1.
Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
Professor
–
A science professor lecturing to university students.
Professor
–
The Ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.
2.
Tutor
–
A tutor is an instructor who gives private lessons. Shadow education is a name for private supplementary tutoring that is offered outside the education system. Normally, a tutor will help a student who is struggling in a subject of some sort, also, a tutor may be provided for a student who wants to learn at home. In the United States, the tutor is generally associated with one who gives professional instruction in a given topic or field. In British and Irish secondary schools, form tutors are given the responsibilities of a form or class of students in a year group. They usually work in year teams headed by a leader, year head. Form tutors will provide parents with most of the information about their childs progress and it can also undermine official statements about fee-free education and create threats to social cohesion. In South Korea, nearly 90% of elementary students receive some sort of shadow education, in Hong Kong, about 85% of senior secondary students do so. 60% of primary students in West Bengal, India, and 60% of secondary students in Kazakhstan receive private tutoring, demand for tutoring in Asia is exploding, by comparison globally, shadow education is most extensive in Asia. This is partly due to the stratification of education systems, cultural factors, perceptions of shortcomings in regular school systems, in some cases, successful Southeast Asian tutors will even embrace the title of tutor. Online private tutor matching platform and online learning platform offering online learning materials are other creations, in Cambodia, most tutoring is provided by teachers, whereas in Hong Kong, it is provided by individuals, small companies or large companies. In Mongolia, most tutoring is labor-intensive, while entrepreneurs in South Korea make use of computers, some studies have estimated costs associated with shadow education. In Pakistan, expenditures on tutoring per child averaged the equivalent of $3.40 a month in 2011, in India, average spending was lower, but still equated to about $2 per month. In Georgia, household expenditures for private tutoring at the school level was $48 million in 2011. In Hong Kong, the business of providing private tutoring to secondary schools reached $255 million in 2011, in India, a 2008 survey estimated the size of the private tutoring sector to be $6.4 billion. In Japan, families spent a whopping $12 billion in 2010 on private tutoring, in the Republic of Korea, where the government has attempted to cool down the private tutoring market, shadow education costs have continually grown, reaching a staggering $17.3 billion in 2010. Household expenditures on private tutoring are equivalent to about 80% of government expenditures on education for primary and secondary students. In the United States, the market is fragmented
Tutor
–
Computer based learning at a tuition centre
3.
Pendembu
–
Pendembu is a town in Kailahun District in the Eastern Province of Sierra Leone. The town population was 7,243 at the 2004 census, and a recent estimate of 20,502. Pendembu lies approximately 36 miles from Kenema and about 235 east of Freetown, pendembu is a trade center and is one of the main towns in Eastern Sierra Leone. The vast majority of Pendembus population are from the Mende ethnic group, the most widely spoken languages are Mende and Krio. The town is the birthplace of former President of Sierra Leone Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, there are a number of other towns with similar names
Pendembu
–
A
secondary school class in Pendembu
4.
Sierra Leone
–
Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown, located in the Western Area, is the capital, largest city and its economic, Bo is the second largest city, and is located in the Southern Province, about 160 miles from Freetown. Kenema, located in the Eastern Province, is the third largest city and is about 185 miles from Freetown, Koidu Town, located in the Eastern Province, is the fourth largest city, and is about 275 miles from Freetown. Makeni, located in the Northern Province, is the fifth largest of Sierra Leone five major cities, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, since independent to present, Sierra Leone politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples party and the All Peoples congress. The current president of SIerra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, a member of the APC party, the previous Sierra Leone president was Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, a member of the SLPP party, who was elected president in 1996 and won reelection for his final term in 2002. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS. More recently, the 2014 Ebola outbreak overburdened the weak healthcare infrastructure and it created a humanitarian crisis situation and a negative spiral of weaker economic growth. The country has a low life expectancy at 57.8 years. About sixteen ethnic groups inhabit Sierra Leone, each with its own language, the two largest and most influential are the Temne and the Mende people. The Temne are predominantly found in the north of the country, the Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other. Sierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country, though with an influential Christian minority, Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully, religious violence is extremely rare in the country. In politics, the majority of Sierra Leoneans vote for a candidate without regard to whether the candidate is a Muslim or a Christian
Sierra Leone
–
Fragments of
prehistoric pottery from
Kamabai Rock Shelter
Sierra Leone
–
Flag
Sierra Leone
–
An 1835 illustration of liberated Africans arriving in Sierra Leone.
Sierra Leone
–
The colony of Freetown in 1856
5.
Profession
–
The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
Profession
–
Jesus and the doctors of the Faith, by the entourage of
Giuseppe Ribera
6.
Education
–
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
Education
–
Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering,
CTU, in Prague
Education
–
School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province,
Afghanistan
Education
–
Student participants in the
FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.
Education
–
Nalanda, ancient center for higher learning
7.
School
–
A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word
School
–
Students at school in an Indian village.
School
School
–
Plato 's academy,
mosaic from
Pompeii.
School
–
Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by
Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. Russia, 1895.
8.
Academic
–
Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
Academic
–
Students and scholars at the entrance to the
University of Concepción,
Chile.
Academic
–
Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in
Bihar,
India from 427 to 1197
9.
Lecturer
–
Most lecturers typically hold permanent contracts at their academic institution. This is a tenure-track or tenured position, although UK tenure has eroded since 1988, in most research universities in the United States, the title of lecturer requires a doctorate or equivalent degree. In Australia, the term lecturer may be used informally to refer to anyone who conducts lectures at a university or elsewhere, the academic ranks in Australia are similar to those in the UK, with the rank of associate professor roughly equivalent to reader in UK universities. The academic levels in Australia are, A) associate lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor, in India, one can appear for interviews for a post of a lecturer after passing the competitive exam of National Eligibility Test conducted by the University Grants Commission. The position is equivalent to assistant professor in the US system, the term is not universally applied, with some universities preferring the lecturer/reader /professor titles, while others work with the assistant professor/associate professor/professor title. As such, most lecturers position can be considered tenure track, in many states of India, the term lecturer or Post Graduate Teacher is also used for the intermediate college teachers. The intermediate colleges are equivalent to secondary schools. Such lecturers are subject experts specifically engaged to teach a subject in higher classes, in the UK, the term lecturer is ambiguous and covers several academic ranks. The key distinction is between permanent/open-ended or temporary/fixed-term lectureships, a permanent lecturer in UK universities usually holds an open-ended position that covers teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Permanent lectureships are tenure-track or tenured positions that are equivalent to an assistant or associate professorship in North America, after a number of years, a lecturer may be promoted based on his or her research record to become a senior lecturer. This position is below reader and professor, research lecturers are the equivalent in rank of lecturers and senior lecturers, but reflect a research-intensive orientation. Research lecturers are common in such as medicine, engineering. In contrast, fixed-term or temporary lecturers are appointed for specific short-term teaching needs and these positions are often non-renewable and are common post-doctoral appointments. In North American terms, a fixed-term lecturer can hold an equivalent rank to assistant professor without tenure, typically, longer contracts denote greater seniority or higher rank. Some universities also refer to students or others, who undertake ad-hoc teaching for a department sessional lecturers. Like adjunct professors and sessional lecturers in North America, these non-permanent teaching staff are very poorly paid. These varying uses of the term lecturer cause confusion for non-UK academics, as a proportion of UK academic staff, the proportion of permanent lectureships has fallen considerably. This is one reason why permanent lectureships are usually secured only after years of post-doctoral experience
Lecturer
–
A
mathematics lecture, apparently about
linear algebra, at
Helsinki University of Technology,
Finland.
Lecturer
–
An
Iranian young
associate professor, teaching
C language programming and
microcontrollers in
Mohajer Technical And Vocational Faculty of Esfahan.
10.
Homeschooling
–
Homeschooling, also known as home education, is the education of children inside the home. Home education is conducted by a parent or tutor. Many families that start out with a formal structure at home often switch to less formal ways of imparting education outside of school. Homeschooling is the commonly used in North America, whereas home education is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe. Before the introduction of school attendance laws, most childhood education was imparted by the family or community. In several countries homeschooling, in the sense, is considered to be an alternative to attending public or private schools and is a legal option for parents. In other nations, homeschooling is considered illegal or restricted to conditions, as noted in the Homeschooling international status. According to the US National Household Education Surveys, about three percent of all children in the US were homeschooled in the 2011 and 2012 school year, and as of 2016, there are about 2.3 million home-schooled students in the United States. The studies found that of children,83 percent were White,5 percent were Black,7 percent were Hispanic. For much of history and in cultures, enlisting professional teachers was an option available only to the elite social classes. Thus, until recently, the vast majority of people, especially during early childhood, were educated by family members, family friends. The earliest public schools in modern Western culture were established in the early 16th century in the German states of Gotha and Thuringia. However, even in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal schooling, meaning they were homeschooled, tutored, in the middle colonies, the educational situation varied when comparing New York with New England until the 1850s. Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries, since the early-, native Americans, who traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, vigorously resisted compulsory education in the United States. Rushdoony was frequently called as a witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association in court cases. During this time, American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement. This research included independent studies by researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on early childhood education. They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness, the Moores published their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically
Homeschooling
–
Frontispiece to Fireside Education,
Samuel Griswold (Goodrich).
Homeschooling
–
Lecture about
unschooling
11.
Professional
–
A professional is a member of a profession or any person who earns their living from a specified professional activity. In addition, most professionals are subject to strict codes of conduct, Professional standards of practice and ethics for a particular field are typically agreed upon and maintained through widely recognized professional associations, such as the IEEE. Some definitions of professional limit this term to those professions that serve some important aspect of public interest, in narrow usage, not all expertise is considered a profession. Although sometimes incorrectly referred to as professions, occupations such as skilled construction, the completion of an apprenticeship is generally associated with skilled labour, or trades such as carpenter, electrician, mason, painter, plumber and other similar occupations. A related distinction would be that a professional does mainly mental work, although professional training appears to be ideologically neutral, it may be biased towards those with higher class backgrounds and a formal education. His evidence is both qualitative and quantitative, including examinations, industry statistics and personal accounts of trainees. A key theoretical dispute arises from the observation that established professions are subject to strict codes of conduct, some have thus argued that these codes of conduct, agreed upon and maintained through widely recognized professional associations, are a key element of what constitutes any profession. Thus, as people became more and more specialized in their trade, they began to profess their skill to others, with a reputation to uphold, trusted workers of a society who have a specific trade are considered professionals. Ironically, the usage of the word profess declined from the late 1800s to the 1950s, centre for the Study of Professions Organizational culture Professional boundaries Professional sports
Professional
–
Doctors in many Western countries take the
Hippocratic Oath upon entering the profession, as a symbol of their commitment to upholding a number of ethical and moral standards.
12.
Literacy education
–
Literacy is traditionally understood as the ability to read, write, and use arithmetic. The concept of literacy is expanding in OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and ability to assess complex contexts. A person who travels and resides in a country but is unable to read or write in the language of the host country would also be regarded by the locals as being illiterate. The key to literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand words and decode written words. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analphabetism, Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society. Literacy is thought to have first emerged with the development of numeracy, script developed independently at least four times in human history in Mesopotamia, Egypt, lowland Mesoamerica, and China. The earliest forms of written communication originated in Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia about 3500-3000 BCE, writing systems in Mesopotamia first emerged from a recording system in which people used impressed token markings to manage trade and agricultural production. The token system served as a precursor to early cuneiform writing once people began recording information on clay tablets, proto-cuneiform texts exhibit not only numerical signs, but also ideograms depicting objects being counted. Egyptian hieroglyphs emerged from 3300-3100 BCE and depicted royal iconography that emphasized power amongst other elites, the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing system was the first notation system to have phonetic values. Writing in lowland Mesoamerica was first put into practice by the Olmec and Zapotec civilizations in 900-400 BCE and these civilizations used glyphic writing and bar-and-dot numerical notation systems for purposes related to royal iconography and calendar systems. The earliest written notations in China date back to the Shang Dynasty in 1200 BCE and these systematic notations were found inscribed on bones and recorded sacrifices made, tributes received, and animals hunted, which were activities of the elite. These oracle-bone inscriptions were the ancestors of modern Chinese script and contained logosyllabic script. According to social anthropologist Jack Goody, there are two interpretations that regard the origin of the alphabet, many classical scholars, such as historian Ignace Gelb, credit the Ancient Greeks for creating the first alphabetic system that used distinctive signs for consonants and vowels. Thus, many argue that the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of northern Canaan invented the consonantal alphabet as early as 1500 BCE. Much of this development is credited to English archeologist Flinders Petrie. Ten years later, English Egyptologist Alan Gardiner reasoned that these contain an alphabet. In 1948, William F. Albright deciphered the text using additional evidence that had been discovered subsequent to Goodys findings and this included a series of inscriptions from Ugarit, discovered in 1929 by French archaeologist Claude F. A. Schaeffer. Some of these inscriptions were mythological texts that consisted of a 32-letter cuneiform consonantal alphabet, another significant discovery was made in 1953 when three arrowheads were uncovered, each containing identical Canaanite inscriptions from twelfth century BCE
Literacy education
–
Brain areas involved in literacy acquisition
Literacy education
–
World map indicating literacy rate by country in 2015 (2015 CIA
World Factbook) Grey = no data
Literacy education
–
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak,
Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC
Literacy education
–
Dutch schoolmaster and children, 1662
13.
Numeracy
–
Numeracy is the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts. Basic numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetics like addition, subtraction, multiplication, for example, if one can understand simple mathematical equations such as,2 +2 =4, then one would be considered possessing at least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also include number sense, operation sense, computation, measurement, geometry, probability, a numerically literate person can manage and respond to the mathematical demands of life. By contrast, innumeracy can have a negative impact, numeracy has an influence on career decisions, and risk perception towards health decisions. For example, innumeracy distorts risk perception towards health decisions and may affect economic choices. Humans have evolved to represent numbers in two major ways from observation. These representations are often thought to be innate, to be shared across human cultures, to be common to multiple species and they are, Approximate representation of numerical magnitude, and Precise representation of the quantity of individual items. Approximate representations of numerical magnitude imply that one can relatively estimate, for example, one experiment showed children and adults arrays of many dots. After briefly observinging them, both groups could accurately estimate the number of dots. However, distinguishing differences between large numbers of dots proved to be more challenging, Precise representations of distinct individuals demonstrate that people are more accurate in estimating amounts and distinguishing differences when the numbers are relatively small. For example, in one experiment, an experimenter presented an infant with two piles of crackers, one with two crackers the other with three, the experimenter then covered each pile with a cup. When allowed to choose a cup, the infant always chose the cup with more crackers because the infant could distinguish the difference, both systems—approximate representation of magnitude and precise representation quantity of individual items—have limited power. For example, neither allows representations of fractions or negative numbers, however, achievement in school mathematics correlates with an individuals unlearned approximate number sense). Fundamental numeracy skills include understanding of the number line, time, measurement. Fundamental skills include basic skills and computational skills, more sophisticated numeracy skills include understanding of ratio concepts, and knowing when and how to perform multistep operations. Two categories of skills are included at the levels, the analytical skills. A variety of tests have been developed for assessing numeracy and health numeracy, the first couple of years of childhood are considered to be a vital part of life for the development of numeracy and literacy. There are many components that play key roles in the development of numeracy at an age, such as Socioeconomic Status, parenting, Home Learning Environment
Numeracy
–
Children in Laos have fun as they improve numeracy with "Number Bingo." They roll three dice, construct an equation from the numbers to produce a new number, then cover that number on the board, trying to get 4 in a row.
14.
Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
Artisan
–
Glassblowing artisans at work in a
crystal glass workshop
Artisan
–
Craftsman of salt in Salinas Grandes,
Salta province (
Argentina)
Artisan
–
An artist blacksmith and a striker working as one
Artisan
–
Wood carver in Bali
15.
Vocational training
–
Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities and are traditionally non-academic but related to a specific trade or occupation. Vocational education is referred to as career education or technical education. Vocational education can take place at the secondary, post-secondary, further education, and higher education level, however, online vocational education has grown in popularity, and made it easier than ever for students to learn various trade skills and soft skills from established professionals in the industry. Wilhelm von Humboldts educational model goes beyond vocational training, if this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life. In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education, however some senior schools do offer school-based apprenticeships and traineeships for students in years 10,11 and 12. Australia’s apprenticeship system includes both apprenticeships in trades and traineeships in other more service-oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice or trainee and provide a combination of school-based and workplace training, Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one to two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress through the training scheme and this allows national portability of qualifications and units of competency. A crucial feature of the package is that the content of the vocational qualifications is theoretically defined by industry. A Training Package is owned by one of 11 Industry Skills Councils which are responsible for developing and reviewing the qualifications, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research or NCVER is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministries responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analysing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education, the boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of training providers such as Melbourne Polytechnic, BHI. Such applied courses include equine studies, winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, information technology, music, illustration, culinary management, the largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the Soviet Union with the professionalno-tehnicheskoye uchilische and Tehnikum. But it became effective with the transition of the economies of post-Soviet countries to a market economy. Education and training is the responsibility of states, but the single European labour market makes some cooperation on education imperative, including on vocational education. The process is based on mutually agreed priorities that are reviewed periodically, much of the activity is monitored by Cedefop, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. In Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education, after the nine-year comprehensive school, almost all students choose to go to either a lukio, which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a qualification to enter university or ammattikorkeakoulu, i. e. Finnish polytechnics
Vocational training
–
Blacksmithing is a traditional
trade.
16.
The arts
–
The arts represent an outlet of expression that is usually influenced by culture in society and which in turn helps to change culture. As such, the arts are a manifestation of peoples internal creative impulse. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance or artwork with the written word, from prehistoric cave paintings to modern day films, art serves as a vessel for storytelling and conveying humankinds relationship with its environment. A debate exists in the arts and video game cultures over whether video games can be counted as an art form. In its most basic definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. If this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is good or has value depends on those who access and rate it and this public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines the arts as painting, sculpture, music, theater, literature, etc. considered as a group of activities done by people with skill, and the study and application of the arts to the human environment. In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, thus, there was no distinction between the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration of the form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features, in Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. Eastern art has worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning. A characteristic of this style is that the colour is often defined by an outline. This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet, religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The Artes Mechanicae were practised and developed in guild environments, the modern distinction between artistic and non-artistic skills did not develop until the Renaissance. In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities, some subjects in the humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, philosophy, and/or logic. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colour pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers
The arts
–
Hans Rottenhammer, Allegory of the Arts (second half of the 16th century).
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
The arts
–
Lawrence Alma-Tadema 's Catullus-at-Lesbia's (1865)
The arts
–
The
Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the
Western world.
The arts
–
The
Parthenon on top of the
Acropolis,
Athens,
Greece
17.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
Religion
–
Urarina shaman, Peru, 1988
Religion
Religion
–
The
Yazılıkaya sanctuary in
Turkey, with the twelve gods of the underworld
Religion
–
Confucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song dynasty
18.
OECD
–
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1960 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index and are regarded as developed countries, in 1948, the OECD originated as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan. This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing programs for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. The OECDs headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, the OECD is funded by contributions from member states at varying rates. And had a budget of EUR363 million in 2015. It started its operations on 16 April 1948, and originated from the work done by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947 in preparation for the Marshall Plan, since 1949, it was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris, France. After the Marshall Plan ended, the OEEC focused on economic issues, in 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up under the OEEC. By the end of the 1950s, with the job of rebuilding Europe effectively done, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose and this reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members. It would also set to work away on bringing in Japan. Following the 1957 Rome Treaties to launch the European Economic Community, the Convention was signed in December 1960 and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961. It consisted of the European founder countries of the OEEC plus the United States and Canada, the official founding members are, During the next 12 years Japan, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation starting with the establishment of the OECD until its dissolution as a country, the OECD created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre, International Energy Agency, and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering. Unlike the organizations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling organisation with an s in its name rather than organization, in 1989, after the Revolutions of 1989, the OECD started to assist countries in Central Europe to prepare market economy reforms. This programme also included an option for these countries. As a result of this, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, in the 1990s, a number of European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but, according to the Cypriot government, in 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become full members of the OECD. Slovenia also applied for membership that same year, in 2005, Malta applied to join the organisation. The EU is lobbying for admission of all EU member states, Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become a member of the organisation through the letter addressed by the Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría
OECD
–
Propaganda poster created by the
Economic Cooperation Administration to promote the
Marshall Plan in Europe.
OECD
–
Logo
OECD
–
The main entrance to the OECD Conference Centre in Paris
19.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
20.
Colombia
–
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
Colombia
–
San Agustín Archaeological Park
Colombia
Colombia
–
Lost City
Colombia
–
Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of
El Dorado. The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
21.
Teaching
–
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
Teaching
–
Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering,
CTU, in Prague
Teaching
–
School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province,
Afghanistan
Teaching
–
Student participants in the
FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.
Teaching
–
Nalanda, ancient center for higher learning
22.
University
–
A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
University
–
Degree ceremony at the
University of Oxford. The Pro-Vice-Chancellor in
MA gown and hood,
Proctor in official dress and new
Doctors of Philosophy in scarlet full dress. Behind them, a
bedel, a Doctor and Bachelors of Arts and Medicine graduate.
University
–
The
University of Bologna is the oldest University in history, founded in 1088.
University
–
Meeting of doctors at the
University of Paris. From a medieval manuscript.
University
–
Sapienza University of Rome is the largest university in Europe and one of the most prestigious European universities.
23.
College
–
College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
College
–
King's College, one of the constituent
colleges of the University of Cambridge
College
–
King's College London, established by Royal Charter having been founded by
King George IV and the
Duke of Wellington in 1829, is one of the founding colleges of the
University of London.
College
–
Scotch College, Melbourne is an independent secondary school
College
–
St John's College, Johannesburg
24.
Pedagogy
–
Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education, it thus concerns the study of how best to teach. Spanning a broad range of practice, its aims range from furthering liberal education to the specifics of vocational education. Instructive strategies are governed by the background knowledge and experience, situation. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought, the teaching of adults, as a specific group, is referred to as andragogy. Johann Friedrich Herbart is the father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or. Herbarts educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the correlation between personal development and the benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens, herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbarts theoretical perspectives. Referring to the process, Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include, preparation, presentation, association, generalization, Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The word is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία, from παιδαγωγός, itself a synthesis of ἄγω, I lead and it is pronounced variously, as /ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/, /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, or /ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/. Negative connotations of pedantry have sometimes been intended, or taken, doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers. The term is used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field. The word pedagogue means leading children some say to the teacher and other leading them, in Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e. g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages and these are often recognized as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society. The pedagogues job is usually distinguished from a teachers by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills, there is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion, the pedagogues work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of institutes for social educators located in all major cities
Pedagogy
–
Douris Man with wax tablet
Pedagogy
25.
Physician
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Physician
–
"The Doctor" by
Luke Fildes (detail).
Physician
–
The
Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important
parasites.
Physician
–
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
26.
Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
Lawyer
–
Dr Alberico Gentili (1552-1608), one of the best known lawyers.
Lawyer
–
A French lawyer
Lawyer
–
Law Faculty of
Comenius University in
Bratislava (Slovakia).
Lawyer
–
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.
27.
Engineer
–
Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
Engineer
–
An electrical engineer, circa 1950
Engineer
–
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954
Engineer
–
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era
Engineer
–
The
Challenger disaster is held as a case study of
engineering ethics.
28.
Accountants
–
In many jurisdictions, professional accounting bodies maintain standards of practice and evaluations for professionals. Such professionals are granted certain responsibilities by statute, such as the ability to certify an organizations financial statements, non-qualified accountants may be employed by a qualified accountant, or may work independently without statutory privileges and obligations. The Big Four auditors are the largest employers of accountants worldwide, however, most accountants are employed in commerce, industry and the public sector. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland received its Royal Charter in 1854 and is the worlds first professional body of accountants, a Chartered Management Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants. A Chartered Public Finance Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Public Finance, an International Accountant is a member of the Association of International Accountants. An Incorporated Financial Accountant is a member of the Institute of Financial Accountants, a Public Accountant may be a member of the Institute of Public Accountants. Registered Qualified Accountant is a member of Accountants Institute, excepting the Association of Certified Public Accountants, each of the above bodies admits members only after passing examinations and undergoing a period of relevant work experience. Once admitted, members are expected to comply with ethical guidelines, the ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI, ACCA and AAPA are five Recognised Supervisory Bodies RSB in the UK. It is illegal for any individual or firm that is not a Statutory Auditor to perform a company audit, the ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI, ACCA, AIA and CIPFA are six Recognised qualifying bodies statutory RQB in the UK. A member of one them may become a Statutory Auditor in accordance with the Companies Act. All six RQBs are listed under EU mutual recognition directives to practise in 27 EU member states, further restrictions apply to accountants who carry out insolvency work. In addition to the bodies above, technical qualifications are offered by the Association of Accounting Technicians, ACCA and AIA, other international bodies such as ACCA and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales enjoy recognition for the purposes of supporting their members in their careers. For instance, ACCA has achieved recognition by the Tax Practitioner Board, as Tax and BAS agents, Chartered accountancy is governed in Bangladesh by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh. And The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh offers management accountant studies in Bangladesh, up to 2013, there were three nationally recognized accounting designations in Canada, Chartered Accountant, Certified General Accountant, and Certified Management Accountants. The national CA and CGA bodies were created by Acts of Parliament in 1902 and 1913 respectively, cGA-Canada integrated with CPA Canada on October 1,2014, completing the unification of Canada’s accounting profession at the national level. All recognized national and provincial accounting bodies in Canada have now unified under the CPA banner, the Canadian CPA designation is held by more than 200,000 members in Canada and around the world. Chartered accountancy is offered in India by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India and this Institute was established in 1949 under the Chartered Accountants Act,1949 for the regulation of the profession of Chartered Accountants in India. The ICAI set up the Accountancy Museum of India in 2009 and it is currently located at ICAIs office in Noida
Accountants
–
Accounting
29.
Ethical code
–
Ethical codes are adopted by organizations to assist members in understanding the difference between right and wrong and in applying that understanding to their decisions. An ethical code generally implies documents at three levels, codes of ethics, codes of conduct for employees, and codes of professional practice. Many companies use the phrases ethical code and code of conduct interchangeably, a code of ethics will start by setting out the values that underpin the code and will describe a companys obligation to its stakeholders. The code is available and addressed to anyone with an interest in the companys activities. It will include details of how the plans to implement its values and vision, as well as guidance to staff on ethical standards. However, a code of conduct is generally addressed to and intended for employees alone and it usually sets out restrictions on behavior, and will be far more compliance or rules focused than value or principle focused. A code of practice is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or non-governmental organization to regulate that profession, in a membership context, failure to comply with a code of practice can result in expulsion from the professional organization. Listed below are a few examples of professional codes from the Society of Professional Journalists, minimize Harm - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics – It is possible to get the truth out without having to put someone’s life and reputation in jeopardy. Being patient and being able to listen and make the right make a better PR. Being able to get along with the individual is beneficial to both yourself and the client, show Loyalty - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - be faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest. Act Fairly - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, respect all opinions and support the right of free expression. Act Independently - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics – being independent and taking on your own ventures and this means that you take risks to get the job done. Minimize Harm - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics - Balance the public’s need for information against potential harm or discomfort, pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance or undue intrusiveness. Balance a suspect’s right to a trial with the public’s right to know. Consider the implications of identifying criminal suspects before they face legal charges, act Independently - Society of Professional Journalist Code of Ethics - Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived. They are distinct from moral codes that may apply to the culture, education, often, acts that violate ethical codes may also violate a law or regulation and can be punishable at law or by government agency remedies. Even organizations and communities that may be considered criminal in nature may have ethical codes of conduct, examples could include hacker communities, bands of thieves, and street gangs. The Jewish Written Torah and Oral Torah comprise the earliest and best preserved ethical code, adapted to every field of actual day-to-day life for thousands of years, Jewish Halakha is the oldest collective body of religious laws, laws and jurisdictions still in use
Ethical code
–
Wood tablet from Jebel Moya, inscribed with an ethical code of conduct, relating to
Moses (line 7) and
Pharaoh (line 12).
Ethical code
–
Ethics and principles
30.
Public school (government funded)
–
State schools generally refer to primary or secondary schools mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded in whole or in part by taxation. The term may refer to public institutions of post-secondary education. State education is inclusive, both in its treatment of students and in that enfranchisement for the government of public education is as broad as for government generally and it is often organized and operated to be a deliberate model of the civil community in which it functions. Although typically provided to groups of students in classrooms in a school, it may be provided in-home, employing visiting teachers. It can also be provided in non-school, non-home settings, such as shopping mall space, State education is generally available to all. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to school up to a certain age. In the case of private schooling, schools operate independently of the state, the funding for state schools, on the other hand, is provided by tax revenues, so that even individuals who do not attend school help to ensure that society is educated. In poverty stricken societies, authorities are often lax on compulsory school attendance because child labour is exploited and it is these same children whose income-securing labor cannot be forfeited to allow for school attendance. The term public education when applied to schools is not synonymous with the term publicly funded education. Government may make a policy decision that it wants to have some financial resources distributed in support of, and it may want to have some control over. Grants-in-aid of private schools and vouchers systems provide examples of publicly funded private education, conversely, a state school may rely heavily on private funding such as high fees or private donations and still be considered state by virtue of governmental ownership and control. In some countries, private associations or churches can operate schools according to their own principles, when these specific requirements are met, especially in the area of the school curriculum, the schools will qualify to receive state funding. Proponents of state education assert it to be necessary because of the need in society for people who are capable of reading, writing. In most industrialized countries, these views are distinctly in the minority, Government schools are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, whereas independent schools usually charge attendance fees. They can be divided into two categories, open and selective schools, the open schools accept all students from their government-defined catchment areas. Government schools educate approximately 65% of Australian students, with approximately 34% in Catholic, regardless of whether a school is part of the Government or independent systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of their state or territory. The curriculum framework however provides for flexibility in the syllabus. Public or Government funded schools are found throughout Bangladesh and these schools mostly teach students from Year 1 to 10, with examinations for students in years 5,8, and 10
Public school (government funded)
–
Old Scona High School in
Edmonton,
Alberta.
Public school (government funded)
–
La Sorbonne
Public school (government funded)
–
One of the schools in France
Public school (government funded)
–
A school in Germany
31.
Child abuse
–
Child abuse or child maltreatment is physical, sexual, or psychological mistreatment or neglect of a child or children, especially by a parent or other caregiver. Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge, definitions of what constitutes child abuse vary among professionals, and between social and cultural groups, as well as across time. The terms abuse and maltreatment are often used interchangeably in the literature, Child maltreatment can also be an umbrella term covering all forms of child abuse and child neglect. Defining child maltreatment depends on prevailing cultural values as they relate to children, child development, in general, abuse refers to acts of commission while neglect refers to acts of omission. Child maltreatment includes both acts of commission and acts of omission on the part of parents or caregivers that cause actual or threatened harm to a child. Delayed effects of abuse and neglect, especially emotional neglect. The World Health Organization distinguishes four types of maltreatment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional and psychological abuse. Among professionals and the public, people often do not agree on what behaviors constitute physical abuse of a child. Physical abuse often does not occur in isolation, but as part of a constellation of behaviors including authoritarian control, anxiety-provoking behavior, and this includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing, joan Durrant and Ron Ensom write that most physical abuse is physical punishment in intent, form, and effect. Overlapping definitions of abuse and physical punishment of children highlight a subtle or non-existent distinction between abuse and punishment. Multiple injuries or fractures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse, physical abuse in childhood has also been linked to homelessness in adulthood. Child sexual abuse is a form of abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in an act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act. Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse rather than simple incarceration, Children who are the victims are also at an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections due to their immature immune systems and a high potential for mucosal tears during forced sexual contact. In the United States, approximately 15% to 25% of women, in over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor. In 2014, the APA stated that, Childhood psychological abuse as harmful as sexual or physical abuse, nearly 3 million U. S. children experience some form of maltreatment annually. Psychological maltreatment is the most challenging and prevalent form of child abuse, victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser
Child abuse
–
Rib fractures in an infant secondary to child abuse
Child abuse
–
A child soldier of the
Sudanese People's Liberation Army (2007). In parts of the world, children are used in military conflicts.
32.
American Association of University Women
–
The American Association of University Women, officially founded in 1881, is a non-profit organization that advances equity for women and girls through advocacy, education, and research. The organization has a network of 150,000 members,1,500 branches. Its headquarters are in Washington, D. C, in 1881 Marion Talbot and Ellen Swallow Richards invited 15 alumnae from 8 colleges to a meeting in Boston, Massachusetts. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae or ACA, was founded on January 14,1882. The ACA also worked to improve standards of education for women so that men and womens education was more equal in scope. At the beginning of 1884, the ACA had been meeting only in Boston, however, as more women across the country became interested in its work, the Association saw that expansion into branches was necessary to carry on its work. Washington, D. C. was the first branch to be created in 1884, and New York, Pacific, Philadelphia, in 1885, the organization took on one of its first major projects, they essentially had to justify their right to exist. A common belief held at the time that an education would harm a woman’s health. This myth was supported by Harvard-educated Boston physician Dr. Edward H. Clarke, an ACA committee led by Annie Howes created a series of questions that were sent to 1,290 ACA members,705 replies were received. After the results were tabulated, the data, not surprisingly, the report, “Health Statistics of Female College Graduates” was published in 1885 in conjunction with the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. This first research report is one of many conducted by AAUW during its history, in 1887, a fellowship program for women was established. Supporting the education of women through fellowships would continually remain a part of AAUW’s mission. Back in 1883, a group of college women had considered forming a Chicago, Illinois branch of the ACA, however. They formed the Western Association of Collegiate Alumnae with Jane M. Bancroft as its first president, WACA was broad in purpose and consisted of five committees, fine arts, outdoor occupations, domestic professions, press and journalism, and higher education of women in the West. In 1888, WACA awarded its first fellowship of $350 to Ida Street, in 1889, WACA merged with the ACA, further expanding the groups capacity. In 1919, the ACA participated in an effort led by a group of American women which ultimately raised $156,413 to purchase a gram of radium for Marie Curie for her experiments. In 1921, the ACA merged with the Southern Association of College Women to create the AAUW, during World War II, AAUW officially began raising money to assist female scholars displaced by the Nazi led occupation who were unable to continue their work. The War Relief Fund received numerous pleas for help and worked tirelessly to find teaching and other positions for women at American schools and universities
American Association of University Women
–
AAUW Logo
American Association of University Women
–
Headquarters of the AAUW in Washington, DC
33.
Priest
–
A priest or priestess, is a person authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites, in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of and their office or position is the priesthood, a term which also may apply to such persons collectively. The necessity to read sacred texts and keep temple or church records helped foster literacy in early societies. Priests exist in many religions today, such as all or some branches of Judaism, Christianity, the question of which religions have a priest depends on how the titles of leaders are used or translated into English. In some cases, leaders are more like those that other believers will often turn to for advice on spiritual matters, for example, clergy in Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy are priests, but in Protestant Christianity they are typically minister and pastor. The terms priest and priestess are sufficiently generic that they may be used in a sense to describe the religious mediators of an unknown or otherwise unspecified religion. In many religions, being a priest or priestess is a full-time position, many Christian priests and pastors choose or are mandated to dedicate themselves to their churches and receive their living directly from their churches. In other cases it is a part-time role, for example, in the early history of Iceland the chieftains were titled goði, a word meaning priest. In some religions, being a priest or priestess is by election or human choice. In Judaism the priesthood is inherited in familial lines, in a theocracy, a society is governed by its priesthood. The word priest, is derived from Greek, via Latin presbyter. Old High German also has the disyllabic priester, priestar, apparently derived from Latin independently via Old French presbtre, the Latin presbyter ultimately represents Greek presbyteros, the regular Latin word for priest being sacerdos, corresponding to Greek hiereus. That English should have only the term priest to translate presbyter. The feminine English noun, priestess, was coined in the 17th century, in the 20th century, the word was used in controversies surrounding the ordination of women. In the case of the ordination of women in the Anglican communion, it is common to speak of priests. In historical polytheism, a priest administers the sacrifice to a deity, in the Ancient Near East, the priesthood also acted on behalf of the deities in managing their property. Priestesses in antiquity often performed sacred prostitution, and in Ancient Greece, some such as Pythia, priestess at Delphi. Sumerian and Akkadian Entu or EN were top-ranking priestesses who were distinguished with special ceremonial attire and they owned property, transacted business, and initiated the hieros gamos ceremony with priests and kings
Priest
–
A
vajracharya (thunderbolt-carrier), a
Newar Buddhist priest.
Priest
–
Modern
Maya priest performing a healing.
Priest
–
Vestal Virgin priestess of
Ancient Rome
Priest
–
Antonia Minor as a priestess of
Ceres (36 BCE–37 CE)
34.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
35.
Debra LaFave
–
Debra Jean Beasley, better known under her former married name of Debra Lafave, is an American who formerly taught at Angelo L. Greco Middle School in Temple Terrace, Florida. In 2005, she pleaded guilty to lewd or lascivious battery, the charges stemmed from a sexual encounter with a 14-year-old male student in the summer of 2004. Lafaves plea bargain included no prison time, opting for three years of house arrest due to safety concerns, and seven years of probation, Lafave graduated from the University of South Florida, with a degree in English. After graduation, she was hired as an English teacher at Greco Middle School in Temple Terrace, in 2003, following her first year of teaching, she married Owen Lafave. Lafave had sexual intercourse, including sex, with a student on four different occasions. In May 2004, the boy and Lafave went to see his cousin in Ocala and his aunt was alarmed at seeing him in the company of a provocatively-dressed woman, and alerted his mother. Under intense questioning from the mother, he admitted that the woman was Lafave. Officers in Temple Terrace recorded conversations between Lafave and the boy, then arrested her at their next meeting, two separate sets of charges were filed, because the alleged incidents occurred in both Riverview, in Hillsborough County, and Ocala, in Marion County. A trial date was set after the prosecution and defense could not agree on a bargain that involved prison time. Lafave faced a sentence of 5-to-15 years for each of the two counts for which she was accused. Shortly before the trial was scheduled to begin, the boys mother learned that Court TV was going to cover the first trial, the pretrial publicity was already taking a noticeable toll on him, he had a difficult time talking to an assistant prosecutor from Marion County. The victims cousin also indicated that he was not willing to testify under the circumstances and they asked the prosecutors to offer Lafave a deal that would avoid a trial. The defense was willing to agree to a deal, provided that Lafave would not have to serve jail time. Lafave pleaded guilty under the agreement and was sentenced to three years of community control and seven years probation, with her guilty plea, LaFave effectively ended her teaching career. As part of her agreement, she surrendered her teaching license. Under the terms of her probation, she had to be home by 10 p. m. every day, could not leave Hillsborough County without a judges permission and she also had to register as a sex offender. There was widespread skepticism as to whether a man guilty of lewd or lascivious battery would have received equally mild treatment and he set a trial date for April 10,2006. The Marion County states attorney subsequently dropped the charges, stancil had proposed closing the courtroom when the victim testified
Debra LaFave
–
2011 Florida
DOC mugshot
36.
Male
–
A male organism is the physiological sex that produces sperm. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a female gamete, or ovum. A male cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs. Not all species share a common sex-determination system, in most animals, including humans, sex is determined genetically, but in some species it can be determined due to social, environmental, or other factors. For example, Cymothoa exigua changes sex depending on the number of females present in the vicinity, the existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across species by the type of gametes produced, male/female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to animals, male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures, as of the year 2012, the United Arab Emirates has the highest ratio of human males in the world, followed by Qatar. A common symbol used to represent the male sex is the Mars symbol, the symbol is identical to the planetary symbol of Mars. It was first used to sex by Carl Linnaeus in 1751. The symbol is called a stylized representation of the Roman god Mars shield. According to Stearn, however, all the historical evidence favours that it is derived from θρ, the sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may change during the course of an organisms life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are male or female, hermaphroditic animals. Most mammals, including humans, are determined as such by the XY sex-determination system where males have an XY sex chromosome. During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, a Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The part of the Y-chromosome which is responsible for maleness is the region of the Y-chromosome. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have a ZZ sex chromosome may be found in birds and some insects and other organisms
Male
–
The symbol of the Roman god
Mars (god of war) is often used to represent the male sex. It also stands for the planet
Mars and is the
alchemical symbol for
iron.
37.
Laos
–
Present day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao, which existed for four centuries as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Due to Lan Xangs central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom was able to become a hub for overland trade. After a period of conflict, Lan Xang broke off into three separate kingdoms— Luang Phabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three territories uniting to form what is now known as the country of Laos and it briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a civil war ended the monarchy. Laos is a one-party socialist republic and it espouses Marxism and is governed by the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, in which the party leadership is dominated by military figures. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam Peoples Army continue to have significant influence in Laos, other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. Laos is a country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60 percent of the population. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other hill tribes, accounting for 40 percent of the population, live in the foothills. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997, on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership. According to the anti-corruption non-governmental organisation Transparency International, Laos remains one of the most corrupt countries in the world and this has deterred foreign investment and created major problems with the rule of law, including the nations ability to enforce contract and business regulation. This has contributed to a third of the population of Laos currently living below the poverty line. Laos has an economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2014, the country ranked 141st on the Human Development Index, according to the Global Hunger Index, Laos ranks as the 29th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation. Laos has also had a human rights record. In the Lao language, the name is Muang Lao or Pathet Lao. Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos, archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC
Laos
–
Pha That Luang in
Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos.
Laos
Laos
–
A statue of
Fa Ngum, founder of the
Lan Xang kingdom.
Laos
–
Pathet Lao soldiers in
Vientiane, 1972.
38.
Rostock
–
Rostock is the largest city in the north German state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Rostock is on the Warnow river, the district of Warnemünde 12 kilometres north of the city centre is directly on the Baltic Sea coast, Rostock is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, the University of Rostock, founded in 1419. The city territory of Rostock stretches for about 20 km along the Warnow to the Baltic Sea, the largest built-up area of Rostock is on the western side of the river. The eastern part of its territory is dominated by industrial estates, Rostock is considered as the only regiopolis in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. In the 11th century Polabian Slavs founded a settlement at the Warnow river called Roztoc, the Danish king Valdemar I set the town aflame in 1161. Afterwards the place was settled by German traders, initially there were three separate cities, Altstadt around the Alter Markt with St. Petri, Mittelstadt around the Neuer Markt with St. Marien and Neustadt around the Hopfenmarkt with St. Jakobi. In 1218, Rostock was granted Lübeck law city rights by Heinrich Borwin, during the first partition of Mecklenburg following the death of Henry Borwin II of Mecklenburg in 1226, Rostock became the seat of the Lordship of Rostock, which survived for almost a century. In 1251, the city became a member of the Hanseatic League, in the 14th century it was a powerful seaport town with 12,000 inhabitants and the biggest city of Mecklenburg. Ships for cruising the Baltic Sea were constructed in Rostock, the formerly independent fishing village of Warnemünde at the Baltic Sea became a part of Rostock in 1323, to secure the citys access to the Baltic Sea. In 1419, one of the earliest universities in Europe, the University of Rostock, was founded and they took advantage of a riot known as Domfehde, a failed uprising of the impoverished population. Subsequent quarrels with the dukes and persistent plundering led ultimately to a loss of economic, in 1565 there were further clashes with Schwerin that which had far-reaching consequences. Among other things, was the introduction of a beer excise that favoured the dukes. John Albert I advanced on the city with 500 horsemen, after Rostock had refused to take the oath of allegiance. The citizens slighted the fortress the following spring, from 1575 to 1577 the city walls were rebuilt, as was the Lagebusch tower and the Stein Gate in the Dutch Renaissance style. The inscription sit intra te concordia et publica felicitas, which can still be read on the gate, in 1584 it finally came to the Second Rostock Inheritance Agreement, which resulted in a further loss of former tax privileges. At the same time, these inheritance contracts put paid to Rostocks ambition of achieving imperial immediacy as Lübeck had done in 1226, the strategic location of Rostock provoked the envy of its rivals. Danes and Swedes occupied the city twice, first during the Thirty Years War, later, the French, under Napoleon, occupied the town for about a decade until 1813. In nearby Lübeck-Ratekau, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, who was born in Rostock and this was only after furious street fighting in the Battle of Lübeck, in which he led some of the cavalry charges himself
Rostock
–
Hanseatic City of Rostock with
St. Mary's Church
Rostock
–
Warnemünde, Baltic seaside resort that is part of Rostock. The
Lighthouse and Teepott are its landmarks.
Rostock
–
University of Rostock, one of the world's oldest universities, founded in 1419.
Rostock
–
Rostock 1780-90
39.
Student
–
A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
Student
–
Over one thousand pupils in uniform during an assembly at a
secondary school,
Nan Hua High School in
Singapore
Student
–
An Iranian Student going to her classmate house for study together at evening, in
Nishapur
Student
–
Students of Stony Creek State School,
Queensland, 1939
Student
–
Students in a
lecture on
linear algebra at the
Helsinki University of Technology
40.
Outdoor education
–
Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. John Muir Award is one organization which encourage and provide opportunities for outdoor learning, Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices of experiential education and environmental education. Forest School is an approach to learning which supports the development of self-esteem. Outdoor education can be defined as experiential learning in, for, or about the outdoors. The term outdoor education, however, is used broadly to refer to a range of organized activities that take place in a variety of ways in predominantly outdoor environments. Common definitions of outdoor education are difficult to achieve because interpretations vary according to culture, philosophy, consensus about the meaning of these terms is also difficult to achieve. However, outdoor education often uses or draws upon these related elements and/or informs these areas, Wilderness education involves expeditions into wilderness where man is but a visitor. For more information, see Outdoor education definitions, Education outside the classroom describes school curriculum learning, other than with a class of students sitting in a room with a teacher and books. It encompasses biology field trips and searching for insects in the garden, as well as indoor activities like observing stock control in a local shop. It is a concept currently enjoying a revival because of the recognition of benefits from the more active style, while DfES has prepared practical guidelines for outdoor activities. Despite the evidence supporting an extension of learning for children. One of these obstacles is risk aversion amongst teachers, parents and others, raising reluctance to such diverse, the journalist Tim Gill has written about parental and institutional risk aversion affecting many activities with children in his book No Fear. Another obstacle is the high cost of facilitating outdoor learning. Creating an outdoor learning environment neednt cost a great deal, however and she believes that by focussing on activities and skill development, it is possible to develop an outdoor learning curriculum on a shoe string. She cites a comment by Will Nixon, who reminds readers that Using the real world is the way learning has happened for 99. 9% of human existence, only in the last hundred years have we put it into a little box called a classroom. Some typical aims of education are to, learn how to overcome adversity enhance personal and social development develop a deeper relationship with nature. Outdoor education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world, the relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. Sense of place is manifested through the understanding and connection that one has with the area in which they reside, modern outdoor education owes its beginnings to separate initiatives
Outdoor education
–
A group of
Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a
ropes course, c. 1996.
Outdoor education
–
Art
41.
East Germany
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
East Germany
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
East Germany
–
Flag (1959–1990)
East Germany
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
East Germany
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
42.
Samarkand
–
Samarkand, alternatively Samarqand or Samarcand, is a city in modern-day Uzbekistan and is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean, at times Samarkand was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia, by the time of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy. The city was taken by Alexander the Great in 329 BC, the city was ruled by a succession of Iranian, Persian, and Turkic peoples until the Mongols under Genghis Khan conquered Samarkand in 1220. Today, Samarkand is the capital of Samarqand Region and Uzbekistans second largest city, the city is noted for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur and is the site of his mausoleum, the Bibi-Khanym Mosque remains one of the citys most notable landmarks. The Registan was the ancient center of the city, the city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts, embroidery, gold embroidery, silk weaving, engraving on copper, ceramics, carving and painting on wood. In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures, the name probably originates in the Sogdian words asmara, stone, rock and kand, fort, town. Along with Bukhara, Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia, archeological excavations held within the city limits as well as suburban areas unearthed evidence of human activity as early as 40,000 years old, in the late Paleolithic era. A group of Mesolithic era archeological sites were discovered at Sazagon-1, Zamichatosh, the Syob and Dargom canals, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th to 5th centuries BC. There is no evidence when Samarkand was founded. Researchers of the Institute of Archeology of Samarkand argue for the existence of the city between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Samarkand has been one of the main centres of Sogdian civilization from its early days. By the time of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia it had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy, Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as Maracanda by the Greeks, written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government. They tell of an Orepius who became ruler not from ancestors, while Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexanders initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and under the new Hellenic influence flourished. There were also major new construction techniques, oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of masonry, Alexanders conquests introduced into Central Asia classical Greek culture, at least for a time the Greek models were followed closely by the local artisans. After the Kushan era the city declined, it did not really revive until the 5th century, Samarkand was conquered by the Sassanians around 260 AD. Under Sassanian rule, the became an essential site for Manichaeism. After the Hephtalites conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the Göktürks, in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, the Turks ruled over Samarkand until they were defeated by the Sassanids during the Göktürk–Persian Wars
Samarkand
–
Triumph by
Vasily Vereshchagin, depicting the Sher-Dor Madrasah in the
Registan.
Samarkand
–
Seal
Samarkand
–
Samarkand, by Richard-Karl Karlovitch Zommer (ru)
Samarkand
–
Bibi-Khanym Mosque
43.
Informal learning
–
Informal learning is, by default, any learning that is not formal learning or non-formal learning. Informal learning is organized differently than formal and non-formal learning because it has no set objective in terms of learning outcomes and is never intentional from the learner’s standpoint, often, it is referred to as learning by experience or just as experience. For all learners this includes heuristic language building, socialization, inculturation, the term is often conflated, however, with non-formal learning, and self-directed learning. It is widely used in the context of training and education in relation to return on investment. It is also used when referring to science education, in relation to citizen science. It is often spontaneous and creative and it is a key component to an alternative learning system coined, Learning by Observing and Pitching-In, which is highly used by the indigenous of the Americas, but not by all. At first, informal learning was only delimited from formal school learning, marsick and Watkins take up this approach and go one step further in their definition. They, too, begin with the form of learning. Merriam et al. state, Informal learning, Schugurensky suggests, has its own internal forms that are important to distinguish in studying the phenomenon and he proposes three forms, self-directed learning, incidental learning, and socialization, or tacit learning. These differ among themselves in terms of intentionality and awareness at the time of the learning experience, people in many Indigenous communities of the Americas often learn through observation and participation in everyday life of their respective communities and families. These learning experiences are mutually involved among each other and are illustrated by children’s incorporation in the community and this form of informal learning allows the children to collaborate in social organization, which grants the child the opportunity to learn by pitching in. Learning occurs through socialization processes relative to ones culture and community, Learning by observing and pitching in is an Informal learning model often seen in many Indigenous communities of the Americas. Children can be participating alongside adults in many daily activities within the community. An example is the process where children learn slash-and-burn agriculture by being present in the situation, noteworthy is childrens own initiation and assumption of responsibility to perform tasks for the households benefit. It is because Indigenous communities provide self-paced opportunities to kids, however, collaborative input is highly encouraged and valued. Both children and adults are involved in shared endeavors. Their roles as learner and expert are flexible, while the observer participates in active concentration, Indigenous ways of learning include practices such as observation, experiential learning, and apprenticeship. Child work, alongside and combined play, occupies an important place in American Indigenous children’s time
Informal learning
–
Lao villagers assemble jigsaw maps of Southeast Asia. These maps were made by
Big Brother Mouse, a literacy project in Laos. It was the first time any of them had seen a jigsaw puzzle of any sort.
Informal learning
–
Open House Day at
ESO ’s Headquarters.
44.
Skill
–
SKILL is a Lisp dialect used as a scripting language and PCell description language used in many EDA software suites by Cadence Design Systems. It was originally put forth in an IEEE paper in 1990, SKILL was originally based on a flavor of Lisp called “Franz Lisp” created at UC Berkeley by the students of Professor Richard J. Fateman. SKILL is not an acronym, it is a name, for trademark reasons Cadence prefers it be capitalized. Franz Lisp and all flavors of LISP were eventually superseded by an ANSI standard for Lisp called Common Lisp. Historically, SKILL was known as IL, SKILL was a library of IL functions. The name was originally an initialism for Silicon Compiler Interface Language, pronounced SKIL, which morphed into SKILL. Whilst SKILL was used initially to describe the API rather than the language, the name IL remains a common file extension used for SKILL code. il designating that the code contained in the file has lisp-2 semantics. Another possible file extension is. ils designating that the content has lisp-1 semantics, comments are delimited by either the traditional Lisp semicolon or C-style comments SKILL programmers have a choice of expression syntaxes. Traditional Lisp syntax such as can be mixed with C-like syntax such as car White space between the name and the opening parenthesis, as in car is also allowed but has a different meaning. Usually this is not what the beginner programmer intended, thus, SKILL novices usually incorrectly think of car as a syntax error. Certain arithmetic operations can be called using an infix notation. Thus each of the following is recognized and in fact are represented the same internally Functions may be called using several different indirect second order functions and this infix notation was introduced to make it easier for programmers familiar with C and other procedural languages to understand and write SKILL code. SKILL indeed internally represents the language as traditional Lisp S-expression, the surface syntax loosens this restriction compared to other lisps, more elaborate examples look quite different from their Lisp equivalents. For example, the function in SKILL may be represented several different ways which are all compiled to the identical internal representation. The SKILL language supports several built-in object types, symbol, list, fixnum, flonum, string, port, assocTable, array, funobj, envobj, the SKILL language supports both dynamic and lexical variables. However, a function is limited to interpret its variables homogeneously. There are several ways of syntactically indicating whether a function be interpreted lexically or dynamically, one of which are to use and forms indicating dynamic and lexical scoping respectively. InSkill and inScheme forms may be mixed within a function with some degree of flexibility
Skill
45.
Knowledge
–
Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit or explicit, it can be more or less formal or systematic, however, several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes, perception, communication, and reasoning, the eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophys core was theory of knowledge, a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation. Without this idea of a theory of knowledge, it is hard to imagine what philosophy could have been in the age of modern science, the definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. Some claim that conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth. In contrast to this approach, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moores paradox, that one can say He believes it, but it isnt so, but not He knows it, but it isnt so. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, what is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way knowledge is used in natural languages and he saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, knowledge has been reconstructed as a concept that points out relevant features. Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process, hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include observation and imitation, verbal exchange, philosophers of language and semioticians construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or communication. In his collection of essays Technopoly, Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Platos work Phaedrus, in this excerpt, the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention writing to King Thamus, King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. Media theorists like Andrew Robinson emphasise that the depiction of knowledge in the modern world was often seen as being truer than oral knowledge. It is harder to preserve records of what was said or who originally said it – usually neither the nor the content can be verified. Gossip and rumors are examples prevalent in both media, major libraries today can have millions of books of knowledge
Knowledge
–
Robert Reid, Knowledge (1896).
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
Knowledge
–
Los portadores de la antorcha (The Torch-Bearers) – Sculpture by
Anna Hyatt Huntington symbolizing the transmission of knowledge from one generation to the next (
Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain)
Knowledge
–
Sir Francis Bacon, "
Knowledge is Power "
46.
Thinking
–
Thought refers to ideas or arrangements of ideas that are the result of the process of thinking. Though thinking is an activity considered essential to humanity, there is no consensus as to how we define or understand it. Thinking allows humans to sense of, interpret, represent or model the world they experience. It is therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, the word thought comes from Old English þoht, or geþoht, from stem of þencan to conceive of in the mind, consider. Definitions of thought may also be derived directly or indirectly from theories of thought, the notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding Artificial Intelligence during the 1970s and 1980s. Phenomenology, however, is not the approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes. Someones desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how propositional attitudes can cause that individuals neurons to fire. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes, the above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. Therefore, functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the problem which cannot be solved. A neuron is a cell in the nervous system that processes. Neurons are the components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions, interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the nervous system. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem
Thinking
–
Girl with a Book by
José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior
Thinking
–
Huike Thinking, a portrait of the
Chán patriarch Dazu Huike attributed to the 10th-century painter Shi Ke
Thinking
–
The Thinker by
Rodin (1840–1917), in the garden of the
Musée Rodin
Thinking
–
Man thinking on a train journey.
47.
Curricula
–
In education, a curriculum is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often specifically to a planned sequence of instruction. Curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, Curriculum is split into several categories, the explicit, the implicit, the excluded and the extra-curricular. Curricula may be standardized, or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdoms National Curriculum, uNESCOs International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide. The word curriculum began as a Latin word which means a race or the course of a race, the first known use in an educational context is in the Professio Regia, a work by University of Paris professor Petrus Ramus published posthumously in 1576. The term subsequently appears in University of Leiden records in 1582, the words origins appear closely linked to the Calvinist desire to bring greater order to education. By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also referred to its course of study as a curriculum, by the nineteenth century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe both the complete course of study and particular courses and their content. There is no agreed upon definition of curriculum. Braslavsky states that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational professionals, furthermore, the curriculum defines why, what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn. Outlines the skills, performances, attitudes, and values pupils are expected to learn from schooling and it includes statements of desired pupil outcomes, descriptions of materials, and the planned sequence that will be used to help pupils attain the outcomes. The total learning experience provided by a school and it includes the content of courses, the methods employed, and other aspects, like norms and values, which relate to the way the school is organized. The aggregate of courses of study given in a learning environment, the courses are arranged in a sequence to make learning a subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans several grades, Curriculum can refer to the entire program provided by a classroom, school, district, state, or country. A classroom is assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the school, implicit curriculum, lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that characterize that culture, the unintended curriculum. The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and is not always meant to be a negative, hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized, could benefit students and learners in all educational systems. Also, it not just include the physical environment of the school. Excluded curriculum, topics or perspectives that are excluded from the curriculum
Curricula
–
First published use of "curriculum" in 1576.
Curricula
–
A curriculum for the
MD degree.
Curricula
–
Curriculum may include unplanned or unstructured activities.
Curricula
–
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology student examines the university's main class schedule board on the first day of classes to find what classes he – and all students in his specialization (sub-major) – will attend this semester.
48.
Technology
–
Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
Technology
–
A
steam turbine with the case opened. Most electricity is produced by
thermal power stations with turbines like this one. Electricity consumption and living standards are highly correlated.
Electrification was voted the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century.
Technology
–
The spread of paper and printing to the West, exemplified by the
printing press, made it possible for
scientists and
politicians to communicate their ideas with ease, leading to the
Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.
Technology
–
The invention of integrated circuits and the
microprocessor (here, an
Intel 4004 chip from 1971) led to the modern
computer revolution.
Technology
–
Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment with combustion generated by amplified sun light
49.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
Internet
–
The Internet Messenger by
Buky Schwartz in
Holon.
Internet
–
An
Opte Project visualization of
routing paths through a portion of the Internet
Internet
–
ICANN headquarters in the
Playa Vista neighborhood of
Los Angeles, California, United States.
Internet
–
This
NeXT Computer was used by
Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN and became the world's first
Web server.
.jpg)
Media related to Teaching at Wikimedia Commons
