1.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
4.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
5.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
6.
Israeli Air Force
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The Israeli Air Force operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28,1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, as of May 2012 Aluf Amir Eshel serves as the Air Force Commander. The Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, using commandeered or donated civilian aircraft and obsolete, eventually, more aircraft were procured, including Boeing B-17s, Bristol Beaufighters, de Havilland Mosquitoes and P-51D Mustangs. The Israeli Air Force played an important part in Operation Kadesh, on June 5,1967, the first day of the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force executed Operation Focus, crippling the opposing Arab air forces and attaining air supremacy for the remainder of the war. Shortly after the end of the Six-Day War, Egypt initiated the War of Attrition, on October 7,1973, the IAF conducted Operation Tagar against Egyptian air bases of the Egyptian Air Defence Force. Although initially successful, with 10 bases hit, the urgency of the fighting on the Golan heights forced the operations suspension, since that war most of Israels military aircraft have been obtained from the United States. Among these are the F-4 Phantom II, A-4 Skyhawk, F-15 Eagle, the Israeli Air Force has also operated a number of domestically produced types such as the IAI Nesher, and later, the more advanced IAI Kfir. On June 7,1981, eight IAF F-16A fighters covered by six F-15A jets carried out Operation Opera to destroy the Iraqi nuclear facilities at Osiraq, on June 9,1982, the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation Mole Cricket 19, crippling the Syrian air defence array. The IAF continued to mount attacks on Hezbollah and PLO positions in south Lebanon, on October 1,1985, In response to a PLO terrorist attack which murdered three Israeli civilians in Cyprus, the Israeli air force carried out Operation Wooden Leg. The strike involved the bombing of PLO Headquarters in Tunis, by F-15 Eagles, in 1991, the IAF carried out Operation Solomon which brought Ethiopian Jews to Israel. In 1993 and 1996, the IAF participated in Operation Accountability and Operation Grapes of Wrath and it took part in many missions since, including during the 2006 Lebanon War, Operation Cast Lead, Operation Pillar of Cloud and Operation Protective Edge. On September 6,2007, the Israeli Air Force successfully bombed an alleged Syrian nuclear reactor in Operation Orchard, squadron markings usually go on the tail fin. Forerunners of the Israeli Air Force were the Palestine Flying Service established by the Irgun in 1937, and Sherut Avir, the Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, shortly after Israel declared statehood and found itself under attack. The force consisted of a hodge-podge of commandeered or donated civilian aircraft converted to military use, a variety of obsolete and surplus ex-World War II combat-aircraft were quickly sourced by various means to supplement this fleet. Creativity and resourcefulness were the foundations of early Israeli military success in the air, Israels new fighter-arm first went into action on May 29,1948, assisting efforts to halt the Egyptian advance from Gaza northwards. Four newly arrived Avia S-199s, flown by Lou Lenart, Modi Alon, Ezer Weizman and Eddie Cohen, although damage to the enemy was minimal, two aircraft were lost and Cohen killed, nevertheless the attack achieved its goal and stopped the Egyptians. After un-assembled planes were strafed on the ground on May 30th at Ekron airfield the fighters were moved to makeshift strip located around the current Herzliya Airport. The Israeli Air Force scored its first aerial victories on June 3 when Modi Alon, flying Avia D.112, the first dogfight against enemy fighters took place a few days later, on June 8, when Gideon Lichtaman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire
7.
Rehovot
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Rehovot is a city in the Central District of Israel, about 20 kilometers south of Tel Aviv. In 2015 it had a population of 132,671, Rehovot was established in 1890 by Polish Jewish immigrants on land purchased from a Christian Arab. The biblical town of Rehoboth is located in the Negev Desert, Rehovot was established near a site called Khirbat Deiran, which now lies in the center of the built-up area of the city. Evidence of Jewish and possibly Samaritan occupants during the Roman and Byzantine periods has been found, the moshava of Rehovot was founded on the coastal plain by Polish Jews seeking to establish a township independent of the Baron Edmond James de Rothschild. The land was purchased by the Menuha Venahala society, an organization in Warsaw that raised funds for Jewish settlement in Eretz Israel and this meant that the land purchase represented a disruption to the livelihoods and lifestyles of those who had viewed it as theirs for generations. In March 1892, a dispute over pasture rights erupted between the residents of Rehovot and the village of Zarnuqa, which took two years to resolve. Another dispute broke out with the Suteriya Bedouin tribe, which had been cultivating some of the land as tenant farmers, according to Moshe Smilansky, one of the early settlers of Rehovot, the Bedouins had received compensation for the land, but refused to vacate it. In 1893, they attacked the moshava, through the intervention of a respected Arab sheikh, a compromise was reached, with the Bedouins receiving an additional sum of money, which they used to dig a well. In 1890, the region was a wasteland with no trees, houses or water. The settlers of Rehovot planted vineyards, almond orchards and citrus groves, but grappled with agricultural failures, plant diseases, the first citrus grove was planted by Zalman Minkov in 1904. Minkovs grove, surrounded by a wall, included a house, stables, a packing plant. The well was 23 meters deep, the height of an eight-story building, the water was channeled via an aqueduct to an irrigation pool, and from there to a network of ditches dug around the bases of the trees. By 1908, the idea was conceived of settling new Jewish immigrants on the land as agricultural laborers, only a few dozen Yemenite families had joined Rehovot by 1908. They built houses for themselves in a given to them at the south end of the town. In 1910, Shemuel Warshawsky, with the support of the JNF, was sent to Yemen to recruit more agricultural laborers. Hundreds arrived starting in 1911 and were housed first in a one kilometre south of Rehovot. In February 1914, Rothschild visited Rehovot during the fourth of his five visits to the Land of Israel. According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, Rehovot had a population of 1,242 inhabitants, increasing in 1931 census to 3193 inhabitants, in 833 houses
8.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
9.
Jericho (missile)
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Jericho is a general designation given to a loosely related family of deployed ballistic missiles developed by Israel from the 1960s forward. The name is taken from the first development contract for the Jericho I signed between Israel and Dassault in 1963, with the codename as a reference to the Biblical city of Jericho. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory concluded that the Shavit could be adapted as an ICBM carrying 500 kg warhead over 7500 km, Jericho I was first publicly identified as an operational short-range ballistic missile system in late 1971. It was 13.4 metres long,0.8 m in diameter and it had a range of 500 km and a CEP of 1,000 m, and it could carry a payload estimated at 400 kilograms. It was intended to carry a nuclear warhead, however, due to Israels ambiguity over its nuclear weapons program, the missile is classified as a ballistic missile. Initial development was in conjunction with France, Dassault provided various missile systems from 1963, but French co-operation was halted by an arms embargo from January 1968, though 12 missiles had been delivered from France. Work was continued by IAI at the Beit Zachariah facility and the program cost almost $1 billion up to 1980, despite some initial problems with its guidance systems, it is believed that around 100 missiles of this type were produced. In 1969 Israel agreed with the U. S. that Jericho missiles would not be used as missiles, with nuclear warheads. He was warning of Israels impending total defeat, but Temple was also the word for nuclear weapons. Dayan again raised the topic in a cabinet meeting, warning that the country was approaching a point of last resort. They would be used if necessary to prevent total defeat. U. S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger learned of the alert on the morning of October 9. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger told Sadat that the reason for the U. S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to going nuclear, the Jericho I is now considered obsolete and was taken out of service during the 1990s. The Jericho II is a fuel, two-stage long-range ballistic missile system. Jericho II development began in 1977, and by 1986 there were reports of test firings, according to Missilethreat, a project of the George C. There was a series of test launches into the Mediterranean from 1987 to 1992, janes reports that a test launch of 1,400 km is believed to have taken place from South Africas Overberg Test Range in June 1989. The Jericho II is 14.0 m long and 1.56 m wide and it has a 1,000 kg payload, capable of carrying a considerable amount of high explosives or a 1 Mt yield nuclear warhead. It uses a solid propellant engine with a separating warhead
10.
Nuclear weapons and Israel
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It is one of four nuclear-armed countries not recognized as a Nuclear Weapons State by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the others being India, Pakistan and North Korea. Israel maintains a policy known as nuclear ambiguity, Israel has refused to sign the NPT despite international pressure to do so, and has stated that signing the NPT would be contrary to its national security interests. Additionally, Israel has made efforts to deny other regional actors the ability to acquire their own nuclear weapons. The counter-proliferation, preventive strike Begin Doctrine added another dimension to Israels existing nuclear policy, Israel remains the only country in the Middle East believed to possess them. Israel is alleged to have built its first nuclear weapon in December 1966, but it is not publicly confirmed. In 1987, an unclassified US DoD report stated that As far as nuclear technology is concerned and it should be noted that the Israelis are developing the kind of codes which will enable them to make hydrogen bombs. Estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal vary between 75 and 400 nuclear warheads, former U. S. officials Jimmy Carter and Colin Powell have stated that Israel has 200 or more than 300 nuclear warheads. Israels first Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion was nearly obsessed with obtaining nuclear weapons to prevent the Holocaust from recurring. He stated, What Einstein, Oppenheimer, and Teller, the three of them are Jews, made for the United States, could also be done by scientists in Israel, for their own people. Ben-Gurion decided to recruit Jewish scientists from abroad even before the end of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War that established Israels independence, in 1949 a unit of the Israel Defense Forces Science Corps, known by the Hebrew acronym HEMED GIMMEL, began a two-year geological survey of the Negev. In early 1952 Hemed Gimmel was moved from the IDF to the Ministry of Defense and was reorganized as the Division of Research and that June, Bergmann was appointed by Ben-Gurion to be the first chairman of the Israel Atomic Energy Commission. The techniques were two more advanced than American efforts. Bergmann, who was interested in increasing nuclear cooperation with the French, although they were never commercialized, it was a consequential step for future French-Israeli cooperation. In addition, Israeli scientists probably helped construct the G-1 plutonium production reactor, France and Israel had close relations in many areas. At the same time Israeli scientists were also observing Frances own nuclear program, According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties, furthermore, according to Farr, There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis had unrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data. The French justified their decision to provide Israel a nuclear reactor by claiming it was not without precedent, in September 1955 Canada publicly announced that it would help the Indian government build a heavy-water research reactor, the CIRUS, for peaceful purposes. In exchange, France would provide the nuclear reactor as the basis for the Israeli nuclear weapons program, Shimon Peres, sensing the opportunity on the nuclear reactor, accepted
11.
Mandatory Palestine
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Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948, further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. At the wars end the British and French set up a joint Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in what had been Ottoman Syria, the British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, the land west of the Jordan River, known as Palestine, was under direct British administration until 1948. The land east of the Jordan, a region known as Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from the Hijaz. The divergent tendencies regarding the nature and purpose of the mandate are visible already in the discussions concerning the name for this new entity. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called Southern Syria in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State. During the British Mandate period the area experienced the ascent of two major nationalist movements, one among the Jews and the other among the Arabs, following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine was governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. In July 1920, the administration was replaced by a civilian administration headed by a High Commissioner. The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, a Zionist recent cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, following the arrival of the British, Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. In 1919 they joined to hold the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem and its main platforms were a call for representative government and opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Zionist Commission was formed in March 1918 and was active in promoting Zionist objectives in Palestine, on 19 April 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community. The Zionist Commission received official recognition in 1922 as representative of the Palestinian Jewish community, Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organizations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favor Zionism, when Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Kamil al-Husayni died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother Mohammad Amin al-Husseini to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the clan of Jerusalem, was an Arab nationalist. As Grand Mufti, as well as the influential positions that he held during this period. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council which had created by Samuel in December 1921. The Council controlled the Waqf funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds, in addition, he controlled the Islamic courts in Palestine
12.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
13.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella
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Ekron
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The city of Ekron, was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine pentapolis, located in southwestern Canaan. Following the 1996 discovery of the Ekron inscription, Ekron was positively identified with the mound of Tel Miqne or Khirbet el-Muqanna, numerous locations have been suggested for Ekron, including Aqir, Qatra, Zikrin and Caesarea Maritima. Jerome wrote that Ekron was to the east of Azotus and Iamnia and this may be a reference to Rabbi Abbahus identification of Ekron with Caesarea in Megillah. The site of Tel Miqne was lightly occupied beginning in the Chalcolithic period, after a 400-year gap when only the upper tel was occupied, the city underwent a major expansion c.1600 BCE, under the Canaanites. It was re-established by Philistines at the beginning of the Iron Age, during the Iron Age, Ekron was a border city on the frontier contested between Philistia and the kingdom of Judah. Records of the Neo-Assyrian Empire also refer to Ekron, the siege of Ekron in 712 BCE is depicted on one of Sargon IIs wall reliefs in his palace at Khorsabad, which names the city. Ekron revolted against Sennacherib and expelled Padi, his governor, who was sent to Hezekiah, in Jerusalem, Sennacherib marched against Ekron and the Ekronites called upon the aid of the king of Mutsri from northwest Arabia. Sennacherib turned aside to defeat this army, which he did at Eltekeh and this campaign led to the famous attack of Sennacherib on Hezekiah and Jerusalem, in which Sennacherib compelled Hezekiah to restore Padi, who was reinstated as governor at Ekron. Ashdod and Ekron survived to become powerful city-states dominated by Assyria in the 7th century BCE. The city was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzer II in 604 BCE, Joshua 13,13 counts it the border city of the Philistines and seat of one of the five Philistine city lords, and Joshua 15,11 mentions Ekrons satellite towns and villages. The city was reassigned afterwards to the tribe of Dan, and it was the last place to which the Philistines carried the Ark of the Covenant before they sent it back to Israel. There was a sanctuary of Baal at Ekron. So he sent messengers whom he instructed, Go inquire of Baal-zebub and its destruction is prophesied in Zephaniah 2,4, Ekron shall be rooted up. Chronological development The ceramic evidence indicates a presence at the site in the Chalcolithic period and Early Bronze Age. In the lower city, a 400-year occupational gap followed Stratum XI of the 17th–first half of the 16th century BCE until its resettlement in Stratum VII at the beginning of the Iron I, ca.1175 BCE. Another occupational gap of ca.270 years followed the end of Iron I Stratum IV, ca.975 BCE, in the lower city, until it was again resettled in Stratum I of the 7th century BCE. The cities at Ekron were well planned in both the Iron I and Iron II, with four zones of occupation, fortifications, industrial, domestic. The final Iron II occupation in the 7th/6th centuries BCE was represented by an architectural unit in Field III in the lower city
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Israel Defense Forces
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The Israel Defense Forces, commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym Tzahal, are the military forces of the State of Israel. They consist of the forces, air force, and navy. It is the military wing of the Israeli security forces. The IDF is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Defense Minister of Israel, Lieutenant general Gadi Eizenkot has served as Chief of Staff since 2015. The number of wars and border conflicts in which the IDF has been involved in its history makes it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world. The Israel Defense Forces differs from most armed forces in the world in many ways, differences include the mandatory conscription of women and its structure, which emphasizes close relations between the army, navy, and air force. Since its founding, the IDF has been designed to match Israels unique security situation. The IDF is one of Israeli societys most prominent institutions, influencing the economy, culture. In 1965, the Israel Defense Forces was awarded the Israel Prize for its contribution to education, the Uzi submachine gun was invented in Israel and used by the IDF until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954. The Israeli cabinet ratified the name Israel Defense Forces, Tzva HaHagana LeYisrael, literally army for the defense of Israel, the other main contender was Tzva Yisrael. The name was chosen because it conveyed the idea that the role was defense, and because it incorporated the name Haganah. Among the primary opponents of the name were Minister Haim-Moshe Shapira, the IDF traces its roots to Jewish paramilitary organizations in the New Yishuv, starting with the Second Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907 and it was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I, the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps, after the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuvs leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. The Haganah became a defense force after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade, the IDF was founded following the establishment of the State of Israel, after Defense Minister and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion issued an order on 26 May 1948. The order called for the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces, although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an order, the order was made legal by the cabinet on 31 May
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Unit 669
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669 is the Israel Defense Forces heliborne Combat Search & Rescue extraction unit, subordinate to the Special Air Forces Command of the Israeli Air Force. It is considered one of the IDFs premier elite units, Combat and support-staff jobs are multi-ethnic, and non-combat jobs are coed. Unit 669 was founded in 1974, in the aftermath of the 1973 Yom Kippur War and its initial mandate was to extract and provide initial medical treatment to downed pilots beyond enemy lines. The Units logo is a winged, slinking, green-eyed, black cat, the Units warriors are subsequently sometimes referred to as Cats or Flying Cats. Their training and selection lasts 18 months and is considered to be among the most physically and psychologically demanding of the IDF, a typical rescue team from 669 consists of a mix of 669 specialized warfighters and doctors. The unit itself is composed of three branches, Extraction, the extraction branch has a company of advanced and specialized infantrymen. The evacuation branch has a company of airborne doctors, paramedics and these medical personnel are critical to the mission by bringing advanced and specialized medical knowledge and experience to the injured, both in the field and in the air on the way to the hospital. The largest branch, the support group is composed of non-combat soldiers who assist in logistics for the unit. 669 is the IDFs primary rescue unit, the mandate of the unit is to rescue downed pilots and execute airborne medical evacuation of critical casualties. Due to the specialties and high proficiency of 669, the unit may also accept various other special operations missions depending on the needs of the Air Force. Unit 669 has been credited with hundreds of rescues, some of the more high profile missions are listed below. On September 15,1997, the Shayetet 13 Naval Commandos sent a team to conduct a raid in Lebanon. The team encountered an improvised explosive device and was ambushed by Hezbollah in what has subsequently called the Ansariya Ambush. 13 of the commandos were killed and 3 were injured. Unit 669 responded by sending a team to evacuate the injured commando team, for bravery and performance under fire the 669 team received a formal citation. In 2003,669 rescued ten Turkish seamen when they were caught in a storm in the Mediterranean Sea. Under these severe weather and sea conditions, the 669 soldiers rescued and evacuated the sailors from their ship at sea, during the Second Lebanon War and Operation Cast Lead, Unit 669 made dozens of high profile rescues of injured soldiers under enemy fire. During the 2014 military campaign Protective Edge,669 evacuated hundreds of casualties and these rescues, often under fire, earned the unit a formal citation award from the Chief of Staff of the IDF
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Paratrooper
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Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular infantry. The first extensive use of paratroopers was by the Germans during World War II and later in the war also by the Americans, owing to the limited capacity of cargo aircraft of the period they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English language parlance, this load of paratroopers is called a stick, the terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned. In World War II, paratroopers most often used parachutes of a circular or round design and these parachutes could be steered to a small degree by pulling on the risers and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. Some military exhibition units and special forces units use ram-air parachutes, many countries have one or several paratrooper units, usually associated to the national Army or Air Force, but in some cases to the Navy. Argentina was the first country on the continent of South America to use Paratroopers, the first paratroopers were issued jump helmets similar to that used by the British at the time, as the rest of the equipment slightly based on the Fallschirmjäger. The 4th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the Argentine Army specialised in airborne assault operations and it is based in Córdoba, Córdoba Province. The Rapid Deployment Force is based on this unit, the members of the unit wear Boina Rojas of the paratroopers with unit badges. During the Second World War the Australian Army formed the 1st Parachute Battalion, however, in the post-war period Australias parachute capability was primarily maintained by special forces units. In the 1970s and 1980s a parachute capability was revived, while a Parachute Battalion Group based on the 3rd Battalion
18.
Gilad Shalit
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Gilad Shalit is an Israeli sports columnist and a former MIA soldier of the Israel Defense Forces. On 25 June 2006, Shalit was captured by Hamas militants in a cross-border raid via underground tunnels near the Israeli border, Hamas held him captive for over five years, until his release on 18 October 2011 as part of a prisoner exchange deal. During his captivity, Hamas turned down requests from the International Committee of the Red Cross to be allowed to visit Shalit, multiple human rights organizations criticized this stance, claiming that the conditions of Shalits confinement were contrary to international humanitarian law. The Red Cross insisted, The Shalit family have the right under international law to be in contact with their son. The United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict called for Shalits release in its September 2009 report, in its 27 May 2011 Deauville Declaration, the G8 demanded Shalits release. Shalits capture has been deemed a kidnapping and abduction by many sources and he was not granted any visits from the Red Cross and was not allowed to communicate with family members, and a ransom, even if not of a monetary nature, was demanded for his return. Shalit was captured near the Kerem Shalom crossing in Israel, Hamas initial demands of releasing of all female and underage Palestinians as well as Marwan Barghouti were not met. Shalit was the first Israeli soldier captured by Palestinian militants since Nachshon Wachsman in 1994. Shalit, having a rank of Corporal in the IDFs Armor Corps at the time of his capture, was promoted to Staff Sergeant, Sergeant First Class, Shalit was born on 28 August 1986 in Nahariya, Israel, to Noam and Aviva Shalit. He has a brother and a younger sister. He was raised from the age of two in Mitzpe Hila in the Western Galilee and he graduated with distinction from Manor Kabri High School. He began military service in the Israel Defense Forces in July 2005 and he holds dual Israeli and French citizenship, the latter via his grandmother. Hamas said they were sons of a member but were not involved in Hamas, Israeli security forces entered the Gaza Strip and arrested the two brothers. As of January 2012 the brothers were still in an Israeli jail, two Israeli soldiers were killed and another two, apart from Shalit, were wounded. Two of the attacking Palestinian militants were also killed, Shalit suffered a broken left hand and a light shoulder wound, and the militants captured him and took him via a tunnel into Gaza. The statement was issued by the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the Popular Resistance Committees, Shalit was the first Israeli soldier captured by Palestinians since Nachshon Wachsman, in 1994. Israeli forces entered Khan Yunis on 28 June 2006 to restore quiet after repeated rocket attacks, freeing Shalit was not one of the objectives of the mission called Cast Lead. The operation did not succeed in finding Shalit, on 29 June, the commander of the Israeli Southern Command, Aluf Yoav Galant, confirmed that Shalit was still in Gaza
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Hamas
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Hamas is a Palestinian Sunni-Islamic fundamentalist organization. It has a service wing, Dawah, and a military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades. Hamass military wing objected to the truce offer, analysts have said that it seems clear that Hamas knows that many of its conditions for the truce could never be met. The attacks on civilians have been condemned as war crimes and crimes against humanity by human rights such as Human Rights Watch. In the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections, Hamas won a plurality in the Palestinian Parliament, Hamas rejected those changes, which led to the Quartet suspending its foreign assistance program and Israel imposing economic sanctions on the Hamas-led administration. In March 2007, a unity government headed by Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh of Hamas was briefly formed. Israel and Egypt then imposed a blockade of the Gaza Strip. In 2011, Hamas and Fatah announced an agreement that provides for creation of a joint caretaker Palestinian government. Progress stalled, until an April 2014 agreement to form a unity government. It is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Iran, Russia, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, China, an EU court found the EUs earlier designation flawed, but its decision has been appealed by the European Council. It is a point of debate in political and academic circles over whether or not to classify Hamas as a terrorist group, Hamas is an acronym of the Arabic phrase حركة المقاومة الاسلامية or Harakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya, meaning Islamic Resistance Movement. The Arabic word hamas means courage or zeal, the Hamas covenant interprets its name to mean strength and bravery. Hamas, as its name implies, aims to liberate Palestine from the Israeli occupation by resisting it, Hamas inherited from its predecessor a tripartite structure that consisted in the provision of social services, of religious training and military operations under a Shura Council. Traditionally it had four distinct functions, a social welfare division, a military division for procuring weapons and undertaking operations, a security service. The exact nature of the organization is unclear, secrecy being maintained for fear of Israeli assassinations, formally, Hamas maintains the wings are separate and independent. Matthew Levitt maintains this is a public myth, davis argues that they are both separate and combined for reasons of internal and external political necessity. Communication between the political and military wings of Hamas is difficult, owing to the thoroughness of Israeli intelligence surveillance, after the assassination of Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi the occasional political direction of the militant wing diminished, with field commanders given discretional autonomy on operations. The governing body is the Majlis al-Shura, the principle behind the Council is based on the Quranic concept of consultation and popular assembly, which Hamas leaders argue provides for democracy within an Islamic framework
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Gilad Shalit prisoner exchange
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Two hundred and eighty of these were sentenced to life in prison for planning and perpetrating various attacks against Israeli targets. The agreement came five years and four months after Palestinian militants captured Shalit in southern Israel along the Gaza Strip border and its first phase was executed on 18 October 2011, with Israel releasing 477 Palestinian prisoners and Hamas transferring Shalit to Cairo. In the second phase, which took place during December 2011, at Shalits release Hamas had several militants with suicide belts in case the Israelis attempted to renege on the deal at the last minute. The agreement is the largest prisoner exchange agreement Israel has ever made, Gilad Shalit was also the first captured Israeli soldier to be released alive in 26 years. The militants managed to open the tanks rear doors with a rocket-propelled grenade fired from point-blank range. Two crew members were killed by the grenades, another member was seriously wounded, while the fourth team member. Meanwhile, large Israeli military forces arrived at the site and began helping the wounded, when they reached the tank the military forces discovered the two bodies. When it became clear there is only one wounded person in the tank and that the fourth crew member was missing. Shalits captors held him in a location in the Gaza Strip for a total of 1,934 days leading up to the prisoner swap deal. While in captivity, Hamas refused to allow the International Red Cross access to Shalit, and the indications that he was still alive were an audio tape, a video recording. Israeli forces entered Khan Yunis on 28 June 2006 to search for Shalit, on the same day, four Israeli Air Force aircraft flew over Syrian President Bashar Assads palace in Latakia, as an IDF spokesperson said that Israel views the Syrian leadership as a sponsor of Hamas. The operation did not succeed in finding Shalit, on that day, Baskin arranged a telephone conversation between Hamas Government spokesman Dr. Ghazi Hamad and Noam Schalit, the father of the soldier. Baskin made contact with Prime Minister Olmert and informed him of this contact with Hamas, but later that day, Olmerts representative, Ofer Deckel told Baskin that he had to step down from his efforts because the Egyptian intelligence was taking over. Deckel had been appointed by Olmert 50 days after Schalits abduction, in the end of December 2006 the Egyptians presented the agreed formula for a prisoner exchange in which Israel would release 1000 Palestinian prisoners in exchange for Schalit in two phases. This was the agreement reached five years later. Hadas resigned in failure in April 2011 and was replaced by Mossad Officer David Meidan, Meidan took over on 18 April 2011, he was contacted by Gershon Baskin the very same day. The secret back channel run by Baskin and Hamas Deputy Foreign Minister Ghazi Hamad was authorized by Netanyahu in May 2011, Shalits father had previously blamed the US for blocking talks on his sons release. The Baskin - Hamad secret back channel produced a document of principles for the release on 14 July 2011 which was authorized by Prime Minister Netanyahu, haaretz reported that Israel proposed a prisoner swap, and threatened that if Hamas rejected the proposal, no swap would occur
21.
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
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The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle is an American twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter aircraft designed by McDonnell Douglas to gain and maintain air supremacy in aerial combat. Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas design in 1967 to meet the services need for an air superiority fighter. The Eagle first flew in July 1972, and entered service in 1976 and it is among the most successful modern fighters, with over 100 victories and no losses in aerial combat, with the majority of the kills scored by the Israel Air Force. The Eagle has been exported to Israel, Japan, and Saudi Arabia, the F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air superiority aircraft. Its design included a secondary ground-attack capability that was largely unused, the aircraft design proved flexible enough that an all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed and entered service in 1989. The F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the U. S. Air Force past 2025, newer models are still being produced for foreign users. The F-15 production line is set to end in 2019,47 years after the types first flight. The F-15 can ultimately trace its origins to the Vietnam War, when the U. S. Air Force, at the time, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara was pressing for both services to use as many common aircraft as possible, even if there were performance sacrifices involved. The former were capable in the tactical role, while the latter might be less so. If the Air Force did choose a design, maintaining air superiority would be a top priority. The next month, a report on light tactical aircraft suggested the Air Force purchase the F-5 or A-7 and this point was reinforced after the loss of two Republic F-105 Thunderchief aircraft to obsolete MiG-15s or MiG-17s on 4 April 1965. In April 1965, Harold Brown, at that time director of the DDR&E, stated the position was to consider the F-5. On 1 August, Gabriel Disosway took command of Tactical Air Command and reiterated calls for the F-X, an official requirements document was finalized in October, and sent out as a request for proposals to 13 companies on 8 December 1965. Following a downselect, four companies were asked to further developments. In total, they developed some 500 design concepts, typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weighed over 60,000 pounds, included a top speed of Mach 2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75. When the proposals were studied in July 1966, the aircraft were roughly the size and weight of the TFX, and like that aircraft, through this period, studies of combat over Vietnam were producing worrying results. Previous doctrine had stressed long-range combat using missiles, and optimized aircraft for this role, the result was highly loaded aircraft with large radars and excellent speed, but limited maneuverability and often lacking a gun. In early 1967, they proposed that the design had a thrust-to-weight ratio of near 1,1, a maximum speed further reduced to Mach 2.3, a weight of 40,000 pounds
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Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion
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The CH-53 Sea Stallion is the most common name for the Sikorsky S-65 family of heavy-lift transport helicopters. Originally developed for use by the United States Marine Corps, it is in service with Germany, Iran, Israel, the United States Air Force operated the HH-53 Super Jolly Green Giant during the late– and post–Vietnam-War era, updating most of them as the MH-53 Pave Low. The dimensionally-similar CH-53E Super Stallion is a heavier-lifting, improved version designated S-80E by Sikorsky and its third engine makes it more powerful than the Sea Stallion, which it has replaced in the heavy-lift mission. In 1960, the United States Marine Corps began to seek a replacement for their HR2S piston-powered helicopters. On 27 January 1961, the Marine Corps began working with the other three U. S. armed services on the Tri-Service VTOL transport, which would emerge as the Vought-Hiller-Ryan XC-142A tiltwing. The design became more elaborate and the stretched out, causing the Marines to drop out when they decided they would not receive a working machine in a satisfactory timeframe. In the end, the XC-142A, although a very innovative and capable machine, in March 1962, the United States Navys Bureau of Naval Weapons, acting on behalf of the Marines, issued a request for a Heavy Helicopter Experimental / HH. The specifications dictated a load capability of 8,000 pounds with a radius of 100 nautical miles at a speed of 150 knots. The HH was to be used in the transport, aircraft recovery, personnel transport. In the assault role, it was to be mostly used to haul heavy equipment instead of troops. Kamans proposal quickly died when the British government dropped its backing of the Rotodyne program, competition between Boeing Vertol and Sikorsky was intense, with the Chinook having an advantage because it was being acquired by the United States Army. Sikorsky threw everything into the contest and was awarded the contract in July 1962, the Marines originally wanted to buy four prototypes but ran into funding problems. Sikorsky, determined to keep the deal, cut their estimate for development costs, there was also the problem that U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. All these obstacles overcome, the first YCH-53A performed its initial flight at the Sikorsky plant in Stratford, Connecticut, on 14 October 1964, the Marines had already placed an initial production contract for 16 helicopters in September. Flight trials went more smoothly than expected, helping make up for the time lost in development and it received the military designation and name CH-53A Sea Stallion. Delivery of production CH-53s began in 1966, the CH-53A arrived in Vietnam in January 1967 and proved useful, eventually recovering even more downed aircraft than the CH-54. A total of 141 CH-53As were built, including the two prototypes, the U. S. Navy acquired 15 CH-53As from the USMC in 1971 for airborne mine countermeasures activities. The helicopters had more powerful T64-GE-413 turboshafts installed and received the designation RH-53A, the United States Air Force ordered the HH-53B in September 1966 and first flew on 15 March 1967
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210 Squadron (Israel)
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210 Squadron of the Israeli Air Force is an IAI Eitan squadron based at Tel Nof Airbase. The squadron was inaugurated on December 20,2010, at a ceremony at Tel Nof. Its first commander was Lt. Colonel S. and is led by Lt. Colonel A.210 Squadron is the IAFs first UAV unit to operate away from the IAFs traditional UAV hub at Palmachim. Tel Nof offers a longer runway and the extensive infrastructure required by the two-ton class Eitan. The squadrons aircraft wear a Light Compass Grey scheme and feature tail art in the shape of a white eagle against a background on their vertical stabilizers. On January 29,2012, one of the squadrons UAVs crashed shortly after take off from Tel Nof, falling near Kibbutz Hafetz Haim, the aircraft suffered damages estimated at several million dollars. The Eitan fleet was grounded for several months until two investigative teams, one by the air force and another by Israel Aircraft Industries, submitted their findings. The aircraft was found to have gone down during testing of a navigational component fitted on one of its wings. After additional tests by IAI, the air force finally permitted the Eitan back into the air on September 6,2012, two months later the squadron took part in Operation Cast Lead. 210 Squadron and the Eitan have also been mentioned amid the talk of a possible Israeli strike against Irans nuclear program, the aircraft have also been linked to possible Israeli strikes against Iranian arms convoy in Sudan
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IAI Eitan
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The IAI Eitan, also known as Heron TP, is an unmanned reconnaissance aircraft developed in Israel in the early 21st century by the Malat division of Israel Aerospace Industries. The aircraft is a version of the IAI Heron. In April 2004, the Israeli Air Force magazine announced the existence of the programme, in March the following year, US company Aurora Flight Sciences announced a joint venture to market the aircraft under the name Orion. Aurora hoped to have a machine flying during 2007, but by the middle of that year, meanwhile, reports emerged of a first flight for the Eitan in Israel on 15 July 2006, despite the previous reports that the aircraft had already been flying two years previously. In late January 2007, Yedioth Ahronoth reported yet another seemingly contradictory announcement, the Eitan was publicly unveiled at a media event at Tel Nof Airbase on 8 October 2007. Additional sensors may be carried at the ends of the tail booms, analysis of the configuration presented to the media suggests an aircraft intended for deep penetration roles and on-board SIGINT processing capability. However, at the event an IAF official stated that IAI. It is a cantilever monoplane with wings of high aspect ratio. Booms extend rearward from the wings and carry twin tails that are joined by a horizontal stabiliser. The main units of the tricycle undercarriage retract into the booms. A single turboprop engine is mounted in the fuselage, driving a pusher propeller. Construction throughout is of composite materials, one report stated that Israel deployed Eitans in its alleged 2009 airstrike against an alleged Gaza-bound Iranian arms convoy traveling through Sudan. In February 2010 the Israeli Air Force unveiled its new fleet of Eitans, the first unit to operate the type,210 Squadron, was inaugurated at Tel Nof in December 2010. In January 2012, an Eitan drone crashed near Hafetz Haim during tests of new payloads, no injuries were reported. The IDF does not comment on the arming of drones, but reports describe the Eitan being used for “armed roles” with missiles “attached to wing hardpoints, ” as well as for target acquisition. Used allegedly during several operations, will help government-owned IAI market its latest drone models as “combat-proven systems. ”The Eitan was allegedly the center of controversy in Operation Protective Edge in 2014, such as eliminating the Joudeh family on Aug.24,2014. The family was in front of its house, near its pomegranate and orange trees, an Israeli drone operator decided to take it out, although no weapons or fighting were nearby. The mother, Rawya Joudeh, and four of her children aged 6–14 were killed, and a leg was taken off her fifth child
25.
601 Squadron (Israel)
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601 Squadron, also known as Manat, is the Israeli Air Force unit responsible for flight and weapons testing, airframe modification and avionics integration. Although formed in 1978, Manat may have its origins in a flight test unit established as early as March 1950, the squadron operates a fully instrumented example of every Israeli Air Force frontline combat aircraft type on strength at any time. It also operates a number of UAVs and will utilize helicopter, f-16D #601, designated CK-1, was designed by Lockheed to meet specific flight test requirements. Another aircraft operated by the squadron is F-15I #201, the very first F-15I built, during its stay in Israel, one of the MiG-29s even carried the squadron emblem. Manat works closely with Israels defence industries and participates in product testing, among the projects the squadron was involved with are the various Python missiles, the Popeye II, and the Rafael Spice. Shimshon Rozen Flight Test Center photo gallery by Nir Ben-Yosef
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No. 6 Squadron RAF
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No.6 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 at RAF Lossiemouth. The squadron officially reformed as a Typhoon squadron on 6 September 2010, No.6 Squadrons motto Oculi Exercitus and the badge depicting an eagle attacking a serpent were gained as a result of fighter defence of army units during the First World War. The squadron was formed on 31 January 1914, at Farnborough as No.6 Squadron and its first squadron commander was Major John Becke. The squadron had an aircraft inventory of two Royal Aircraft Factory B. E. 2s and two Farmans, with the squadron also initially incorporating a flight operating man-lifting kite. The cunningly coiled snake neatly sidestepped the regulations, Strange, hanging for dear life to the drum of the Lewis gun, managed to get back into the cockpit and right the aircraft within 500 ft of the ground. He returned to the aerodrome and quietly disappeared, sleeping for the best part of 24 hours, unfortunately for Strange, the German machine he had been firing at witnessed the whole incident and assumed that their brave attacker had perished. As was the custom, they dropped a wreath and with it a letter describing the manner of Stranges death, needless to say, his next invention was a pilots safety harness. Hawker died in 1916, after an epic battle with Baron von Richthofen. Other members of No.6 Squadron RFC included several men who went on to fame in the Second World War. Following the Armistice, the transferred to Iraq, arriving in July 1919. Operating in the army co-operation role in Northern Iraq, it was equipped with Bristol Fighters, the squadron remained there for ten years before moving to Egypt in 1929. At the same time, it re-equipped with Fairey Gordons and assumed the bomber role, following problems in Palestine, the squadron relocated there in 1938, reverting to the army co-operation role with Hawker Hardys, adding Gloster Gauntlets and Westland Lysanders later. Co-operation with ground units was vital during sorties around this time, during one mission, Flight Lieutenant McFall, carrying out a Lysander reconnaissance, located the enemy unit and then landed beside Allied gun batteries in order to direct the fire. Further action in the desert on anti-tank duties continued from 1942 until the end of the North African campaign, Flying the tank-busting,40 mm cannon-firing Hawker Hurricane Mk. IID, the squadron excelled over the desert, destroying many Axis armoured targets and this is where they earned the nickname The Flying Tin Openers. One of the commanders, Flight Lieutenant Pip Hillier was awarded the DFC after some 13 confirmed tank kills. Unfortunately, he was killed in August 1942 whilst demonstrating the squadrons tactics to the press and his DFC citation in the London Gazette states, Flight Lieutenant Philip Snowdon-Alexander HILLIER No.6 Squadron. In June,1942, this officer participated in 2 sorties against a column of armoured vehicles near Sidi Rezegh
27.
Westland Lysander
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The Westland Lysander was a British army co-operation and liaison aircraft produced by Westland Aircraft used immediately before and during the Second World War. British army air co-operation aircraft were named after mythical or historical military leaders, in 1934 the Air Ministry issued Specification A. 39/34 for an army co-operation aircraft to replace the Hawker Hector. Initially Hawker Aircraft, Avro and Bristol were invited to submit designs, but after some debate within the Ministry, the Westland design, internally designated P.8, was the work of Arthur Davenport under the direction of Teddy Petter. It was Petters second aircraft design and he spent considerable time interviewing Royal Air Force pilots to find out what they wanted such an aircraft. The result of Petters pilot enquiries suggested that field of view, low-speed handling characteristics, Davenport and Petter designed an aircraft to incorporate these features with unconventional results. The Lysander was powered by a Bristol Mercury air-cooled radial engine and had high wings, the spats had mountings for small, removable stub wings that could be used to carry light bombs or supply canisters. The wings had a reverse taper towards the root, which gave the impression of a bent gull wing from some angles and it had a girder type construction faired with a light wood stringers to give the aerodynamic shape. The forward fuselage was duralumin tube joined with brackets and plates, plates and brackets were cut from channel extrusions rather than forming from sheet steel. The front spar and lift struts were extrusions, the wing itself was fabric covered, and with its thickness maximized at the lift strut anchorage location, similar to that of later marks of the Stinson Reliant high-winged transport monoplane. Despite its appearance, the Lysander was aerodynamically advanced, it was equipped with automatic wing slots and slotted flaps. These refinements gave the Lysander a stalling speed of only 65 mph and it also featured the largest Elektron alloy extrusion made at the time, a single piece inside the spats supporting the wheels. This was a feature of British-built aircraft only – Canadian-built machines had a conventionally fabricated assembly due to the involved in manufacturing such a large extrusion. The Air Ministry requested two prototypes of the P.8 and the competing Bristol Type 148, quickly selecting the Westland aircraft for production, the first Lysanders entered service in June 1938, equipping squadrons for army co-operation and were initially used for message-dropping and artillery spotting. When war broke out in Europe, the earlier Mk Is had been replaced by Mk IIs. Some of these aircraft, now designated type L.1, four regular squadrons equipped with Lysanders accompanied the British Expeditionary Force to France in October 1939, and were joined by a further squadron early in 1940. Following the German invasion of France and the low countries on 10 May 1940, Lysanders were put into action as spotters, in spite of occasional victories against German aircraft, they made very easy targets for the Luftwaffe even when escorted by Hurricanes. 118 Lysanders were lost in or over France and Belgium in May and June 1940, some UK-based Lysanders went to work operating air-sea rescue, dropping dinghies to downed RAF aircrew in the English Channel. Fourteen squadrons and flights were formed for this role in 1940 and 1941, in August 1941 a new squadron, No
28.
No. 10 Squadron RAF
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No.10 Squadron is a Royal Air Force squadron. The squadron has served in a variety of roles over its 90-year history and it currently flies the Airbus Voyager in the transport/tanker role. Formed from a provided by No. It was disbanded on 31 December 1919 following the end of the war,4 Group of RAF Bomber Command. The squadron remained a part of No.4 Group throughout the war, re-equipping with the Halifax in December 1941. On 1 July 1966, the squadron reformed yet again and became the first to receive the new Vickers VC10 C.1, the unit moved to RAF Brize Norton in 1967, where it remained until disbanded in 2005. The C.1 differs from later marks of RAF VC10s in that they were delivered newly built as strategic transports, fourteen VC10 C. 1s were delivered to 10 Squadron between 1966 and 1967. The C.1 was a variant of the civil Standard VC10 fitted with the wing, the C.1 can carry 139 passengers in rear-facing seats, eight standard pallets or up to 78 medical evacuation stretchers. These VC10s were named after airmen who had awarded the Victoria Cross. The strengthened floor allowed the C.1 to transport 1,000 lb bombs for the Tornado GR1 force during the Gulf War, during the war,10 Sqn flew 1,326 sorties in more than 5,000 hours. The squadron also took part in most other operations involving British forces, including the 1982 Falklands War and the 2003 war in Iraq. Introduced as air transport aircraft, the VC10 C.1 fleet was modified in 1993 to allow it to operate in the AAR role as well, the aircraft were then known as VC10 C. 1s. The most visible role No.10 Squadrons VC10s have played is that of VIP transport, in the VIP role the C1s have flown the British Royal Family, government ministers and Prime Ministers around the world. Later the VC10 VIP role was phased out, VIP transport being carried out by chartered British Airways 767s and the RAF BAe 146 fleet. However, former Prime Minister Tony Blair reverted to the VC10 for more flights, notably during his diplomacy to Pakistan. The rationalisation of the VC10 force led to No.10 Squadron being disbanded in October 2005, the squadron was officially reformed on 1 July 2011. List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons
29.
Handley Page Halifax
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The Handley Page Halifax was British four-engined heavy bomber of the Second World War. On 25 October 1939, the Halifax performed its maiden flight and it quickly became a major component of Bomber Command, performing routine strategic bombing missions against the Axis Powers, many of which were performed at night. The Halifax was also operated in large numbers by other Allied and Commonwealth nations, such as the Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian Air Force, Free French Air Force and Polish forces. Various improved versions of the Halifax were introduced, which incorporated more powerful engines and it remained in service until the end of the war, performing a variety of duties in addition to bombing. Additionally, specialised versions of the Halifax were developed for troop-transport, during the post-war years, the Halifax was operated by the Royal Egyptian Air Force, the French Armée de lAir and the Royal Pakistan Air Force. The type also entered service for a number of years. A dedicated civil variant, the Handley Page Halton, was also developed and entered airline service. During 1961, the last remaining Halifax bombers were retired from operational use, in the 1930s, the Royal Air Force was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of engines in the 2,000 horsepower class in order to improve performance. During the late 1930s, none of these were ready for production, accordingly, in 1936, the RAF also decided to investigate the feasibility of the four-engined bomber. During the mid 1930s, the British Air Ministry formulated and released Specification P. 13/36, in response, Handley Page produced the twin-engine HP56 design to meet Specification P. 13/36. Handley Page aircraft designer George Volkert had responsibility for the design.24 or Bristol Hercules engines, the majority of these engines were under development at this point, while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs by the Air Ministry, accordingly, during April 1937, a pair of prototypes of both designs were ordered. The introduction of the successful P. 13/36 candidates was delayed by the necessity of ordering additional Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley, in mid-1937, it was decided to order both the Avro 679 and HP56 designs off the drawing board in order to speed up delivery timetables. The redesign increased the wingspan from 88 ft to 99 ft, towards the end of the year, a full mock-up of the design was assessed, in March 1938, the construction of the pair of HP57 prototypes commenced. Further design modifications resulted in the aircraft, which had been considerably enlarged and was powered by an arrangement of four 1,280 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin X engines. On 17 August 1940, the first flight of the prototype, L7245
30.
No. 11 Squadron RAF
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No.11 or XI Squadron is a Royal Air Force fighter squadron. The squadron operated the Tornado F3 until 2005 when it was disbanded and it was reactivated in 2006 to operate the Typhoon F2, receiving its first aircraft on 9 October 2006. Since all previous squadrons were reconnaissance or army units,11 can make a claim to be the oldest dedicated fighter squadron in the world. The squadron has had the honour of having two Victoria Cross winners serve in the unit, the Gunbus was already obsolete however, and was replaced by Royal Aircraft Factory F. E.2 fighters of similar layout, but higher performance, in June 1916. These in turn were replaced by Bristol Fighters in August 1917, the Squadron was disbanded at the end of 1919. No.11 Squadron numbered 19 flying aces in its ranks during the war, the twin Eagles on the Squadrons crest, awarded in May 1937, represent the two-seated fighters operated in the First World War. The Squadron reformed at RAF Andover in January 1923 as a day bomber squadron equipped with Airco DH. 9As, soon moving to RAF Bircham Newton in Norfolk. In April 1924, these were replaced by the Fairey Fawn despite the fact that they offered little improvement in performance over the DH. 9A and it replaced its Wapitis with Hawker Harts in February 1932, operations continuing as before. On 31 May 1935, the 1935 Balochistan earthquake devastated the city of Quetta, No.11 Squadron, along with other RAF squadrons in the region, were used to aid the relief effort following the disaster. The squadron received Blenheim I monoplane bombers in July 1939, moving to Singapore the next month, in April 1940 the squadron moved to India, and was briefly based at Karachi before was ordered to transfer to Aden due to the increasing likelihood of war with Italy. The first of the squadrons Blenheims reached Aden on 19 June 1940, nine days after Italy declared war on Britain, the squadron was heavily engaged in the early months of the Eastern Africa campaign, attacking Italian targets in Italian East Africa. In early 1941 the squadron was sent to reinforce the Royal Air Force squadrons in Greece, fighting in the Greek Campaign first against the Italians, the few surviving aircraft and crews were evacuated to Crete and then on to Palestine. After reforming, the served in the Syrian Campaign against the Vichy French. After returning to Egypt the squadron took part in Operation Crusader, redeployed to Colombo, Ceylon in early 1942, the squadron was involved in attacks on Japanese shipping. During 1943, the Squadron re-equipped with Hurricanes and moved to Burma in the attack role. By January 1943, Royal Australian Air Force personnel, or Australians serving in the RAF, at the time, the Australian personnel included the CO, W/Cdr Harley Stumm. 11 Squadron was one of the few RAF squadrons to fight against Italian, German, Vichy French, the Squadron formed part of the occupation forces in Japan from August 1945 to February 1948, when it disbanded. Reforming in Germany during October 1949, they flew Mosquitos, Vampires, the Squadron again disbanded in 1957, but reformed in January 1959 with Meteor night fighters
31.
Bristol Blenheim
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The Bristol Blenheim is a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the first two years of the Second World War. It was originally developed as the civil-orientated Type 142 in response to Lord Rothermeres challenge to produce the fastest commercial aircraft in Europe. First flying in April 1935, the Air Ministry was quickly impressed by its performance, on 10 March 1937, deliveries of the newly named Blenheim commenced to RAF squadrons. The Blenheim was one of the first British aircraft to feature an all-metal stressed-skin construction, retractable landing gear, flaps, a more capable bomber derivative, the Beaufort, was also developed, being both larger and heavier than the Blenheim. A Canadian-built variant named the Bolingbroke was used as a patrol aircraft. The Mark IV variant was equally unsuccessful in its daylight bombing role, the Blenheim was also used by a wide range of overseas operators, as well being produced under licence in Finland and Yugoslavia. By this point, proposed use of the Aquila engine had been shelved in favour of the supercharger-equipped, deeming it suitable for the issued challenge, the design of Type 135 was further adapted to produce the Type 142 in order to meet the requirements outlined by Rothermere. On 12 April 1935, the Type 142, which had given the name Britain First, conducted its maiden flight from Filton Aerodrome. Flight tests soon proved that the aircraft was in fact faster than any fighter in service with the Royal Air Force at the time, Rothermere presented the aircraft to the nation for a formal evaluation at a potential bomber. By June 1935, the Air Ministry had become interested in the due to its high performance. On 9 July 1935, a conference was held by Bristol at the ministrys request into the question of converting the Type 142 into a suitable medium bomber. Based upon talks from the conference, the Air Ministry quickly formalised Specification B. 28/35 for prototypes of a bomber version, the Type 142M. Other modifications included the addition of a position and a Browning machine gun gun in the nose along with provisions for a semi-retractable gun turret in the dorsal position. In September 1935, a contract for 150 aircraft was placed. The Air Ministry had chosen to order the type directly from the board, having been urgently sought as one piece of a wider. The first aircraft built of this model, K7033, served as the only prototype, on 25 June 1936. The service name for the aircraft became Blenheim Mk I after the battle during the War of the Spanish Succession. On 10 March 1937, production deliveries to the RAF formally started,114 Squadron became the first squadron to receive the Blenheim
32.
No. 32 Squadron RAF
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No.32 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates in the VIP and general air transport roles from RAF Northolt in Greater London. Originally formed in 1916 as part of the Royal Flying Corps, the squadron saw action during the First and Second World Wars with fighter aircraft, the Metropolitan Communications Squadron, involved in the VIP transport role, was renamed as No.32 Squadron at that time. In 1995, the squadron was merged with the Queens Flight, at this time the squadron moved from RAF Benson to RAF Northolt, where it remains. The merger ended the RAFs provision of dedicated VIP transport aircraft, two flights within the squadron operate the British Aerospace 146 and AgustaWestland AW109. No.32 Squadron was formed as part of the Royal Flying Corps on 12 January 1916 at Netheravon and moved to France as a fighter squadron equipped with Airco DH. 2s in May. These in turn began to be replaced by the S. E. 5a in December 1917 which were flown for the rest of the war on fighter, on 1 April 1918 No.32 became part of the new Royal Air Force. In March 1919, the returned to the UK as a cadre. During the war just ended, sixteen aces had served in its ranks, the squadron reformed on 1 April 1923 at Kenley as a single flight of Sopwith Snipe fighters. A second flight was formed on 10 December 1923 and a third brought the squadron up to strength on 1 June 1924, Gloster Grebes were received at the end of 1924 and were replaced by Gloster Gamecocks two years later. Equipped in succession with Armstrong Whitworth Siskins, Bristol Bulldogs and Gloster Gauntlets, following Operation Torch, the Anglo American invasion of North Africa, in December 1942,32 Squadron deployed with its Hurricanes to Algeria, converting to the Supermarine Spitfire by July 1943. Operations included a deployment to Greece, where the took part in the Greek Civil War from September 1944 to February 1945. After the end of the Second World War, the squadron continued as a squadron, flying Spitfires, Vampires and Venoms from bases in Palestine, Cyprus, Egypt, Persian Gulf, Malta. In January 1957, the converted to Canberra bombers at RAF Weston Zoyland, flying these from Cyprus. The Metropolitan Communications Squadron was formed on 8 April 1944 by the renaming of No.510 Squadron for VIP air transport, simultaneous with No.32 Squadron being disbanded in Cyprus in February 1969, the Metropolitan Communications Squadron was renamed No.32 Squadron. It operated a variety of aircraft, including Hawker Siddeley Andovers, the squadron acquired four HS.125 CC. 1s business jets in 1971. These would be supplemented and then replaced by two HS.125 CC. 2s delivered in 1973 and six BAe 125 CC. 3s delivered in 1982 and 1983, aérospatiale Gazelle helicopters served with the squadron from 1976 onwards. These were replaced by initially two Twin Squirrels in 1996, the RAF leased two BAe 146s in 1983 as a test of their suitability to replace the Andover, which were operated by 241 Operational Conversion Unit. Two BAe 146-100s were purchased in 1984 for the Queens Flight as a result, a third BAe 146 CC.2 was purchased in 1989 and delivered in 1990, although it was subsequently sold in 2002
33.
Supermarine Spitfire
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The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries before, during and after World War II. The Spitfire was built in many variants, using several wing configurations and it was also the only British fighter to be in continuous production throughout the war. The Spitfire continues to be popular among enthusiasts, about 54 remain airworthy, Spitfire units, however, had a lower attrition rate and a higher victory-to-loss ratio than those flying Hurricanes because of its higher performance. Spitfires in general were tasked with engaging Luftwaffe fighters during the Battle, much loved by its pilots, the Spitfire served in several roles, including interceptor, photo-reconnaissance, fighter-bomber and trainer, and it continued to serve in these roles until the 1950s. The Seafire was an adaptation of the Spitfire which served in the Fleet Air Arm from 1942 through to the mid-1950s. As a consequence of this, the Spitfires performance and capabilities improved over the course of its service life and this made its first flight in February 1934. Of the seven designs tendered to F7/30, the Gloster Gladiator biplane was accepted for service and this led to the Type 300, with retractable undercarriage and the wingspan reduced by 6 ft. This was submitted to the Air Ministry in July 1934, but was not accepted, on 3 January 1935, they formalised the contract with a new specification, F10/35, written around the aircraft. On 5 March 1936, the prototype took off on its first flight from Eastleigh Aerodrome, at the controls was Captain Joseph Mutt Summers, chief test pilot for Vickers, who is quoted as saying Dont touch anything on landing. This eight-minute flight came four months after the flight of the contemporary Hurricane. K5054 was fitted with a new propeller, and Summers flew the aircraft on 10 March 1936, after the fourth flight, a new engine was fitted, and Summers left the test-flying to his assistants, Jeffrey Quill and George Pickering. They soon discovered that the Spitfire was a good aircraft. The rudder was over-sensitive and the top speed was just 330 mph, here, Flight Lieutenant Humphrey Edwardes-Jones took over the prototype for the RAF. He had been orders to fly the aircraft and then to make his report to the Air Ministry on landing. Edwardes-Joness report was positive, his only request was that the Spitfire be equipped with a position indicator. A week later, on 3 June 1936, the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 Spitfires, before any formal report had been issued by the A&AEE, the British public first saw the Spitfire at the RAF Hendon air-display on Saturday 27 June 1936. The first and most immediate problem was that the main Supermarine factory at Woolston was already working at full capacity fulfilling orders for Walrus and Stranraer flying boats. In February 1936 the director of Vickers-Armstrongs, Sir Robert MacLean, guaranteed production of five aircraft a week, on 3 June 1936, the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 aircraft, for a price of £1,395,000
34.
No. 37 Squadron RAF
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No.37 Squadron was a Royal Air Force squadron of the First and Second World Wars. No.37 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps was formed at RFC Orfordness, Suffolk, on 15 April 1916, in September of that year, it was re-formed, with its headquarters at Woodham Mortimer, in Essex. It responsibilities included defending London against aerial attack, operating out of aerodromes along the East Anglian coast they flew against German Zeppelins, bringing down the L48 on 17 June 1917. The squadron became part of the new Royal Air Force in 1918 and in March 1919 moved to Biggin Hill, in April 1937, the squadron was re-formed as No.37 Squadron from a nucleus provided by No.214 Squadron RAF. By the outbreak of World War II its equipment consisted of Vickers Wellington bombers, in November 1940, the squadron moved to the Middle East. In January 1944 it moved to Foggia Tortorella, sharing the base with USAAF B17 Fortresses, the Wellingtons were replaced by B24 Liberators in early December 1944. On 2 October 1945 the Squadron moved to Aqir Palestine but returned to Shallufa near Suez port Egypt in December from where it was disbanded on 31 March 1946. On 15 April 1946, No.214 Squadron RAF at Fayid was renumbered No.37 which flew Avro Lancaster bombers until it was disbanded again on 1 April 1947 and it reformed again in Palestine on 14 September 1947, once again flying Lancasters. In May 1948, at the time of the British withdrawal from Palestine and they remained there until the squadron disbanded on 7 September 1967. The colours of 37 Squadron are in All Saints Church, Stamford, London Air Defence Area History of No.37 Squadron Aden Veterans page
35.
Consolidated B-24 Liberator
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The Consolidated B-24 Liberator is an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and some models were laid down as export models designated as various LB-30s. At its inception, the B-24 was a design featuring a highly efficient shoulder-mounted. The wing gave the Liberator a high speed, long range. Early RAF Liberators were the first aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean as a matter of routine, however, the type was difficult to fly and had poor low speed performance. It also had a ceiling and was less robust than the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. While aircrews tended to prefer the B-17, General Staff favored the B-24, the B-24 was used extensively in World War II. It served in every branch of the American armed forces, as well as several Allied air forces and navies, along with the B-17, the B-24 was the mainstay of the US strategic bombing campaign in the Western European theater. Due to its range, it proved useful in bombing operations in the Pacific, long range anti-submarine Liberators played an instrumental role in closing the Mid-Atlantic Gap in the Battle of the Atlantic. The C-87 transport derivative served as a range, higher capacity counterpart to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain. The B-24 was produced in large numbers. At the end of World War II, the Liberator had been surpassed by more modern types such as the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the type was rapidly phased out of US service, although the PB4Y-2 Privateer derivative carried on in service with the US Navy in the Korean War. Two B-24s, one LB-30B and one Liberator V representing a B-24H, are airworthy as of 2016, the Liberator originated from a United States Army Air Corps request in 1938 for Consolidated to produce the B-17 under license. After company executives including President Reuben Fleet visited the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington and this new fuselage was intentionally designed around twin bomb bays, each one being the same size and capacity of the B-17 bomb bays. In January 1939, the USAAC, under Specification C-212, formally invited Consolidated to submit a design study for a bomber with longer range, higher speed, the specification was written such that the Model 32 would automatically be the winning design. The program was run under the group, Project A. Although the B-24 did not meet Project A goals, it was a step in that direction, Project A led to the development of the Boeing B-29 and Consolidateds own B-32 and B-36. The B-24 had a shoulder mounted high aspect ratio Davis wing and this wing was highly efficient allowing a relatively high airspeed and long range
36.
No. 45 Squadron RAF
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45 Squadron is a flying squadron of the Royal Air Force. It was established on 1 March 1916 as part of the Royal Flying Corps, formed during World War I at Gosport on 1 March 1916 as Number 45 Squadron, the unit was first equipped with Sopwith 1½ Strutters which it was to fly in the Scout role. Deployed to France in October of that year, the Squadron found itself suffering heavy losses due to the quality of its aircraft and this did not change until it transitioned to the Sopwith Camel in mid-1917. Transferred to the Austro-Italian front at the end of 1917,45 Squadron there engaged in ground attack, assigned to the Independent Air Force,45 Squadron provided long-range bomber escort till the end of the war. During the course of the war, some thirty flying aces had served in the squadrons ranks and they included future Air Vice-Marshal Matthew Frew, Cedric Howell, Geoffrey Hornblower Cock, future Air Commodore Raymond Brownell, John C. B. Harries, Alan Rice-Oxley, Earl Hand, Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, John Pinder, in 1919 the Squadron returned to England and disbanded. In April 1921 it reformed at Helwan, Egypt, during the mid-war years the unit transitioned to DH9As and Fairey IIIs and then a combination of Hawker Harts, Vickers Vincents and Fairey Gordons. At some point the unit adopted the nickname The Flying Camels, the Squadron Badge is a winged camel, approved by King Edward VIII in October 1936. The badge and nickname derive from the Sopwith used by the unit in World War I, at the start of World War II,45 Squadron converted to Bristol Blenheims. The following day, the participated in an attack on shipping at Tobruk. During late 1940 the squadron supported Allied ground forces in the East African Campaign, while based at Gura and his successor was acting Sqn Ldr Patrick Troughton-Smith. After returning to North Africa, the squadron operated against Italian and German forces in Libya, Egypt, from mid-1942 the unit was deployed to Burma and India, for service against the Japanese. Three aircraft from the Squadron participated in the first Allied bombing raid against Bangkok, during its time in India and Burma,45 Squadron converted to Vultee Vengeance dive-bombers, followed by de Havilland Mosquitos. During World War II, it one of only a few Allied units to have engaged German, Italian, Vichy French. 45 Squadron included a significant number of Royal Australian Air Force and Royal New Zealand Air Force personnel, after the Second World War,45 Squadron served in the Malayan Emergency, flying out of RAF Station Tengah on the island of Singapore. There the unit engaged in ground operations against Communist Terrorists engaged in a Chinese backed insurgency. Dubbed Operation Firedog, these lasted for 12 years until the successful conclusion of the war. The unit also engaged in operations to quell unrest on the Sarawak coast in British North Borneo during this time period, the unit also had service aircraft, including the Bristol Buckmaster and the Harvard
37.
No. 55 Squadron RAF
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No.55 Squadron was a squadron of the Royal Air Force. It was formed in 1916 as a unit of the Royal Flying Corps, No.55 Squadron was the last RAF Squadron to operationally fly the Handley Page Victor, in its Victor K.2 in-flight refuelling tanker role. It was subsequently a navigator training squadron based at RAF Cranwell in Lincolnshire, the squadron operated the Hawker Siddeley Dominie, a military version of the HS.125 business jet, until January 2011. No.55 Squadron was formed at Castle Bromwich on 27 April 1916 and it took these to France on 6 March that year as part of 9th Wing, flying its first bombing mission against Valenciennes railway station on 23 April 1917 in support of the Battle of Arras. It became part of the Independent Air Force as part of No 41 Wing based at Azelot,55 Squadron developed tactics of flying in wedge formations, bombing on the leaders command and with the massed defensive fire of the formation deterring attacks by enemy fighters. Despite heavy losses,55 Squadron continued in operation, the one of the day bombing squadrons in the Independent Force which did not have to temporarily stand down owing to aircrew losses. The squadron flew 221 bombing missions during the war, dropping approximately 141 long tons of bombs during the war, the Squadron reformed on 1 February 1920, when No.142 Squadron, based at Suez and equipped with Airco DH. 9s was renumbered. It moved to Baghdad in Iraq in September that year, discarding its remaining DH. 9s to standardise on the DH. 9A and it remained in Iraq for 19 years, flying Air Policing operations against rebelling tribesmen when required. It moved to Mosul in March 1921 and to RAF Hinaidi in May 1924 and its ageing DH. 9As were replaced by Westland Wapitis in February 1930, which in turn were replaced by Vickers Vincents in 1937, taking these to RAF Habbaniya in September that year. It finally received modern monoplanes in March 1939, when it received twin-engined Bristol Blenheim bombers, No.55 Squadron flew its Blenheims on shipping patrols over the Gulf of Suez until Italy declared war in June 1940, when it switched to operations against targets in Libya. The squadron continued in support of the Eighth Army for the remainder of the North African Campaign and it flew its Baltimores on bombing raids in support of the Allied invasion of Sicily and the subsequent invasion of Italy. It re-equipped with Boston light bombers in October 1944, the squadron moved to Greece in September 1945, replacing its Bostons with de Havilland Mosquitos in June 1946, disbanding in December that year. From May 1965 when it moved to RAF Marham,55 Squadron received six interim two-point Victor BK. 1A tanker conversions, allowing it to become operational in the tanker role in August 1965. It had replaced the interim BK. 1As with the definitive three-point tankers by December 1966, retaining them until 1975 and it disbanded on 15 October 1993, the last Squadron to operate the Victor. On the same day as 55 Squadron disbanded as a Victor squadron and this OCU was responsible for training Vickers VC10 and Lockheed TriStar crews, although it had no aircraft of its own. The Dominie T.1 was withdrawn from service, and the squadron disbanded, when WSO and WSOp training ended on 20 January 2011
38.
No. 70 Squadron RAF
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No.70 Squadron of the Royal Air Force is the first operational unit to use the new Airbus A400M Atlas. The squadron was formed on 22 April 1916 at Farnborough, and was equipped with the Sopwith 1½ Strutter, the squadron was posted to France, and in 1917 re-equipped with Sopwith Camels. The squadron briefly disbanded in January 1920, reforming nine days later at Heliopolis, Egypt, the squadron was now a bomber-transport unit operating the Vickers Vimy bomber. After transferring to Hinaidi, Iraq in December 1921, the squadron was re-equipped with Vickers Vernon’s, in addition to providing heavy transport facilities to both air and ground units they were used as air ambulances and were responsible for maintaining the Cairo-Baghdad airmail route. The squadron was commanded by Group Captain Eric Murray DSO MC, in 1929, he flew the first route to the Cape on behalf of Imperial Airways who were seeking routes for the civil flights. In December 1928, a coup against the Amir of Afghanistan by Habibullah Kalakani supported by Ghilzai peoples led to the first large scale air evacuation, the Valentia replaced the Victorias in November 1934. 70 squadron is recorded as being based at RAF Habbaniya from 1937–9 and in August 1939,70 Squadron relocated frequently in support of the 8th Army’s westward advance, first into Libya then Tunisia. In November 1943 it relocated to Djedeida 20 miles west of Tunis putting industrial targets in the North of Italy, between December 1943 and October 1945 the squadron relocated to Foggia, Italy where the Wellingtons were replaced by the long range Liberators. The squadron disbanded in April 1947 and was reformed in May 1948, at Kabrit, the squadron was equipped with Dakotas until 1950, when it re-equipped with Valettas. In 1955, the moved to RAF Nicosia, Cyprus and re-equipped with the Hastings, Vickers Valetta. In 1966 the squadron moved to RAF Akrotiri, while there they won the Lord Trophy at RAF El Adem in competition with five other medium range transport squadrons. After a brief period operating Armstrong Whitworth Argosy C. 1s, the squadron began conversion to the Hercules in 1970, after 35 years of operating the Hercules C1/C3 from Lyneham, the squadron disbanded in September 2010. The squadron reformed on 1 October 2014 and was stood up on 24 July 2015 by presentation with a new standard by Princess Anne. List of RAF squadrons Jefford, C. G, Air of Authority - A History of RAF Organisation
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No. 76 Operational Training Unit RAF
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No.76 Operational Training Unit RAF was a Royal Air Force operational training unit during the Second World War. The unit was formed at RAF Aqir on 1 October 1943, throughout its existence it was equipped with Vickers Wellington bombers and trained crews for night bombing operations with RAF squadrons in the Middle East. The unit was disbanded on 30 July 1945, the bomber pilot Cyril Spurdens flew with the unit
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Vickers Wellington
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The Vickers Wellington was a British twin-engined, long-range medium bomber. Other aircraft developed to the specification include the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. During the development process, performance requirements such as for the tare weight changed substantially, the Wellington was widely used as a night bomber in the early years of the Second World War, performing as one of the principal bombers used by Bomber Command. During 1943, it started to be superseded as a bomber by the larger four-engined heavies such as the Avro Lancaster, the Wellington continued to serve throughout the war in other duties, particularly as an anti-submarine aircraft. It holds the distinction of being the only British bomber to be produced for the duration of the war, the Wellington remained as first-line equipment when the war ended, although it had been increasing relegated to secondary roles. The Wellington was one of two named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, the other being the Vickers Wellesley. A larger heavy bomber designed to Specification B. 1/35, the Vickers Warwick, was developed in parallel with the Wellington. Many elements of the Wellington were also reused in a civil derivative, in October 1932, the British Air Ministry invited Vickers to tender for the recently issued Specification B. 9/32, which sought a twin-engine medium daylight bomber. This strength allowed for the design to be further developed to reduce the size of individual members. The Pegasus was selected as the engine for air-cooled versions of the bomber, on 28 February 1933, two versions of the aircraft, one with each of the selected powerplants, were submitted to the tender. In September 1933, the Air Ministry issued a contract for the Goshawk-powered version. Other refinements of the design had also implemented and approved, such as the adoption of variable-pitch propellers. By December 1936, the specification had been revised to include front, rear, other specification changes included modified bomb undershields and the inclusion of spring-loaded bomb bay doors. Design studies were conducted on behalf of the Air Ministry into the adoption of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. F. Andrews stated to be a high figure for a medium bomber of those days. During the development phase of the aircraft, the political and military situations in Europe drastically transformed, with the rise of fascist dictatorships in Germany and Italy, the British government had become keen to reevaluate the capabilities of the nations armed forces, including the Royal Air Force. In early 1936, a prototype, K4049, which was originally designated as a Type 271, was assembled. It had provisions for a crew of four, along with a position for performing special duties
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No. 80 Squadron RAF
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No.80 Squadron RAF was a Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force squadron active from 1917 until 1969. It was operative during both World War I and World War II, however, German offensives in March of the same year resulted in 80 Sqn being reallocated in a ground-attack role, still with Camels. It continued this duty until the end of the war, as a result, the squadron had only one ace, Harold Whistler, although it claimed approximately 60 aerial victories. The squadron was reformed in March 1937 again as No.80 Sqn, however, by now the Gauntlet was considered by many to be outdated, and as a result they were replaced by the Gloster Gladiator just two months later. In 1938, the squadron returned to Egypt as an air defence unit. After Italys declaration of war on Libya, No, the Squadron lost most of its Aircraft during the Greek and Crete actions and reformed at RAF Aqir in Palestine in May 1941. Before deploying Detachments to Nicosia in Cyprus and A Flight to Haifa, the Squadron moved totally to Cyprus in July 1941, before returning to Syria the next month, and joining the fighting in North Africa two months later. During the Battle of El Alamein it was responsible for defending communications lines and it remained in that area until early 1944, when it returned to Britain to prepare for Operation Overlord. After the operation, the squadron was equipped with Hawker Tempest aircraft, after this was no longer a threat,80 Sqn moved on to the Continent and resumed fighter duties until the end of the war. During the Chinese Civil War,80 Sqns main duty was to defend Hong Kong from perceived Communist threats, the Spitfires departed in 1951, replaced by the de Havilland Hornet, and the squadron remained in Hong Kong until being disbanded on 1 May 1955. However, two later it was reformed as a reconnaissance unit at RAF Laarbruch. Equipped with Canberra PR. 7s, it moved to Brüggen in June 1957 from then until 28 September 1969, david Coke Nigel Cullen Roald Dahl Marmaduke Pattle William Vale Cathay Pacific VR-HEU RAFWeb page
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Hawker Hurricane
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The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft of the 1930s–1940s that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force. In late 1934, the Air Ministry placed an order for Hawkers Interceptor Monoplane, on 6 November 1935, the prototype Hurricane, K5083, performed its maiden flight. In June 1936, the Hurricane was ordered into production by the Air Ministry, the Hurricane was rapidly procured prior to the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, by which point, the RAF operated a total of 18 Hurricane-equipped squadrons. It is perhaps best known for its contribution to Britains home defences during the Battle of Britain, the Hurricane evolved through several versions and adaptations, resulting in a series of aircraft which acted as fighters, bomber-interceptors, fighter-bombers and ground support aircraft. By the end of production in 1944, in excess of 14,583 Hurricanes had been completed, at the time, there was an institutional reluctance towards change within the Air Staff, according to aviation author Francis K. In 1934, the British Air Ministry issued Specification F. 7/30 in response to demands within the Royal Air Force for a new generation of fighter aircraft. Earlier, during 1933, British aircraft designer Sydney Camm had conducted discussions with Major John Buchanan of the Directorate of Technical Development on a monoplane based on the existing Fury. Camms initial submission in response to F. 7/30, the Hawker P. V.3, was essentially a version of the Fury biplane. However, the P. V.3 was not among the proposals which the Air Ministry had selected to be constructed as a government-sponsored prototype, after the rejection of the P. V. By January 1934, the detail drawings had been finished. In August 1934, a scale model of the design was produced and dispatched to the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. A series of wind tunnel tests confirmed the aerodynamic qualities of the aircraft were in order and this time, the Ministrys response was favourable, and a prototype of the Interceptor Monoplane was promptly ordered. In November 1934, the Air Ministry issued Specification F. 5/34 which, drawing on the work of Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley, however, by this time, work had progressed too far to immediately modify the planned four-gun installation. In July 1935, this specification was amended to include installation of eight guns, ground testing and taxi trials took place over the following two weeks. On 6 November 1935, the prototype K5083 took to the air for the first time at the hands of Hawkers chief test pilot, Flight Lieutenant George Bulman. Bulman was assisted by two pilots in subsequent flight testing, Philip Lucas flew some of the experimental test flights. As completed, the prototype had been fitted with ballast to represent the aircrafts armament prior to the acceptance of the final multi-gun wing armament. In early 1936, the prototype was transferred to RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, in the course of further testing, it was found that the Hurricane had poor spin recovery characteristics, in which all rudder authority could be lost due to shielding of the rudder
