operates the largest 777 fleet, with 157 passenger and freighter aircraft as of July 2016. The 777 has been involved in six hull losses as of October 2016, the 777 ranks as one of Boeings best-selling models. Airlines have acquired the type as a comparatively fuel-efficient alternative to other wide-body jets and have deployed the aircraft on long-haul transoceanic routes. Direct market competitors include the Airbus A330-300, newly launched Airbus A350 XWB, the 787 Dreamliner, which entered service in 2011, shares design features and a common type rating for pilots with the 777. The new 777X series is planned to service by 2020. In the early 1970s, the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, the mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports, under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. The trijet 777 was later dropped, following marketing studies that favored the 757 and 767 variants, Boeing was left with a size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, McDonnell Douglas was working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10, while Airbus was developing its A330 and A340. The initial proposal featured a fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767
7.
Heathrow Airport
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Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
8.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
9.
Buoyancy
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In science, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid, thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object and this pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink, If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately, the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame, which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a downward direction. In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body. The center of buoyancy of an object is the centroid of the volume of fluid. Archimedes principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 B. C, more tersely, Buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid. The weight of the fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid. Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have greater buoyancy and this is also known as upthrust. Suppose a rocks weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum with gravity acting upon it, suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyancy force,10 −3 =7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor and it is generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water. The density of the object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes. Density of object density of fluid = weight weight − apparent immersed weight Example, If you drop wood into water, Example, A helium balloon in a moving car. During a period of increasing speed, the air mass inside the car moves in the direction opposite to the cars acceleration, the balloon is also pulled this way. However, because the balloon is buoyant relative to the air, it ends up being pushed out of the way, If the car slows down, the same balloon will begin to drift backward. For the same reason, as the car goes round a curve and this is the equation to calculate the pressure inside a fluid in equilibrium
10.
Taxiway
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A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a surface such as asphalt or concrete. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds and this allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or take off in a shorter interval of time. Most airports do not have a speed limit for taxiing. There is a rule on safe speed based on obstacles. Operators and aircraft manufacturers might have limits, typical taxi speeds are 20-30 knots. Normal Centerline A single continuous line,15 centimetres to 30 centimetres in width. Enhanced Centerline The enhanced taxiway center line marking consists of a line of yellow dashes on either side of the taxiway centerline. Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet before a runway holding position marking, the enhanced taxiway centerline is standard at all FAR Part 139 certified airports in the USA. Taxiway Edge Markings Used to define the edge of the taxiway when the edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement, continuous markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width, spaced 15 centimetres apart. They divide the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft. Dashed markings define the edge of a taxiway on a surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft. These markings consist of a double yellow line, with each line being at least 15 centimetres in width. These lines are 15 feet in length with 25 foot gaps, taxi Shoulder Markings Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft load, Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow lines perpendicular to the taxiway edge, from taxiway edge to pavement edge, about 3 metres. These markings are located on side of the taxiway. Surface Painted Location Signs Black background with an inscription and yellow. Where necessary, these markings supplement location signs located alongside the taxiway and these markings are located on the right side of the centerline
11.
Hangar
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A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other such as wood. The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart, of Germanic origin, from Frankish *haimgard, from *haim, hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carriers and ships. The Wright brothers stored and repaired their aircraft in a wooden hangar constructed in 1902 at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina for their glider, after completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped, bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft and set up his headquarters in the unused shed. In Britain, the earliest aircraft hangars were known as aeroplane sheds and these were built in 1910 for the Bristol School of Flying and are now Grade II* Listed buildings. Examples of the latter survive at Farnborough, Filton and Montrose airfields, during World War I, other standard designs included the RFC General Service Flight Shed and the Admiralty F-Type of 1916, the General Service Shed and the Handley Page aeroplane shed. Airship hangars or airship sheds are generally larger than conventional aircraft hangars, most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks to keep the gas from exploding. Hangars that held several airships were at risk from chain-reaction explosions, for this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were built to house only one or two such craft. During the Golden Age of airship travel from 1900, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build, steel rigid airship hangars are some of the largest in the world. Hangar 1, Lakehurst, is located at Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, the structure was completed in 1921 and is typical of airship hangar designs of World War I. The site is best known for the Hindenburg disaster, when on May 6,1937, Hangar No.1 at Lakehurst was used to build and store the American USS Shenandoah. The hangar also provided service and storage for the airships USS Los Angeles, Akron, Macon, as well as the Graf Zeppelin and the Hindenburg. The largest hangars ever built include the Goodyear Airdock measuring 1, 175x325x211 feet, the Goodyear Airdock, is in Akron, Ohio and the structure was completed on November 25,1929. The Airdock was used for the construction of the USS Akron and her sister ship, Hangar One at Moffett Federal Field, is located in Mountain View, California. The structure was completed in 1931, the US Navy established more airship operations during WWII. As part of this ten lighter-than-air bases across the United States were built as part of the defense plan. Hangars at these bases are some of the worlds largest freestanding timber structures, an alternative to the fixed hangar is a portable shelter that can be used for aircraft storage and maintenance
12.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
13.
Takeoff
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Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle or animal goes from the ground to flying in the air. For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition from moving along the ground on a runway, for balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed-wing aircraft, no runway is needed. Takeoff is the opposite of landing, for light aircraft, usually full power is used during takeoff. Large transport category aircraft may use a power for takeoff. In some emergency cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the aircrafts performance, before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed, the nose is raised to a nominal 5°–15° nose up pitch attitude to increase lift from the wings and effect liftoff. For most aircraft, attempting a takeoff without a pitch-up would require cruise speeds while still on the runway, fixed-wing aircraft designed for high-speed operation have difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during takeoff. These are deployed from the wing before takeoff, and retracted during the climb and they can also be deployed at other times, such as before landing. The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air, a headwind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range, light aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, take off at around 55 knots. Ultralights have even lower takeoff speeds, for a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually dependent on the aircraft weight, the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft are designed for short takeoff and landing, which they achieve by becoming airborne at very low speeds. The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft weight, lift coefficient. Air density is affected by such as field elevation and air temperature. Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-Speeds, V1, VR, below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted, above V1 the pilot continues the takeoff and returns for landing. After the co-pilot calls V1, he/she will call VR or rotate, the VR for transport category aircraft is calculated such as to allow the aircraft to reach the regulatory screen height at V2 with one engine failed. This speed must be maintained after a failure to meet performance targets for rate of climb. In a single-engine or light aircraft, the pilot calculates the length of runway required to take off and clear any obstacles
14.
Landing
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Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal, aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called landing, a normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing. Aircraft usually land at an airport on a runway or helicopter landing pad, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete. Aircraft equipped with pontoons or with a boat hull-shaped fuselage are able to land on water, aircraft also sometimes use skis to land on snow or ice. To land, the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced such that the object descends at a low rate to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending to the runway and this speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. When a fixed-wing aircraft approaches the ground, the pilot will move the column back to execute a flare or round-out. This increases the angle of attack, the stall warning is often heard just before landing, indicating that this speed and altitude have been reached. The result is very light touch down, the airspeed and attitude of the plane are adjusted for landing. The airspeed is kept well above stall speed and at a constant rate of descent, a flare is performed just before landing, and the descent rate is significantly reduced, causing a light touch down. Upon touchdown, spoilers are deployed to reduce the lift and transfer the aircrafts weight to its wheels. Reverse thrust is used by jet aircraft to help slow down just after touch-down. Some propeller-driven airplanes also have this feature, where the blades of the propeller are re-angled to push air forward instead of using the beta range. Factors such as crosswind where the pilot will use a crab landing or a slip landing will cause pilots to land slightly faster, required Navigation Performance is being used more and more. Rather than using radio beacons, the airplane uses GPS-navigation for landing using this technique and this translates into a much more fluid ascend, which results in decreased noise, and decreased fuel consumption. The term landing is also applied to people or objects descending to the using a parachute. Some consider these objects to be in a controlled descent instead of actually flying, most parachutes work by capturing air, inducing enough drag that the falling object hits the ground at a relatively slow speed. There are many examples of parachutes in nature, including the seeds of a dandelion, on the other hand, modern ram-air parachutes are essentially inflatable wings that operate in a gliding flight mode
15.
Propeller (aeronautics)
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An aircraft propeller or airscrew converts rotary motion from an engine or other mechanical power source, to provide propulsive force. It comprises a rotating hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The blade pitch may be fixed, manually variable to a few set positions, the propeller attaches to the power sources driveshaft either directly or, especially on larger designs, through reduction gearing. Most early aircraft propellers were carved by hand from solid or laminated wood, more recently, composite materials are becoming increasingly used. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between ones hands, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, men continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. Many of these models and machines would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments, a dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long streamlined envelope with internal ballonnets that could be used for regulating lift, the airship was designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-powered propeller to a balloon, sir George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers. William Bland sent designs for his Atmotic Airship to the Great Exhibition held in London in 1851 and this was an elongated balloon with a steam engine driving twin propellers suspended underneath. Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands, in 1872 Dupuy de Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by eight men
16.
Jet engine
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A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion. This broad definition includes airbreathing jet engines and non-airbreathing jet engines, in general, jet engines are combustion engines. In common parlance, the jet engine loosely refers to an internal combustion airbreathing jet engine. These typically feature an air compressor powered by a turbine. Jet aircraft use such engines for long-distance travel, early jet aircraft used turbojet engines which were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Modern subsonic jet aircraft usually use more complex high-bypass turbofan engines and these engines offer high speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long distances. Jet engines date back to the invention of the aeolipile before the first century AD and this device directed steam power through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis. So far as is known, it did not supply mechanical power, instead, it was seen as a curiosity. However, although powerful, at reasonable flight speeds rockets are very inefficient. The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which a power source first compressed air. In one such system, called a thermojet by Secondo Campini but more commonly, motorjet, examples of this type of design were the Caproni Campini N.1, and the Japanese Tsu-11 engine intended to power Ohka kamikaze planes towards the end of World War II. None were entirely successful and the N.1 ended up being slower than the design with a traditional engine. If aircraft performance were ever to increase beyond such a barrier and this was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, commonly called a jet engine. The key to a jet engine was the gas turbine. The gas turbine was not an idea developed in the 1930s, the first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining was built in 1903 by Norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling. Limitations in design and practical engineering and metallurgy prevented such engines reaching manufacture, the main problems were safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation. The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by Frenchman Maxime Guillaume and his engine was an axial-flow turbojet. Alan Arnold Griffith published An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design in 1926 leading to work at the RAE
17.
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III
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The Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is a large military transport aircraft. It was developed for the United States Air Force from the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas, the C-17 carries forward the name of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft, the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II. The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world, additional roles include medical evacuation. It was designed to replace the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, and also some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in the 1990s, continued to manufacture C-17s for export customers following the end of deliveries to the U. S. Air Force. Aside from the United States, the C-17 is in service with the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, NATO Heavy Airlift Wing, India, the final C-17 was completed at the Long Beach, California plant and flown on 29 November 2015. In the 1970s, the U. S. Air Force began looking for a replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical cargo aircraft, the Advanced Medium STOL Transport competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner was selected, the Air Force started the C-X program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift. By 1980, the USAF found itself with a fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, USAF needed increased strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its rapid-deployment airlift requirements, the USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals for C-X in October 1980. McDonnell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft based on the YC-15, Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted two designs, a C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design, on 28 August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build its proposed aircraft, then designated C-17. Compared to the YC-15, the new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size and this would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141, and to fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for outsize cargo. Alternate proposals were pursued to fill airlift needs after the C-X contest and these were lengthening of C-141As into C-141Bs, ordering more C-5s, continued purchases of KC-10s, and expansion of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet. Limited budgets reduced program funding, requiring a delay of four years, during this time contracts were awarded for preliminary design work and for the completion of engine certification. In December 1985, a development contract was awarded. At this time, first flight was planned for 1990, the Air Force had formed a requirement for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s, criticisms were made of the developing aircraft and questions were raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time
18.
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac and it is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over forty variants and versions of the Hercules, including a civilian one marketed as the Lockheed L-100, the C-130 entered service with the U. S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service, the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, the C-130 Hercules is the longest continuously produced military aircraft at over 60 years, with the updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules currently being produced. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers,72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a compartment that was approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56 turboprop powerplant, as was the case on helicopters of that era, such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed would subsequently use the engines and technology in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also had a ramp, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the plane. The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, the new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range of 1,100 nmi, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate, the remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs, Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was an affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, the aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base, Jack Real, kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers, deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D, four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models
19.
Pushback
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In aviation, pushback is an airport procedure during which an aircraft is pushed backwards away from an airport gate by external power. Pushbacks are carried out by special, low-profile vehicles called pushback tractors or tugs, although many aircraft are capable of moving themselves backwards on the ground using reverse thrust, the resulting jet blast or prop wash may cause damage to the terminal building or equipment. Engines close to the ground may also blow sand and debris forward and then suck it into the engine, a pushback is therefore the preferred method to move the aircraft away from the gate. Pushbacks at busy aerodromes are usually subject to ground control clearance to facilitate movement on taxiways. Once clearance is obtained, the pilot will communicate with the tractor driver to start the pushback. To communicate, a headset may be connected near the nose gear, since the pilots cannot see what is behind the aircraft, steering is done by the pushback tractor driver and not by the pilots. Depending on the type and airline procedure, a bypass pin may be temporarily installed into the nose gear to disconnect it from the aircrafts normal steering mechanism. Once the pushback is completed, the towbar is disconnected, the ground handler will show the bypass pin to the pilots to make it clear that it has been removed. The pushback is then complete, and the aircraft can taxi forward under its own power, very small airplanes may be moved by human power alone. The airplane may be pushed or pulled by landing gear, wing struts, or even the propeller blades, since theyre known to be strong enough to drag the airplane through the air. To allow for turns, a person may either pick up or push down on the tail to raise either the nose wheel or tail wheel off the ground and these tow bars are usually a lightweight aluminum alloy construction which allows them to be carried on board the airplane. Other small tow bars have a wheel to help move the airplane. However, powered tow bars are too large and heavy to be practically carried on small airplanes. Large aircraft cannot be moved by hand and must have a tractor or tug, pushback tractors use a low profile design to fit under the aircraft nose. For sufficient traction, the tractor must be heavy, and most models can have extra ballast added, a typical tractor for large aircraft weighs up to 54 tonnes and has a drawbar pull of 334 kN. Often, the cabin can be raised for increased visibility when reversing. There are two types of tractors, conventional and towbarless. Conventional tugs use a tow bar to connect the tug to the landing gear of the aircraft
20.
Airbus A320 family
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The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, the A320s are also named A320ceo after the introduction of the A320neo. Final assembly of the takes place in Toulouse, France. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km, the first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988. The family was extended to include the A321, the A319, the A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction, as of 28 February 2017, a total of 7,481 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 7,157 are in service. In addition, another 5,580 airliners are on firm order and it ranked as the worlds fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, as of 28 February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 384 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737 and has competed with the 717,757, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of February 2017, a total of 5,063 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, the first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25 January 2016. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal, prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which was dominated by the 737. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, germanys MBB, British Aircraft Corporation, Swedens Saab and Spains CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications, vFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale, the design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2, which then became the Airbus S. A1/2/3 series, before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984
21.
Landing gear
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Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally both, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Faster aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag, for launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are typically not used for takeoff or surface movement. Aircraft landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with shock absorbers, or more advanced air/oil oleo struts, for runway. Some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or floats for water, the undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can be as much as 7% of the takeoff weight, but more typically is 4–5%. The taildragger arrangement was common during the early era, as it allows more room for propeller clearance. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriages, taildraggers are considered harder to land and take off, and usually require special pilot training. Sometimes a small wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage. Concorde, for instance, had a tail bumper wheel. Both Boeinga largest WW II bomber, the B-29 Superfortress and the 1960s-introduction Boeing 727 trijet airliner each have a tail bumper. Some aircraft with conventional landing gear have a fixed tailwheel. Another arrangement sometimes used is central main and nose gear with outriggers on the wings and this may be done where there is no convenient location on either side to attach the main undercarriage or to store it when retracted. Examples include the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and the Harrier Jump Jet, to decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. If the wheels rest protruding and partially exposed to the airstream after being retracted, most retraction systems are hydraulically operated, though some are electrically operated or even manually operated. This adds weight and complexity to the design, in retractable gear systems, the compartment where the wheels are stowed are called wheel wells, which may also diminish valuable cargo or fuel space. Pilots confirming that their landing gear is down and locked refer to three green or three in the green, a reference to the electrical indicator lights from the nosewheel/tailwheel and the two main gears. Red lights indicate the gear is in the position, amber lights indicate that the landing gear is in transit. Multiple redundancies are usually provided to prevent a failure from failing the entire landing gear extension process
22.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
23.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
24.
Van's Aircraft
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Vans Aircraft is an American kit aircraft manufacturer, founded by Richard Van VanGrunsven in 1973. Vans RV series of aircraft, from the single-seat RV-3 to the latest RV-14, are all-aluminum, low-wing monoplanes of monocoque construction. The RV series of airplanes has been successful, and by the end of 2012, about 8,000 RV kits had been completed and flown. Completion rates currently average about 1.5 per day, making the one of the most numerous of all homebuilt aircraft. They feature responsive controls plus both good speed and fuel economy, in 2013, the company announced it would begin selling some assembled aircraft as well on a limited basis. Vans factory is located at Aurora State Airport, Oregon and this airport is the location of an annual fly-in for Vans aircraft owners. A modified version of the RV-6 was sold to the Nigerian government as a military trainer. The RV-12 is available as an experimental and special light-sport aircraft, RV-14, two seats, side-by-side version of the RV-10
25.
Floatplane
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A floatplane is a type of seaplane, with one or more slender pontoons mounted under the fuselage to provide buoyancy. By contrast, a flying boat uses its fuselage for buoyancy, either type of seaplane may also have landing gear suitable for land, making the vehicle an amphibious aircraft. Since World War II and the advent of helicopters, advanced aircraft carriers and land-based aircraft and this, coupled with the increased availability of civilian airstrips, have greatly reduced the number of flying boats being built. These floatplanes have found their niche as one type of plane, for light duty transportation to lakes. They may operate on a basis, provide scheduled service, or be operated by residents of the area for private. Floatplanes have often been derived from land-based aircraft, with fixed floats mounted under the fuselage instead of retractable undercarriage, attaching floats to a landplane also allows for much larger production volumes to pay for the development and production of the small number of aircraft operated from water. Additionally, on all but the largest seaplanes, floatplane wings usually offer more clearance over obstacles, such as docks, a typical single engine flying boat is unable to bring the hull alongside a dock for loading while most floatplanes are able to do so. Floats inevitably impose extra drag and weight, rendering floatplanes slower and less manoeuvrable during flight, with a rate of climb. Some early twin float designs had additional wingtip stabilizing floats, by comparison, dual floats restrict handling, often to waves as little as one foot in height. However, twin float designs facilitate mooring and boarding, and – in the case of torpedo bombers – leave the free to carry a torpedo. Popular Science, February 1945, pp. 134–135
26.
Eurocopter EC120 Colibri
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The Eurocopter EC120 Colibri is a five-seat, single-engine, light helicopter. In China, the aircraft is produced by Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation as the HC120, in 2004, HAMC began local manufacturing of the HC120 at their assembly line in Harbin, in northern China. In the Chinese market, both the Peoples Liberation Army and multiple police forces have purchased HC120 helicopters. During the 1980s, Aérospatiale sought international partners with which to co-produce the P120, these included aerospace companies in China, Singapore, in the aftermath of the Chinese Governments crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the exclusion of Chinese involvement in the project was speculated. Development of the rotorcraft allowed Eurocopter to extend its range to include 1.5 metric-ton rotorcraft, on 9 June 1995, the first prototype EC120 Colibri conducted its maiden flight. By February 1996, the prototype had accumulated 60 flight hours, in February 1997, the EC120 Colibri was formally launched at the Helicopter Association International show in Anaheim, California, by June 1997, more than 50 orders had been received for the type. By October 1998, more than 100 orders had been received for the type, in 2002, Eurocopter was in the process of establishing a second assembly line for the EC120 at Australian Aerospaces facility in Brisbane, Australia. In June 2014, the Peoples Liberation Army of China became the customer for the Harbin-produced HC120. It aims to reduce pollutant emissions and increase efficiency, nearly double the range and enhanced operations in hot. With an air/air intercooler, it weighs 197 kg without gearbox, the rotors are driven via the existing transmission, the faster-turning Turbomeca Arrius turboshaft is replaced with a multiplier gearbox. Its brake specific fuel consumption is 200 g/kW. h, torque oscillations are reduced through a light torsional shaft and vibrations are damped by Silent blocs. Power is maintained at 2, 500m and ISA+20° and it achieved 42% fuel consumption reduction, the EC120B Colibri is a single-engine multimission helicopter, designed for safe, simple, and cost-effective operations.7 decibels below International Civil Aviation Organization limits. Airbus Helicopters has claimed that the EC120 B possesses the lowest operating cost in its class, the aircraft features a wide, ergonomic cabin with high levels of external visibility, which can accommodate a single pilot along with four passengers in typical passenger configuration. In the casualty evacuation role, the rotorcraft can carry one pilot, to ease cargo operations, the cabin floor is flat and unobstructed, alternatively, a cargo sling can be installed to carry cargo of up to 700 kg. According to Airbus Helicopters, the EC120B integrates a high level of advanced technology to make the easier and safer to fly. A particular emphasis was placed on allowing end-customers to perform as much of the tasks themselves. In a baseline configuration, flight controls are installed only on the right-hand side, third parties have offered their own avionics suites for the EC120, adding functionality such as an autopilot. In addition to various roles, the EC120 has also been used by several military operators to conduct training, observation
27.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
28.
VTOL
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A vertical take-off and landing aircraft is one that can hover, take off, and land vertically. This classification includes fixed-wing aircraft as well as helicopters and other aircraft with powered rotors, some VTOL aircraft can operate in other modes as well, such as CTOL, STOL, and/or STOVL. Others, such as helicopters, can only operate by VTOL. VTOL is a subset of V/STOL, generally speaking, VTOL aircraft capable of STOVL use it wherever possible, since it typically significantly increases takeoff weight, range or payload compared to pure VTOL. The helicopters form of VTOL allows it to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forwards, backwards and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft would usually not be able to take off or land. On the other hand, the rotor blades restrict the maximum speed to about 250 miles per hour of at least conventional helicopters. Autogyros are also known as gyroplanes or gyrocopters, the rotor is unpowered and rotates freely in the airflow as the craft travels forward, so the craft needs a conventional powerplant to provide thrust. An autogyro is not intrinsically capable of VTOL, for VTO the rotor must be spun up to speed by an auxiliary drive, gyrodynes are also known as compound helicopters or compound gyroplanes. A gyrodyne has the rotor of a helicopter with a separate forward thrust system of an autogyro. Apart from take-off and landing the rotor may be unpowered and autorotate, designs may also include stub wings for added lift. A cyclogyro or cyclocopter has a wing whose axis and surfaces remain sideways across the airflow. A convertiplane takes off under rotor lift like a helicopter, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight, a tiltrotor or proprotor tilts its propellers or rotors vertically for VTOL and then tilts them forwards for horizontal wing-borne flight, while the main wing remains fixed in place. Similar to tiltrotor concept, but with turbojet or turbofan engines intead of ones with propellers, a tiltwing has its propellers or rotors fixed to a conventional wing and tilts the whole assembly to transition between vertical and horizontal flight. A tail-sitter sits vertically on its tail for takeoff and landing, Thrust vectoring is a technique used for jet and rocket engines, where the direction of the engine exhaust is varied. In VTOL, the exhaust can be varied between vertical and horizontal thrust, a lift jet is an auxiliary jet engine used to provide lift for VTOL operation, but may be shut down for normal wing-borne flight. Lift fan is a configuration in which lifting fans are located in large holes in an otherwise conventional fixed wing or fuselage. It is used for V/STOL operation, the aircraft takes off using the fans to provide lift, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight. Several experimental craft have flown, but only the F-35 Lightning II entered into production
29.
Ground effect (aerodynamics)
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In fixed-wing aircraft, ground effect is the increased lift and decreased aerodynamic drag that an aircrafts wings generate when they are close to a fixed surface. When landing, ground effect can give the pilot the feeling that the aircraft is floating, when taking off, ground effect may temporarily reduce the stall speed. The pilot can fly just above the runway while the aircraft accelerates in ground effect until a safe climb speed is reached. This is caused primarily by the ground interrupting the wingtip vortices, when a wing is flown very close to the ground, wingtip vortices are unable to form effectively due to the obstruction of the ground. The result is lower induced drag, which increases the speed, a wing generates lift by deflecting the oncoming airmass downward. The deflected or turned flow of air creates a resultant force on the wing in the opposite direction, the resultant force is identified as lift. Flying close to a surface air pressure on the lower wing surface, nicknamed the ram or cushion effect. The lower/nearer the wing is with regards to the ground, the more pronounced the effect becomes. While in the effect, the wing requires a lower angle of attack to produce the same amount of lift. If the angle of attack and velocity remain constant, an increase in the lift coefficient ensues, Ground effect also alters thrust versus velocity, where reduced induced drag requires less thrust in order to maintain the same velocity. Low winged aircraft are more affected by ground effect than high wing aircraft, due to the change in up-wash, down-wash, and wingtip vortices there may be errors in the airspeed system while in ground effect due to changes in the local pressure at the static source. Many vehicles have a design makes use of the wing in ground effect. Those that can fly out of effect are often capable of only a short distance take-off into free flight. Because of this, these craft are often licensed as ships rather than as aircraft and these specially designed craft may use delta wings, ekranoplan wings or tandem wings. Coandă effect Ground effect vehicle Ground effect in cars Hovercraft Sverige Vortex ring Engineering explanation, sE-Technology Ask Us - Ground Effect and WIG Vehicles. Aerospaceweb. org M. Halloran and S. OMeara, wing in Ground Effect Craft Review. The Sir Lawrence Wackett Centre for Aerospace Design Technology, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology – via Abbott Aerospace, cS1 maint, Uses authors parameter DSTO-GD-0201. Sponsored by DSTO Aeronautical and Maritime Research Laboratory, Australian Government, wing in Ground Effect and helicopters
30.
Bell UH-1N Twin Huey
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The Bell UH-1N Twin Huey is a twin-engine medium military helicopter. A member of the numerous Huey family, it first flew in 1969, the CUH-1N Twin Huey was the original version, first ordered by the Canadian Forces. The UH-1N has a configuration, with one pilot and fourteen passengers. In cargo configuration it has a capacity of 220 ft³. An external load of up to 5,000 lb can be carried, the UH-1N was later developed into the civil Bell 212. Based on the stretched fuselage Bell 205, the Bell 212 was originally developed for the Canadian Forces under the designation CUH-1N Twin Huey, later the CF adopted a new designation system and the aircraft was re-designated CH-135 Twin Huey. The CF approved the development of the aircraft on 1 May 1968 and purchased 50 aircraft, the US military came very close to not procuring the Twin Huey. The purchase of the aircraft for US military use was opposed by the Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee at the time, Rivers took this position because the aircraft powerplant, the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T was produced in Canada. The Liberal Canadian government of the time had not supported US involvement in Vietnam and had opposed US policies in southeast Asia, Rivers was also concerned that procurement of the engines would result in a trade deficit situation with Canada. Congress only approved the purchase when it was assured that a US source would be found for the PT6T/T400 engines, as a result, the United States military services ordered 294 Bell 212s under the designation UH-1N, with deliveries commencing in 1970. The Bell 412 is a development of the Bell 212. The UH-1N has also developed into the upgraded, four-blade UH-1Y. The UH-1Ns main rotor is powered by a PT6T-3/T400 Turbo Twin Pac made up of two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboshaft engines that drive a single output shaft and they are capable of producing up to 1,342 kW. Should one engine fail the remaining engine can deliver 671 kW for 30 minutes or 571 kW enabling the UH-1N to maintain cruise performance at maximum weight and this modification removed the gyroscopic Stabilization Bar on top of the main rotor head, instead relying on the computer system for stability. From late 1970, the UH-1N re-equipped the USAF 20th Special Operations Squadron in Vietnam, replacing the single-engined UH-1F and UH-1P. Armed with Miniguns and rocket pods, and painted camouflage with no US markings and only a Green Hornet insignia, by the end of the hostilities both aircraft were still intact but were dismantled by the Argentinians. USMC UH-1Ns were used by the USMC during its 2003 invasion of Iraq, UH-1Ns provided reconnaissance, and communications support to Marine ground troops. They were also called upon to close air support during heavy fighting in Nasiriyah
31.
Jet blast
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Jet blast is the phenomenon of rapid air movement produced by the jet engines of aircraft, particularly on or before takeoff. A large jet-engined aircraft can produce winds of up to 100 knots as far away as 60 metres behind it at 40% maximum rated power, due to the invisible nature of jet blast and the aerodynamic properties of light aircraft, light aircraft moving about airports are particularly vulnerable. Pilots of light aircraft frequently stay off to the side of the runway, rather than follow in the centre, propeller planes are also capable of generating significant rearwards winds, known as prop wash. Some airports have installed jet blast deflectors in areas where roads or people may be in the path of the jet blast on take off, air Moorea Flight 1121 NASA site on jet blast
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Climb (aeronautics)
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In aviation, a climb is the operation of increasing the altitude of an aircraft. It is also the phase of a typical flight following takeoff. During the climb there is an increase in altitude to a predetermined level. A climb is carried out by increasing the lift of airfoils supporting the aircraft until their lifting force exceeds the weight of the aircraft, once this occurs, the aircraft will climb to a higher altitude until the lifting force and weight are again in balance. In most cases, engine thrust and angle of attack are simultaneously increased to produce a climb, at that point, the aircraft will return to level flight at a constant altitude. However, during a constant rate climb at a reasonably steady angle the lift force is less than the weight with the engine operating. This is due to the fraction of the thrust vector. This in turn causes the load factor to be less than 1. It is only during the radial or vertical acceleration that the vector is larger than the weight vector. The climb phase, also known as climb out, of a flight of an aircraft is the period during which the aircraft climbs to a predetermined cruising altitude after take-off. Depending on the aircraft, the altitudes involved, and other factors, the climb phase immediately follows take-off and precedes the cruise phase of the flight. During long climbs the angle or rate of climb is often reduced and this slows the speed of ascent but increases the speed of forward progress towards the destination. A gradual climb improves forward visibility over the nose of the aircraft, if an aircraft exceeds its critical angle of attack, in a climb or otherwise, the wings may stall. A passive climb combined with an active climb can produce a climb rate than either method alone. The opposite of a climb is a descent, in some jurisdictions and under some conditions, “normal” climbs are defined by regulations or procedures, and are used to develop airway systems, airspaces, and instrument procedures. For example, a climb of 120 feet per nautical mile might be assumed during the development of a navigational procedure or while defining airspace limits in airport terminal areas
34.
Cruise (aeronautics)
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Cruise is level flight after an aircraft climbs to a set altitude and before it begins to descend. It is usually the majority of a flight, cruising may include heading changes at a constant airspeed and altitude. For most passenger aircraft, the cruise phase consumes most of the aircrafts fuel and this lightens the aircraft and raises the optimum altitude for fuel economy. For traffic control reasons it is necessary for an aircraft to stay at the cleared flight level. On long-haul flights, the pilot may ask air traffic control to climb from one level to a higher one. This maneuver is called a step climb, commercial or passenger aircraft are usually designed for optimum performance at their cruise speed or VC. Combustion engines have an optimum level for fuel consumption and power output. Generally, piston engines are most efficient between idle speed and 25% short of full throttle, with aircraft, other factors affecting optimum cruise altitude include payload, center of gravity, air temperature, humidity, and speed. This altitude is usually where the higher speeds, the increase in aerodynamic drag power. Typical cruising airspeed for a commercial passenger aircraft is 475–500 knots
35.
Descent (aeronautics)
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A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases altitude, and is the opposite of an ascent or climb. An example of explosive decompression is Aloha Airlines Flight 243, normal descents take place at a constant airspeed and constant angle of descent. The pilot controls the angle of descent by varying engine power, unpowered descents are steeper than powered descents but flown in a similar way as a glider. If the nose is too high for the power the airspeed will decrease until eventually the aircraft stalls. Rapid descents relate to changes in cabin air pressure—even pressurized aircraft—and can result in discomfort in the middle ear. Relief is achieved by decreasing relative pressure by equalizing the middle ear with ambient pressure through swallowing, yawning, chewing, helicopters which lose power do not simply fall out of the sky. In a maneuver called autorotation, the pilot configures the rotors to spin faster driven by the moving air. Very shortly before meeting the ground, the changes the momentum stored in the rotor to increase lift to slow the rate of descent to a normal landing. A dive may technically be described as a descending flight path. While there is no definition for what degree of steepness transforms a downward trajectory into a dive, it is necessarily a rapid. A dive may also be used as a maneuver, for example to extinguish an engine fire. Pilots of the World War II dive bomber known as the Stuka particularly noted the effects of the dive, beginning at a height of 4,600 metres, the Stuka would roll 180°, automatically nosing into a dive. Once the pilot released the bomb and initiated an automatic pull-out mechanism by depressing a knob on the control column, takeoff Cruise FAA terminal procedures index Flight school ground course on landing A helicopter school autorotation guide FAA rotorcraft pilot testing standards FAA airplane pilot testing standards
36.
Takeoff and landing
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Aircraft can have different ways to take off and land. Conventional airplanes accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for takeoff, some airplanes can take off at low speed, this being a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and Harrier Jump Jets can take off, rockets also usually take off vertically, but some designs can land horizontally. Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground to flying in the air, for balloons, helicopters and some specialized fixed-wing aircraft, no runway is needed. Takeoff is the opposite of landing, Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying aircraft or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called landing, a normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing. STOL is an acronym for short take-off and landing, aircraft with short runway requirements. CATOBAR is a used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. Under this technique, aircraft are launched using a catapult and land on the ship using arrestor wires, although this system is more costly than alternative methods, it provides greater flexibility in carrier operations, since it allows the vessel to support conventional aircraft. Alternate methods of launch and recovery can only use aircraft with STOVL or STOBAR capability, STOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier, combining elements of both STOVL and CATOBAR. It is also used for the upcoming Tier 1b SpaceShipTwo/WhiteKnightTwo combination, a prominent example of its use was the North American X-15 program. In these examples the space craft are carried to altitude on a ship before launch. The failed proposals for NASA Space Shuttle replacements, Rockwell X-30 NASP used this mode of operation but were conceived as single stage to orbit. The Lynx rocketplane is a suborbital HTHL spaceplane that was slated to begin flight testing in late 2011. Reaction Engines Skylon, a descendant of the 1980s British HOTOL design project, is an HTHL spaceplane currently in the early stages of development in the United Kingdom. An early example was the 1960s Northrop HL-10 atmospheric test aircraft where the HL stands for Horizontal Lander, different terms are used for takeoff and landing depending on the source of thrust used. VTVL uses rockets, whereas VTOL uses air, propelled via some kind of rotor system, VTOL is an acronym for vertical take-off and landing aircraft. This classification includes fixed-wing aircraft that can hover, take off and land vertically as well as helicopters and other aircraft with powered rotors, the terminology for spacecraft and rockets is VTVL
37.
Holding (aeronautics)
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In aviation, holding is a maneuver designed to delay an aircraft already in flight while keeping it within a specified airspace. A holding pattern for instrument flight rules aircraft is usually a racetrack based on a holding fix. This fix can be a radio beacon such as a beacon or VHF omnidirectional range. The fix is the start of the first turn of the racetrack pattern, aircraft will fly towards the fix, and once there will enter a predefined racetrack pattern. A standard holding pattern uses right-hand turns and takes approximately 4 minutes to complete, less frequent turns are more comfortable for passengers and crew. Additionally, left-hand turns may be assigned to some holding patterns if there are airspace or traffic restrictions nearby, when DME is used, the inbound turn of the racetrack may be permanently defined by distance limits rather than in minutes. Furthermore, in appropriately equipped aircraft, GPS waypoints may be used to define the holding pattern, a hold for visual flight rules aircraft is usually a racetrack pattern flown over something easily recognizable on the ground, such as a bridge, highway intersection or lake. The primary use of a holding is delaying aircraft that have arrived at their destination but cannot land yet because of congestion, poor weather. Several aircraft may fly the same holding pattern at the same time and this is generally described as a stack or holding stack. As a rule, new arrivals will be added at the top, the aircraft at the bottom of the stack will be taken out and allowed to make an approach first, after which all aircraft in the stack move down one level, and so on. Air traffic control will control the process, in some cases using a dedicated controller for each individual pattern. One airport may have several holding patterns, depending on where aircraft arrive from or which runway is in use, since an aircraft with an emergency has priority over all other air traffic, they will always be allowed to bypass the holding pattern and go directly to the airport. Obviously, this causes delays for other aircraft already in the stack. Aircraft flying in circles is an inefficient usage of time and fuel, air traffic flow management is used to delay aircraft while grounded at their departure points when delays are expected at their destinations. Many aircraft have a specific holding speed published by the manufacturer, typical holding speeds for transport category aircraft are from 210 to 265 knots. Holding speeds are a function of weight at the point of holding. If possible, a pattern is flown with flaps and landing gear up to save fuel. Entry procedures and accurate flying of the procedure are essential parts of IFR pilot training
38.
Rotation (aeronautics)
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In aviation, rotation refers to the action of applying back pressure to a control device, such as a yoke, side-stick or centre stick, to lift the nose wheel off the ground during the takeoff roll. Proper rotation is important for safety reasons and to decrease takeoff distance, rotation occurs when the aircraft lifts up from the runway and takes off once it reaches the optimal speed for a safe takeoff, which is called the VR speed. Certain airplanes like Boeing 727, Boeing 767, and Concorde require a degree of rotation during takeoff. If too much rotation is added for takeoff, the airplane can face a tailstrike, or, in the worst case, will stall, rotation is a flight concept which is integral to the design of many tricycle gear aircraft and is not applicable to conventional gear aircraft. At the design phase in tricycle gear aircraft there is a selection of the angle of attack of the wing. This angle is created in the mains and nose gear leg length design which creates an angle of attack relative to the ground. The effect of this is that during the roll the wing will have negative lift until the pilot commands the nose skyward to create a positive angle of attack of the wing. At the end of the flight the concept is reversed where at touchdown all tires touch the runway, at one time Cessna Aircraft featured this idea as Land O Matic, so noted on all of their tricycle-gear aircraft
39.
Final approach (aeronautics)
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A final approach is the last leg in an aircrafts approach to landing, when the aircraft is lined up with the runway and descending for landing. In aviation radio terminology, it is shortened to final. In a standard landing pattern, which is usually used under visual meteorological conditions. For instrument approaches, as well as approaches into an airfield under visual flight rules, often a straight-in final approach is used. Straight-in approaches are discouraged at non-towered airports in the US, an approach slope is the path that an airplane follows on its final approach to land on a runway. It takes its name from the fact that this path is ideally a gentle downward slope, a commonly used approach slope is 3° from the horizontal. However, certain airports have steeper approach paths based on topography, buildings, london City Airport has a 5. 5° approach, and only aircraft that can maintain such an approach are permitted to use the airport. The term glide slope is applied to mean approach slope although to be correct glide slope applies to the vertical guidance element of the Instrument Landing System. The final approach point on an instrument approach with vertical guidance is glide slope or glide path intercept at the lowest published altitude. In the US, it is called the final approach fix and marked on a NACO IAP by a lightning bolt symbol and on a Jeppesen terminal chart by the end of the glide slope path symbol. It is the point in space where the final segment begins on the instrument approach. Media related to Aircraft on final approach at Wikimedia Commons
40.
Go-around
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A go-around is an aborted landing of an aircraft that is on final approach. The term arises from the use of traffic patterns at airfields. A landing aircraft will first join the pattern and prepare for landing in an orderly fashion. If for some reason the pilot not to land, the pilot can simply fly back up to circuit height. The term go-around is still used even for modern airliners, though they may not use traditional circuit patterns for landing, initiation of a go-around procedure may be either ordered by air traffic control or decided by the pilot in command of the aircraft. At a towered field, the controller may instruct the pilot to go around if there is an unsafe condition such as an aircraft, vehicle. In naval aviation, the term wave-off is used instead of go-around, when touching down on an aircraft carrier, a pilot always initiates a wave-off by applying full thrust as a fail-safe measure. That way, if the planes tailhook fails to catch any of the arrestor cables the aircraft can climb again, if the tailhook catches a cable, the aircraft will stop in short order regardless. Conversely, if a wave-off were not initiated and the aircraft were not arrested, a go-around does not in itself constitute any sort of emergency. A properly executed go-around is a routine, safe, and well-practiced maneuver, many airlines and aircraft operators state a list of conditions that must be satisfied so that a safe landing can be carried out. If one or more of these conditions cannot be satisfied then a go-around should be considered in some cases and this list is usually written in the operations manual which has to be approved by the relevant aviation authority. The operators list of conditions is not exhaustive, pilots use their individual judgment outside of this scope, on other aircraft, the pilot configures manually for a go-around. In a typical aircraft, such as those found in general aviation. Adopting an appropriate climb attitude and airspeed, retracting one stage of flaps if necessary. Checking for a rate of climb. Raising the landing gear if the aircraft has retractable gear, positioning to the deadside of the runway. Retracting the flaps fully when the aircraft achieves a certain safe airspeed, advising control tower and/or other traffic by radio about the go-around. This is remembered by the mnemonic 5 Cs, Cram it, Climb it, Clean it up, Cool it, or sometimes the 5 Ups, Power Up, Nose Up, Gear Up, Flaps Up, Speak Up
