1.
Ostrogoth
–
The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the later Goths. They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic, the Ostrogoths were probably literate in the 3rd century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their annexation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after the collapse of the Hun empire after the Battle of Nedao, Ostrogoths migrated westwards towards Illyria and the borders of Italy, while some remained in the Crimea. During the late 5th and 6th centuries, under Theodoric the Great most of the Ostrogoths moved first to Moesia, in 493, Theodoric the Great established a kingdom in Italy. A period of instability then ensued, tempting the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to declare war on the Ostrogoths in 535 in an effort to restore the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Initially, the Byzantines were successful, but under the leadership of Totila, the war lasted for almost 20 years and caused enormous damage and depopulation of Italy. The remaining Ostrogoths were absorbed into the Lombards who established a kingdom in Italy in 568, a division of the Goths is first attested in 291. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, the Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Greuthungi inhabit Phrygia, according to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Ostrogothi, Tervingi and that the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. This interpretation, however, though common among scholars today, is not universal. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other and this terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of Scythians north of the Danube who were called Greuthungi by the north of the Ister. Wolfram asserts that it was the Tervingi who remained behind after the Hunnic conquest and he further believes that the terms Vesi and Ostrogothi were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people, the nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire, the term Visigoth, however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, the western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex
Ostrogoth
–
Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of
San Apollinare Nuovo.
Ostrogoth
–
Ostrogothic bow-fibulae (c. 500) from
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Ostrogoth
–
The mausoleum of
Theodoric the Great in
Ravenna,
Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogoth
–
Coin of
Theodahad (534-536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
2.
Italian Peninsula
–
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is the central and the smallest of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe. It extends 1,000 km from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south, the peninsulas shape gives it the nickname lo Stivale. Three smaller peninsulas contribute to this shape, namely Calabria, Salento. Geographically, the Italian peninsula consists of the south of a line extending from the Magra to the Rubicon rivers. It excludes the Po Valley and the slopes of the Alps. All of the lies within the territory of the Italian Republic except for the microstates of San Marino. Additionally, Sicily, Elba and other islands, such as Palagruža, are usually considered as islands off the peninsula. The peninsula lies between the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west, the Ionian Sea on the south, and the Adriatic Sea on the east, the backbone of the Italian peninsula consists of the Apennine Mountains, from which it takes one of its names. Most of its coast is lined with cliffs, the Italian Peninsulas location between the centre of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea made it the target of many conquests. The peninsula has mainly a Mediterranean climate, though in the parts the climate is much cooler. Its natural vegetation includes macchia along the coasts and deciduous and mixed coniferous forests in the interior. Political divisions of the peninsula sorted by area, Apennine Mountains Roman Republic Roman Italy Insular Italy Media related to Italian Peninsula at Wikimedia Commons
Italian Peninsula
–
Satellite view of the peninsula in March 2003.
3.
Totila
–
Totila, original name Baduila was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. Totila proved himself both as a military and political leader, winning the support of the classes by liberating slaves. After a successful defence at Verona, Totila pursued and defeated a superior army at the Battle of Faventia in 542 AD. Building on his victories, Totila followed these victories by defeating the Romans outside Florence, by 543, fighting on land and sea, he had reconqured the bulk of the lost territory. Rome held out, and Totila appealed unsuccessfully to the Senate in a letter reminding them of the loyalty of the Romans to his predecessor Theodoric the Great, when Totila left to fight the Byzantines in Lucania, south of Naples, Belisarius retook Rome and rebuilt its fortifications. After Belisarius retreated to Constantinople in 549, Totila recaptured Rome, by the end of 550, Totila had recaptured all but Ravenna and four coastal towns. The following year Justinian sent his general Narses with a force of 35,000 Lombards, Gepids and Heruli to Italy in a march around the Adriatic to approach Ravenna from the north. In the Battle of Taginae, an engagement during the summer of 552, in the Apennines near present-day Fabriano, the Gothic army was defeated. Totila was succeeded by his relative, Teia, who died at the Battle of Mons Lactarius. Pockets of resistance, reinforced by Franks and Alemanni who had invaded Italy in 553, continued until 562, Totila was the nom de guerre of a man whose real name was Baduila, as can be seen from the coinage he issued. According to Henry Bradley, Totila and Baduila are diminutives of Totabadws, born in Treviso, Totila was a relative of Theudis, king of the Visigoths. Elected king of the Ostrogoths in 541 after the death of his uncle Ildibad, having engineered the assassination of Ildibads short-lived successor, Totilas strategy was to move fast and take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantine forces in control of well-defended cities, and especially the ports. When Belisarius eventually returned to Italy, Procopius relates that during a space of five years he did not succeed once in setting foot on any part of the land, except where some fortress was, but during this whole period he kept sailing about visiting one port after another. Totila circumvented those cities where a siege would have been required, razing the walls of cities that capitulated to him. Totilas conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says none were deceived, either friends or enemies, after a successful siege of a resisting city, such as at Perugia, however, Totila could be merciless, as Procopius recounts. And he himself, sitting upon a large horse, began to dance under arms skillfully between the two armies. And as he rode he hurled his javelin into the air and caught it again as it quivered above him, then passed it rapidly from hand to hand, shifting it with consummate skill. Procopiuss picture is given a setting, for Totila generally avoided formal battles with opposing armies drawn up in battle array
Totila
–
Totila by
Francesco Salviati
Totila
–
Totila razes the walls of
Florence: illumination from the Chigi ms of
Villani's Cronica
Totila
–
Totila in the 14th century Nuova Cronica
Totila
–
Totila in the
Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
4.
Battle of Taginae
–
From as early as 549 the Emperor Justinian I had planned to dispatch a major army to Italy to conclude the protracted war with the Ostrogoths initiated in 535. The imperial chamberlain Narses was appointed to command in mid 551, the following spring Narses led this Byzantine army around the coast of the Adriatic as far as Ancona, and then turned inland aiming to march down the Via Flaminia to Rome. Near the village of Taginae, the Byzantines encountered the Ostrogothic army commanded by King Totila, finding himself considerably outnumbered, Totila ostensibly entered into negotiations while planning a surprise attack, but Narses was not fooled by this stratagem. Although he enjoyed superiority in numbers, Narses deployed his army in a defensive position. In the centre he massed the large body of Germanic mercenaries dismounted in a dense formation, and placed the Byzantine troops to either side. On each wing he stationed 4,000 foot-archers, in one such occasion, Totila sent a Byzantine deserter named Coccas out to challenge any Byzantine to single combat. Coccas was large and immensely strong and he had a reputation among the Goths as a ruthless and powerful fighter. An Armenian named Anzalas, one of Narses bodyguards, answered the challenge, Coccas charged at Anzalas, but at the last moment, Anzalas swerved his horse and stabbed the Gothic champion in the side. It was not the most auspicious omen for the Ostrogoths, however, the Ostrogothic King had another delaying tactic. Both armies watched as Totila, dressed in shining purple and gold armor and his horse went circles, reared, pirouetted, and ran backwards as Totila tossed his lance into the air and caught it. At last, he back to his own army and changed into battle armor. His reinforcements having arrived, Totila broke formation and retired for lunch, Narses, wary of a possible ruse, permitted his troops to refresh themselves without leaving their positions. Totila, apparently hoping to take his enemy by surprise, launched a sudden large-scale mounted assault upon the Byzantine center. Ancient and modern authors have accused him of folly, but Totila probably sought to close with the enemy as fast as possible in order to avoid the effects of the formidable Byzantine archers. The Byzantines were prepared for such a move, however, caught in the enfilading fire from both sides, the Ostrogothic cavalry sustained high casualties and their attack faltered. The course and duration of the subsequent battle are uncertain, but towards early evening Narses ordered an advance. Although accounts vary, it was probably during the subsequent rout that Totila was killed, Narses proceeded to Rome which fell with limited resistance. The Ostrogoths regrouped under Totilas successor Teia, but suffered a defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius
Battle of Taginae
–
Totila, King of the Ostrogoths At Taginae, Totila was slain by the Gepid Lancer Asbad
5.
Last stand
–
A last stand is a general military situation in which a body of troops holds a defensive position in the face of overwhelming odds. In some cases, troops will make a last stand to protect their ruler or leader, Last stands loom large in history, as the heroism and sacrifice of the defenders exerts a large pull on the publics imagination. Some last stands have become a part of a fighting forces or a countrys history. A last stand is a last resort tactic, and is chosen because the defending force realizes or believes the benefits of fighting outweigh the benefits of retreat or surrender, the situation can arise in several ways. In some cases, troops will make a last stand to protect their ruler or leader, when Rome was attacked in 1527 by the army of the Holy Roman Empire under Emperor Charles V, over 20,000 troops stormed the city. In the Battle of Hastings in 1066, Saxon King Harold II battled the Norman William the Conqueror, after most of the Saxons were killed in the battle, Harold and his housecarl bodyguard. fought on until an arrow struck the king in the eye. After Harold died, the housecarl bodyguard made a last stand, some last stands have become a celebrated part of a fighting force or countrys history. The French Foreign Legion became known for its last stand in the 1863 Battle of Camarón, during the battle,65 Foreign Legion soldiers protecting a supply convoy carrying gold bullion were attacked by a Mexican force of 3,000. The Foreign Legion soldiers fought their way to a building, which used as a defensive position for their last stand. They refused to surrender, and fought until almost all of them were killed, when only a handful were still alive, with no ammunition left, they conducted a bayonet charge at the much larger Mexican force. April 30 is called Camerone Day in France to remember this day, in the Battle of the Alamo 1,500 Mexican soldiers attacked the Alamo in Texas, which was defended by 180 to 260 Texans. Between 182 and 257 Texians died in a last stand defense of the Alamo, the Texians last stand in this battle has become a celebrated part of US history, which has been depicted in numerous films. A siege may lead to a last stand by the defenders, Last stands at the end of sieges became less common after the Hague Conventions came in force. Under the laws of war as they are now. it is especially forbidden -, to kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down his arms, or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at discretion, To declare that no quarter will be given. It is unlawful for a force to kill a garrison if they attempt to surrender even if it is during the final assault on a fortified position. Last stands loom large in history due to the pull on popular imagination, even though the odds are overwhelming, the hero and his followers fight on nobly to the end and are slaughtered to a man. In defeat the hero of the Last Stand achieves the greatest of victories, during WW I, the expression to fight with ones back to the wall became a widely-known way to refer to making a last stand
Last stand
–
The last stand of the survivors of Her Majesty's 44th Foot at
Gandamak, painted by
William Barnes Wollen
Last stand
–
The
Shangani Patrol -- The last stand of Major Allan Wilson, Matabeleland, 4 December 1893.
Last stand
–
Siege of Castelnuovo in July, 1539. Defense of a 4000-man garrison in the service of
Charles I of Spain, against a 50,000-strong Ottoman assault force, resulting in a last stand. Painting by Pierre Mortier.
6.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
7.
Narses
–
Narses was, with Belisarius, one of the great generals in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I during the Roman reconquest that took place during Justinians reign. A Romanized Armenian, Narses spent most of his life as an important eunuch in the palace of the emperors in Constantinople. Narses was of Armenian descent and a member of the Kamsarakan Armenian noble family, which was an offshoot of the House of Karen and his first mention in a primary source is by Procopius in AD530. The year of Narses birth is unknown, historians have given dates including 478,479 and 480, the year of his death is also unknown, with dates given between 566 and 574, making him eighty-six to ninety-six years old at his death. His family and lineage is also unknown, with many different stories told about his origins. Agathias Scholasticus of Myrina described him thus, “He was a man of sound mind, evagrius Scholasticus in Ecclesiastica Historia reported that she would tell him the proper time to attack, and Narses would never engage in battle without her consent. Narses also was reported to be generous to the poor. He was so devoted to prayers and vigils that “he obtained victory more by the supplications he poured forth to God, than by arms of war. ”Before accepting supreme command of the army, Narses built a church and monastery in Cappadocia, intent upon going there upon his retirement. How or when Narses arrived in Constantinople, or how he found a footing in the officium of the Grand Chamberlain, the first time he was mentioned by Procopius in 530 AD, Narses was the Emperor Justinian’s steward. He was a treasurer, who dealt with the emperor’s finances. Narses had an involvement in the Nika riots in 532, in that he was instructed by Justinian or Theodora to take, from the treasury. Narses appealed to their party loyalty and he reminded them that Hypatius, the man they were about to declare emperor, was a Green, unlike Justinian, who supported the Blues. Either the money or his words were convincing, so soon the Blues began to acclaim Justinian and turned against Hypatius. Narses himself may have been with the men that dragged Hypatius from the throne on the Imperial Stand, Narses involvement and help in suppressing the Nika Riots suddenly found him in charge of a moderately-sized army that would go to Italy to help Belisarius. The army arrived in June of 538 probably in Ancona and consisted of roughly 7,000 soldiers, Procopius referred to Narses as the eunuch and keeper of the royal treasuries, and described him as “keen and more energetic than would be expected of a eunuch”. Narses met with Belisarius at Firmum where a council of war was held, the council discussed what should happen at Rimini and with the commander of troops, John. Narses commented that he had already been punished for his “insolence”, Belisarius and Narses led a column of troops through inland mountainous routes to descend upon Rimini from the northwest. John owed his thanks to Narses for convincing Belisarius, and according to Procopius, commented on the relationship between the two men
Narses
–
Man traditionally identified as Narses, [
citation needed] from the mosaic depicting Justinian and his entourage in the
Basilica of San Vitale,
Ravenna
8.
Battle of Mons Lactarius
–
The Battle of Mons Lactarius took place in 552 or 553 in the course the Gothic War waged on behalf of Justinian I against the Ostrogoths in Italy. After the Battle of Taginae, in which the Ostrogoth king Totila was killed, the battle lasted two days, and Teia was killed in the fighting. Ostrogothic power in Italy was eliminated, and the remaining Ostrogoths went back north, after the battle, Italy was again invaded, this time by the Franks, but they too were defeated and the peninsula was, for a time, reintegrated into the empire. History of the Later Roman Empire by J. B
Battle of Mons Lactarius
–
Battle on the slopes of the Vesuvius
9.
Naples
–
Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
Naples
–
Naples Napoli
Naples
–
Ancient map of the Bay of Naples area from Vatican Museum
Naples
–
A scene featuring the
siren Parthenope, the mythological founder of Naples.
Naples
–
The
Gothic Battle of Mons Lactarius on
Vesuvius, painted by
Alexander Zick.
10.
Nuceria Alfaterna
–
Nocera Inferiore is a city and comune in Campania, Italy, in the province of Salerno, at the foot of Monte Albino,20 km east-south-east of Naples by rail. Nuceria minted its own money, its coins bearing the head of the god, and developed its own alphabet called nucerino. It maintained its allegiance to Rome until 309 BC when it joined the revolted Samnites, in 308 BC it repulsed a Roman attempt to land at the mouth of the Sarnus, but in 307 BC it was besieged and surrendered. It obtained favourable terms, and remained faithful to Rome even after Cannae, hannibal reduced it in 216 BC by starvation, and destroyed the town. The inhabitants returned when peace was restored, in 73 BC it was plundered by Spartacus. At an early date the city became a see, and in the 12th century it sided with Innocent II against Roger of Sicily. In the 13th century, and long after, the town had the name of Nocera de Pagani because a colony of Muslim Saracens was introduced by Frederick II, the town was described as a genuine Muhammadan town with all its characteristic mosques and minarets. It is said that, through their darker complexion and features, notably, while the towns name was changed from Nocera de Pagani to Nocera Inferiore, a nearby town, Nuceria Christianorum, was renamed Nocera Superiore. But in 1239 Frederick II decided to expel the Muslim population of Nocera, a small colony of Saracens was actually introduced in the town around the 9th century. By the end of the 15th century, until 1806 had the epithet, today there is the town of Pagani, which lies about one 1.5 km to the west. In 1385 Pope Urban VI was besieged in the castle by Charles III of Naples, helena, the widow of Manfred of Sicily, was imprisoned in the Castle and died here after the battle of Benevento. Here also Urban VI imprisoned the cardinals who favoured the antipope Clement VII, the castle also had as guests the writers Dante Alighieri and Boccaccio. About three kilometers to the east, near the village of Nocera Superiore, is the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Its chief feature is its dome, ceiled with stone internally and it is supported by 40 ancient columns, and in its construction resembles Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome. The walls are covered with frescoes from the 14th century and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Diocese of Nocera Inferiore-Sarno Alphabet of Nuceria A. S. G, nocerina History of Islam in southern Italy Saracinesco Ciciliano Media related to Nocera Inferiore at Wikimedia Commons Official Website
Nuceria Alfaterna
–
Nocera Inferiore
Nuceria Alfaterna
–
Cathedral-Basilica of Priscus of Nocera
Nuceria Alfaterna
–
Cathedral bell tower, made by
Francesco Solimena
Nuceria Alfaterna
–
Cathedral dome Gloria del Paradiso
11.
Ostrogoths
–
The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the later Goths. They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic, the Ostrogoths were probably literate in the 3rd century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their annexation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after the collapse of the Hun empire after the Battle of Nedao, Ostrogoths migrated westwards towards Illyria and the borders of Italy, while some remained in the Crimea. During the late 5th and 6th centuries, under Theodoric the Great most of the Ostrogoths moved first to Moesia, in 493, Theodoric the Great established a kingdom in Italy. A period of instability then ensued, tempting the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to declare war on the Ostrogoths in 535 in an effort to restore the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Initially, the Byzantines were successful, but under the leadership of Totila, the war lasted for almost 20 years and caused enormous damage and depopulation of Italy. The remaining Ostrogoths were absorbed into the Lombards who established a kingdom in Italy in 568, a division of the Goths is first attested in 291. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, the Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Greuthungi inhabit Phrygia, according to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Ostrogothi, Tervingi and that the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. This interpretation, however, though common among scholars today, is not universal. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other and this terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of Scythians north of the Danube who were called Greuthungi by the north of the Ister. Wolfram asserts that it was the Tervingi who remained behind after the Hunnic conquest and he further believes that the terms Vesi and Ostrogothi were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people, the nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire, the term Visigoth, however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, the western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex
Ostrogoths
–
Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of
San Apollinare Nuovo.
Ostrogoths
–
Ostrogothic bow-fibulae (c. 500) from
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Ostrogoths
–
The mausoleum of
Theodoric the Great in
Ravenna,
Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogoths
–
Coin of
Theodahad (534-536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
12.
Justinian I
–
Justinian I, traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church, was a Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empires greatness, because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the last Roman in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, the prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empires annual revenue by over a million solidi, during his reign Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendour. Justinian was born in Tauresium around 482, a native speaker of Latin, he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origins. The cognomen Iustinianus, which he later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace and his mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the guard before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. Chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, tells of his appearance that he was short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced, another contemporary chronicler, Procopius, compares Justinians appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander. When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, during Justins reign, Justinian was the emperors close confidant. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler, Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east. Upon Justins death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign, as a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as the emperor who never sleeps on account of his work habits, nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople and she was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years his junior
Justinian I
–
Detail of a contemporary portrait mosaic in the
Basilica of San Vitale,
Ravenna.
Justinian I
Justinian I
–
The ancient town of
Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's
Republic of Macedonia.
Justinian I
–
The
Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or
Anastasius I
13.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
–
Screenshot 2012
14.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
–
GND screenshot
15.
King of Italy
–
King of Italy was the title given to the ruler of the Kingdom of Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The first to take the title was Odoacer, a military leader, in the late 5th century. With the Frankish conquest of Italy in the 8th century, the Carolingians assumed the title, the last Emperor to claim the title was Charles V in the 16th century. During this period, the holders of the title were crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, although Napoleon I used the title from 1805 to 1814, it was not until the Unification of Italy in the 1860s that a Kingdom of Italy was restored. From 1861 the House of Savoy held the title as monarchs of the peninsula until the last King of Italy, Umberto II. After the deposition of the last Western Emperor in 476, Heruli leader Odoacer was appointed Dux Italiae by the reigning Byzantine Emperor Zeno. Later, the Germanic foederati, the Scirians and the Heruli, as well as a segment of the Italic Roman army. In 493, the Ostrogothic king Theoderic the Great killed Odoacer, Ostrogothic rule ended when Italy was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in 552. In the 8th century, estrangement between the Italians and the Byzantines allowed the Lombards to capture the remaining Roman enclaves in northern Italy. However, in 774, they were defeated by the Franks under Charlemagne, after the death of Charles III the Fat in 887, Italy fell into instability and a number of kings attempted to establish themselves as independent Italian monarchs. During this period, known as the Feudal Anarchy, the title Rex Italicorum was introduced, after the breakup of the Frankish empire, Otto I added Italy to the Holy Roman Empire and continued the use of the title Rex Italicorum. The last to use this title was Henry II, subsequent emperors used the title king of Italy until Charles V. At first they were crowned in Pavia, later Milan, in 1805, Napoleon I was crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at the Milan Cathedral. The next year, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated his imperial title, from the deposition of Napoleon I until the Italian Unification, there was no Italian monarch claiming the overarching title. The Risorgimento successfully established a dynasty, the House of Savoy, over the peninsula, uniting the kingdoms of Sardinia. The monarchy was superseded by the Italian Republic, after a referendum was held on 2 June 1946 after the World War II. The Italian monarchy formally ended on 12 June of that year, Guy of Spoleto opponent of Berengar, ruled most of Italy but was deposed by Arnulf. Lambert of Spoleto subking of his father Guy before 894, reduced to Spoleto 894–895, Arnulf of Carinthia Ratold In 896, Arnulf and Ratold lost control of Italy, which was divided between Berengar and Lambert, Berengar I seized Lamberts portion upon the latters death in 898
King of Italy
–
Iron Crown of Lombardy
King of Italy
–
Otto I
King of Italy
–
Otto II
King of Italy
–
Otto III
16.
Odoacer
–
Flavius Odoacer, also known as Flavius Odovacer, was a soldier who in 476 became the first King of Italy. His reign is seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Though the real power in Italy was in his hands, he represented himself as the client of Julius Nepos and, after Nepos death in 480, Odoacer introduced few important changes into the administrative system of Italy. He had the support of the Roman Senate and was able to land to his followers without much opposition. Unrest among his warriors led to violence in 477–478, but no such disturbances occurred during the period of his reign. Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, he intervened in the affairs of the orthodox. Probably of Scirian descent, Odoacer was a leader in Italy who led the revolt of Herulian, Rugian. With the backing of the Roman Senate, Odoacer thenceforth ruled Italy autonomously, paying lip service to the authority of Julius Nepos, the last Western emperor, and Zeno, upon Nepos murder in 480 Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, to punish the murderers. He did so, executing the conspirators, but within two years also conquered the region and incorporated it into his domain. When Illus, master of soldiers of the Eastern Empire, asked for Odoacer’s help in 484 in his struggle to depose Zeno, the emperor responded first by inciting the Rugi of present-day Austria to attack Italy. During the winter of 487–488 Odoacer crossed the Danube and defeated the Rugi in their own territory, Zeno also appointed the Ostrogoth Theoderic the Great who was menacing the borders of the Eastern Empire, to be king of Italy, turning one troublesome, nominal vassal against another. Theoderic invaded Italy in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, the city surrendered on 5 March 493, Theoderic invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation and there killed him. Odoacer is the earliest ruler of Italy for whom an autograph of any of his legal acts has survived to the current day. The larger portion of a record of Odoacer granting properties in Sicily, except for the fact that he was not considered Roman, Odoacers ethnic origins are not completely known. Both the Anonymus Valesianus and John of Antioch state his fathers name was Edeko, since Sebastian Tillemont in the 17th century, all three have been considered to be the same person. In his Getica, Jordanes describes Odoacer as king of the Turcilingi, however, in his Romana, the same author defines him as a member of the Rugii. The Consularia Italica calls him king of the Heruli, while Theophanes appears to be guessing when he calls him a Goth, marcellinus Comes calls him the king of the Goths. One of these is that his name, Odoacer, for which an etymology in Germanic languages had not been found, could be a form of the Turkish Ot-toghar
Odoacer
–
Coin of Odoacer, Ravenna, 477, with Odoacer in profile, depicted with a "barbarian"
moustache.
Odoacer
–
Romulus Augustus resigns the Crown (from a 19th-century illustration).
Odoacer
–
Odoacer
solidus struck in the name of Emperor
Zeno, testifying to the formal submission of Odoacer to Zeno.
Odoacer
–
The Kingdom of Italy (Odoacer) in 480 AD.
17.
Theoderic the Great
–
Theoderic the Great, often referred to as Theodoric, was king of the Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, regent of the Visigoths, and a patricius of the Roman Empire. His Gothic name Þiudareiks translates into people-king or ruler of the people, Theodoric was born in Pannonia, now northern Croatia in 454, after his people had defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao. His father was King Theodemir, a Germanic Amali nobleman, Theodoric grew up as a hostage in Constantinople, received a privileged education, and succeeded his father as leader of the Pannonian Ostrogoths in 473. Settling his people in lower Moesia, Theoderic came into conflict with Thracian Ostrogoths led by Theodoric Strabo, Emperor Zeno subsequently gave him the title of Patrician, Vir gloriosus, and the office of Magister militum, and even appointed him as Roman Consul. Seeking further gains, Theoderic frequently ravaged the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, while he promoted separation between the Arian Ostrogoths and the Roman population, Theoderic stressed the importance of racial harmony, though intermarriage was outlawed. Seeking to restore the glory of Ancient Rome, he ruled Italy in its most peaceful and prosperous period since Valentinian, memories of his reign made him a hero of German legend as Dietrich von Bern. The man who would rule under the name of Theoderic was born in 454 AD. This was just a year after the Ostrogoths had thrown off nearly a century of domination by the Huns, treated with favor by the Emperors Leo I and Zeno, he became magister militum in 483, and one year later he became consul. Afterwards, he returned to live among the Ostrogoths when he was 31 years old, at the time, the Ostrogoths were settled in Byzantine territory as foederati of the Romans, but were becoming restless and increasingly difficult for Zeno to manage. Not long after Theoderic became king, the two men worked out an arrangement beneficial to both sides, the Ostrogoths needed a place to live, and Zeno was having serious problems with Odoacer, the King of Italy who had come to power in 476. Ostensibly a viceroy for Zeno, Odoacer was menacing Byzantine territory, at Zenos encouragement, Theoderic invaded Odoacers kingdom. Theoderic came with his army to Italy in 488, where he won the battles of Isonzo and Verona in 489, on February 2,493, Theoderic and Odoacer signed a treaty that assured both parties would rule over Italy. A banquet was organised in order to celebrate this treaty and it was at this banquet that Theoderic, after making a toast, killed Odoacer, Theoderic drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. Like Odoacer, Theoderic was ostensibly only a viceroy for the emperor in Constantinople, in reality, he was able to avoid imperial supervision, and dealings between the emperor and Theoderic were as equals. Unlike Odoacer, however, Theoderic respected the agreement he had made and allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law, the Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theoderic the Great sought alliances with, or hegemony over, the other Germanic kingdoms in the west. He allied with the Franks by his marriage to Audofleda, sister of Clovis I, the Franks were able to wrest control of Aquitaine from the Visigoths, but otherwise Theoderic was able to defeat their incursions. Theoderics achievements began to even before his death
Theoderic the Great
–
Quarter Siliqua featuring Theoderic, c. AD 491–501
Theoderic the Great
–
The Ostrogothic Kingdom (in yellow) at the death of Theoderic the Great (526AD)
Theoderic the Great
–
Bronze weight, inlaid with silver, with the name of Theoderic, issued by prefect Catulinus in Rome, 493–526.
Theoderic the Great
–
The
Mausoleum of Theoderic in Ravenna.
18.
Athalaric
–
Athalaric was the King of the Ostrogoths in Italy between 526 and 534. He was a son of Eutharic and Amalasuntha and his maternal grandfather was Theoderic the Great. He succeeded his grandfather as king in 526, as Athalaric was only ten years old, the regency was assumed by his mother, Amalasuntha. His mother attempted to provide for him an education in the Roman tradition, as a result, Athalaric drank heavily and indulged in vicious excesses, which ruined his constitution. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Athalaric
–
Golden coin of Theodatus and Athalaric, depicting emperor
Justinian I
Athalaric
–
Non-dynastic
Athalaric
Athalaric
19.
Theodahad
–
Theodahad was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister Amalafrida. He might have arrived in Italy with Theodoric and was a man at the time of his succession. Massimilliano Vitiello states the name Theodahad is a compound of people and he arrested Amalaswintha, queen of the Ostrogoths from 526 to 534, and imprisoned her on an island in Lake Bolsena. Witiges ordered him killed, and succeeded him as king, Theodahad had at least two children with a woman named Gudeliva, Theodegisclus and Theodenantha. Thiudehad appears as a character in the travel novel Lest Darkness Fall
Theodahad
–
Theodahad
Theodahad
–
Coin of Theodahad.
Theodahad
–
Another coin of Theodahad (534–536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
Theodahad
–
Non-dynastic
20.
Vitiges
–
Vitiges or Witiges was king of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540. Vitiges was the husband of Amalasunthas only surviving child, Matasuntha, soon after he was made king, Vitiges had his predecessor Theodahad murdered. Theodahad had enraged the Goths because he failed to send any assistance to Naples when it was besieged by the Byzantines, justinians general Belisarius took both Vitiges and Matasuntha as captives to Constantinople, and Vitiges died there, without any children. After his death, Matasuntha married the patrician Germanus Justinus, a nephew of Justinian I by his sister Vigilantia
Vitiges
–
Non-dynastic
Vitiges
–
Campaign map of the first phase of the Gothic war, 535–540
Vitiges
Vitiges
21.
Ildibad
–
Ildibad was a king of the Ostrogoths in Italy in 540-541. Ildibad was a nephew of Theudis, one of the Visigothic kings in Spain and this relationship led Peter Heather to suggest that both belonged to a powerful, non-royal clan. In the 540, the Ostrogothic king Witiges was taken prisoner by Belisarius in Ravenna, Ildibads children were also taken prisoner. Ildibad was one of the Goths north of the Po river who still refused to surrender to Roman authority, following Witiges capture however, Ildibad had attempted to negotiate terms of surrender with Belisarius, perhaps because of the fate of his children. After Witigess capture, the candidate for the Ostrogothic throne became Uraias, who was Witiges nephew. Uraias however declined because his family lacked royal fortune, and instead suggested Ildibad and these were the only cities still held by the Ostrogoths at this time. After being elected king in 540, Ildibad moved his capital to Pavia, Ildibad again attempted to negotiate a surrender, but after Belisarius sailed to Constantinople along with Witiges and Ildibads family, the war resumed. The Gothic territory at this time constisted only of a strip of land between Pavia and Verona, while the army consisted of barely 1,000 men, although this number was growing. The lack of coordination between the remaining Byzantine commanders enabled Ildibad to extend his authority throughout Liguria and Venetia, in 541 AD he was engaged outside the heavily defended city of Treviso by its military commander Vitalius and a sizable body of Heruli. The battle was a victory for the Goths, with Vitalius barely escaping while the Heruli leader was killed. His nephew Totila then became commander of Treviso. Ildibad was subsequently able to extend his authority across the entire Po Valley, the victory gave him increased support among the Goths, while the ruinous Roman taxation of the provinces and lack of coordination between generals enabled him to acquire many Roman deserters. In 541, Ildibad had Uraias murdered, according to Procopius, Uraiass murder had been instigated by Ildibads wife, who felt insulted by the lavish lifestyle of Uraias wife. In any case, Ildibad was in May 541 murdered at a banquet by his Gepid bodyguard. The lack of a suitable Gothic successor enabled the Rugians to make their chief Eraric king of the Goths, Eraric however betrayed the Goths and secretly offered to surrender the Gothic kingdom to the Byzantines in return for money. As a result, the Goths at Pavia offered Ildibads nephew Totila the throne, Totila was at that point himself negotiating with the imperial commander at Ravenna, and demanded the killing of Eraric if he was to accept the throne. After Eraric was killed in October 541, Totila became king of the Ostrogoths, history of the Later Roman Empire, Vol.2, From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
Ildibad
–
Non-dynastic
Ildibad
Ildibad
22.
Eraric
–
Eraric was briefly King of the Ostrogoths, elected as the most distinguished among the Rugians in the confederation of the Ostrogoths. He summoned a council directed to convincing the confederation to make peace with the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian, the Ostrogoths opposed the ceasefire under the negotiations, and they instead elected Ildibads nephew Totila. Soon afterwards Eraric was killed by Totilas followers, history of the later Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius I. Volume 2 by John Bagnell Bury
Eraric
–
Non-dynastic
Eraric
Eraric
23.
Lombards
–
The Lombards or Longobards were a Germanic people who ruled large parts of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, the Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, his successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, by late 569 they had conquered all north of Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central Italy and they established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum Italicum, which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne, however, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. In this period, the part of Italy still under Longobardic domination was known by the name Langbarðaland in the Norse runestones. Their legacy is apparent in the regional name Lombardy. The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon, pauls chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a tribe called the Winnili dwelling in southern Scandinavia. The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation, the departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, the Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute. The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan, who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea, at sunrise, Frea turned her husbands bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, Who are these long-beards. and Frea replied, My lord, thou hast given them the name, from that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards. When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian and he thought the pagan stories of his people silly and laughable. Paul explained that the name Langobard came from the length of their beards, a modern theory suggests that the name Langobard comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin. Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to Lombards, they changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin
Lombards
–
The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento
Lombards
–
Wodan (Godan) and
Frigg (Frea) looking out of a window in the heavens...
Lombards
–
...and spot the Lombard women with their long hair tied as to appear as beards
Lombards
–
Lombard grave goods (6th-7th century) -
Milan,
Lombardy
24.
Alboin
–
Alboin was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572. During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy, the period of Alboins reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father, Audoin, was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbors, the Gepids. The Gepids initially gained the hand, but in 567, thanks to his alliance with the Avars, Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies. After gathering a large coalition of peoples, Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568 and he rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria. In 569, unopposed, he took northern Italys main city, pavia offered stiff resistance however, and was taken only after a siege lasting three years. During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany, but signs of factionalism among his supporters, Alboin was assassinated on June 28,572, in a coup détat instigated by the Byzantines. It was organized by the foster brother, Helmichis, with the support of Alboins wife, Rosamund. The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards, for many centuries following his death Alboins heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry. Wachos death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne, seven years later Walthari died, giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings. Alboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia, the son of Audoin and his wife and she may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian. Like his father, Alboin was raised a pagan, although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian, Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind, daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar. The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks known hostility to the Byzantine empire, Alboin first distinguished himself on the battlefield in a clash with the Gepids. For this initiation, he went to the court of Thurisind, Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition, and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical topos of an epic poem. Alboin came to the throne after the death of his father, as was customary among the Lombards, Alboin took the crown after an election by the tribes freemen, who traditionally selected the king from the dead sovereigns clan. Shortly afterwards, in 565, a new war erupted with the Gepids, now led by Cunimund, the tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart, who observes that it conflicts with the Origo Gentis Langobardorum, where she was captured only after the death of her father. The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to him the region of Sirmium. The Lombards played on the hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines, claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids. Moreover, Justin II was moving away from the policy of Justinian
Alboin
–
Woodcut vignette of Alboin in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Alboin
–
The Vipava Valley in Slovenia, through which Alboin led the Lombards into Italy
Alboin
–
A modern rendering of Alboin's entrance into Ticinum
Alboin
–
The fatal banquet as painted by
Peter Paul Rubens in 1615
25.
Cleph
–
Cleph was king of the Lombards from 572 to 574. He succeeded Alboin, to whom he was not related by blood and he was a violent and terrifying figure to the Romans and Byzantines struggling to maintain control of the peninsula. He extended Lombard dominion over all of northern Italy, finishing the conquest of Tuscany and he was assassinated after an 18-month reign by a young guard, a slave whom he had mistreated. His death was followed by a 10-year interregnum, known as the Rule of the Dukes because the dukes were supreme. His son, Authari, eventually took the throne in 585
Cleph
–
Non-dynastic
Cleph
Cleph
26.
Rule of the Dukes
–
The Rule of the Dukes was an interregnum in the Lombard Kingdom of Italy during which Italy was ruled by the Lombard dukes of the old Roman provinces and urban centres. But there were thirty other dukes besides these in their own cities, the Origo gives a shorter version of the same events, The rest of the Langobards set over themselves a king named, Cleph, of the stock of Beleos, and Cleph reigned two years and died. And the dukes of the Langobards administered justice for twelve years, and Autari took as his wife Theudelenda, a daughter of Garipald and of Walderada from Bavaria. The Lombards had entered the Italian peninsula in 568 under Alboin, under Alboins successor, Cleph, they continued to expand at the expense of the Byzantines. Clephs reign was short and his rule hard, upon his death, the Lombards did not elect another leader-king, leaving the territorial dukes the highest authorities in Lombard territories. According to Fredegar, they were forced to pay tribute to the Franks, the dukes were unable to organise themselves under a single leader capable of continuing their successes against the Byzantines. Finally, tired of disunion, fearing a pincer action from a Byzantine–Frankish alliance, and lacking the necessary to withstand combined military forces. They ceded to him the old capital of Pavia and half of their ducal demesnes, with the election of a king and the payment of tribute, the last Frankish troops still in Italy left. Paul the Deacon, Foulke, William Dudley, ed. Historia Langobardorum
Rule of the Dukes
–
Non-dynastic
Rule of the Dukes
Rule of the Dukes
27.
Authari
–
Authari also known as Agilolf, was king of the Lombards from 584 to his death. Authari was the son of Cleph, King of the Lombards, when the latter died in 574, the Lombard nobility refused to appoint a successor, resulting in ten years interregnum known as the Rule of the Dukes. In 574 and 575 the Lombards invaded Provence, then part of the kingdom of Burgundy of the Merovingian Guntram, the latter, in alliance with his nephew, the king of Austrasia Childebert II, replied by invading northern Italy. The Austrasian army descended the valley of the Adige and took Trent, the Byzantine emperor, Tiberius II, began to negotiate an alliance with the Franks and the Lombards, fearful of a pincer movement, elected another king. In 584, they elected Duke Authari and ceded him the capital of Pavia as well as half of their domains as a demesne. He spent his reign in wars with the Franks, the Byzantines. His first major test was the quashing of the rebel duke Droctulf of Brescello, having expelled him, he spent most of the rest of his six years on the throne fighting the exarch of Ravenna, Smaragdus, or the Merovingian kings. Guntram and Childebert were still not satisfied with their successes in Italy and they many times threatened invasion, following through on their threats twice. In 588, Authari defeated them handily, but in 590, the uncle and nephew led to armies across the Alps, respectively over Mont Cenis and the Brenner to Milan and Verona. Though Authari shut himself up in Pavia, the Franks accomplished little as the army did not meet them. Pestilence turned them around and they left the Lombards much chastened, Authari, when not controlled by foreign armies, expanded the Lombard dominion at the expense of Byzantium. He took the fortress of Comacchio and cut off communication between Padua and Ravenna, faroald, duke of Spoleto, captured the Ravennan seaport of Classis and utterly devastated it. Authari swept through the all the way to Reggio, vowing to take Calabria — a vow never to be kept by any Lombard. On 15 May 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of the Bavarian duke Garibald I, a Catholic, she had great influence among the Lombards for her virtue. When Authari died in Pavia in 590, possibly by poison, he was succeeded as king by Agilulf, duke of Turin, on the advice, sought by the dukes, of Theodelinda, who married the new king
Authari
–
Woodcut vignette of Authari in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Authari
–
Non-dynastic
Authari
Authari
28.
Agilulf
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Agilulf called the Thuringian, was a duke of Turin and king of the Lombards from 591 until his death. A relative of his predecessor Authari, Agilulf was selected king on the advice of the Christian queen and widow of Authari, Theodelinda, whom he then married. Although he assumed the dignity at the beginning of November 590. He was baptized to appease his wife and his nation followed suit, though they adopted the Arian denomination, in 603, under the influence of his wife, he abandoned Arianism for Catholicism, and had his son Adaloald baptised. His long reign was marked by the cessation of war with Francia, whose chief peacemaker Guntram, without him, the Franks descended into civil war which prevented a united assault on Lombardy throughout Agilulfs rule. A truce with the Papacy negotiated in 598 temporarily ended thirty years of Lombard terror in the Ducatus Romanus and he fought the Avars and Slavs, and entered a truce with the Byzantine emperor Maurice in 598 with the aid of Pope Gregory the Great. The following year, Exarch Callinicus broke the truce by kidnapping the daughter of the Lombard king. War erupted and, in 602, the Byzantine emperor Phocas lost Padua, the loss of Padua in turn cut off Mantua and, before the year was out, that city too fell to Agilulf. In 607, Witteric, king of the Visigoths, initiated an alliance against Theuderic II of Burgundy involving Theudebert II of Austrasia, Clotaire II of Neustria. Theuderics grandmother and sister had murdered Theuderics wife, the daughter of Witteric, the alliance does not seem to have had success. Nothing of any combat is known except that it took place. In 605, he was recognized by the emperor Phocas, who paid a tribute, the Persian Wars drew Byzantine attention to the Orient and gave respite to Agilulfs final decade on the throne. He had to put down some insurrections and the Avars did not desist from invading Friuli, otherwise, his reign ended peacefully and he died in 616, after reigning for more than a quarter of a century. He was succeeded by Adaloald, his son by Theodelinda, who was still an adolescent and he had a daughter Gundeberga who married Arioald who later became king
Agilulf
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Woodcut vignette of Agilulf in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Agilulf
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King Agilulf represented on a 7th-century helmet plate from
Valdinievole Bargello National Museum; Florence
Agilulf
Agilulf
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Non-dynastic
29.
Adaloald
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Adaloald was the Lombard king of Italy from 616 to 626. He was son and heir of King Agilulf and his Catholic queen Theodelinda and he was baptised shortly after his birth in 602, the abbot Secundus of Non was his godfather. He was a king, raised on the shield by the warriors at his fathers request. Upon becoming sole king as a teen, he reigned under his mother as regent, adaloald went insane and lost the support of the nobles. He was deposed in 626 by Arioald, a Lombard noble from Turin and husband of the kings sister Gundeberga, adaloald died mysteriously in Ravenna shortly after
Adaloald
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Non-dynastic
Adaloald
Adaloald
30.
Arioald
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Arioald was the Lombard king of Italy from 626 to 636. Duke of Turin, he married the princess Gundeberga, daughter of King Agilulf and he was, unlike his father-in-law, an Arian who did not accept Catholicism. Arioald deposed Agilulfs heir Adaloald with the support of the nobility, upon becoming king, he had his wife locked up in a monastery, accusing her of plotting against him with Tasson, duke of Friuli. He also reestablished Arianism in the Lombard kingdom and his only recorded wars were against the Avars, whom he succeeded in repelling during an attempted invasion of northeast Italy
Arioald
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Non-dynastic
Arioald
Arioald
