1.
Rede Telecine
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The flagship channel, one of the first four Globosat channels, focused on recent film releases of many genres. Renamed Telecine 1 in 1997, with the launch of the four channels. Originally Telecine 2, dedicated to action, adventure, thriller, horror and some adult films, starting in February 2011, the channel started offering dual-audio and electronic subtitles. Later that year, the changed its language options to Portuguese audio and subtitles turned off by default. On October 22,2010, the channel was again renamed to Telecine Touch. Basically, the channel reverted to Telecine 3/Emotions format of drama, originally Telecine 4 and later Telecine Happy, was dedicated to family and comedy films. Its current incarnation, Telecine Pipoca, is based on recent releases, on its original incarnation, Telecine 5 and later Telecine Classic, it was dedicated to classic film. Currently, the channel features independent, alternative and cult films, five of the networks feature dual-audio and electronic subtitles. Telecine Premium has original audio and Portuguese subtitles turned on by default, Telecine Pipoca, Action, Touch and Fun have audio dubbed in Portuguese with subtitles turned off by default, with the original audio with subtitles as an option. The exception is Telecine Cult, which features the original audio. On October 22,2010, Telecine HD was replaced with a high-definition simulcast of Telecine Premium. On January 31,2010, the HD version of Telecine Pipoca was launched, following the same all-HD and simulcasted premieres model, an HD simulcast of Telecine Action was launched on November 1,2010. HD simulcasts of Telecine Touch and Telecine Fun were launched on December 8,2011, with the launch of an HD simulcast of Telecine Cult on December 4,2012, now all six Telecine networks are available in high-definition. Telecine offers two video on demand services, Telecine On Demand, Offers pay-per-view film rentals as soon as the titles are released on video platforms, such as DVD. Available for NET, SKY and GVT subscribers, a selection of Telecine Play films, including most recent titles, is available on the television providers VOD services. New titles are added to Telecine Play as soon as the day of its Telecine premiere
2.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
3.
Filmstrip
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From the 1940s to 1980s, filmstrips provided an easy and inexpensive alternative to 16 mm educational films, requiring very little storage space and being very quick to rewind for the next use. Filmstrips were large and durable, and rarely needed splicing and they are still used in some areas. A filmstrip is a roll of 35 mm positive film with approximately thirty to fifty images arranged in sequential order. Like 16 mm film, a filmstrip was inserted vertically down in front of the projector aperture, therefore, the frame size is smaller than normal 35 mm film. Two image frames of a take up the same amount of space as a single 35mm frame, including its guard band. Early celluloid filmstrips had a habit of melting or combusting from the intense and these were called pictural filmstrips, the first filmstrips that were produced in a complete set. Typically, a running time was between ten and twenty minutes. Depending on how they were narrated or produced, filmstrips were flexible enough to be used in both self-paced learning formats or a full classroom, the instructor would turn on a filmstrip projector that would show the first frame of the filmstrip. The instructor then turned on a 33 RPM record or cassette tape containing the material for the filmstrip which included narration. At the appropriate point, a tone would sound, signaling the instructor to turn a knob, later, technical improvements allowed the projector to advance the film automatically. The music and narration for the filmstrip originally came on a vinyl record, in the 1970s, audio technology advanced, and vinyl records gave way to audio cassettes and became useful in providing individualized instruction. Students could now watch and listen to a filmstrip over and over at their own pace, in the early 1950s production companies started producing filmstrips for home entertainment. There were a number of films from Disney, and also from the Society for Visual Education Inc. among other manufacturers, Film strips were popular in the USSR because movie projectors and VCRs were not in common use until the early 1990s. A great number of films were produced by the Diafilm studio, many filmstrips were produced by cinematographic studios in former Soviet bloc countries such as Poland and Hungary during the 1950s–1960s. In Greece they were known and sold by the name tainies Argo Film from the name of the company that translated the scripts into Greek, the titles included childrens stories, fairy tales, Greek history, Christianity, adventure, science fiction and war stories. Most cassettes accompanying filmstrips in the 1970s and 1980s would have the audio material on both sides of the tape. One side would have audible tones for the projectors. Some select filmstrip releases had both audible and subaudible tones combined, making the filmstrip and its companion cassette compatible with any filmstrip projector, if improperly set up, the narration and film would not be synchronized
4.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
5.
Color suite
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A color suite is the control room for color grading video in a post-production environment. The video source could be from, a telecine, a tape recorder. A high end broadcast color suite may use a Da Vinci Systems or Pandora Int. s color corrector, if a VTR is the source for the video the room is often called a tape to tape suite. Many suites are designed to operate as a suite or a tape to tape suite by changing the configuration of the suite. The operator of the suite is called a Colorist. If a telecine is the source this is called a Film to Tape operation, a color suite may use one video standard or be able to change configuration to a number of standards like, high-definition video, NTSC, or PAL or a DI workflow. Color suites are sometime placed in digital movie theaters with a video projector for color correction to that display format. The suite room will also have video equipment in the Production control room for monitoring the video signal like, Video monitor, Waveform monitor, the suite may have an either a Non-linear editing system or Linear editing system to control the source and record device. This may be internal to the color grading device, as in a Pandoras poggle or Da Vincis 2k or external, a vision mixer may also be in the suite for monitoring different video sources or for simple or special effects in the video. A character generator is used also for titling and subtitle. The suite may have equipment to read, log and insert into the video Kodaks Keykode, Keykode is bar coding that is placed at regular intervals on negative films to aid in identifying and counting of film frames. Evertz, Aaton and ARRI are three types of readers for telecine use, the suite may or may not have audio post production equipment. This would be to monitor and if needed sync up the audio to the video source if the sound was not on the film. An audio mixing console and other equipment such as effects devices may also be in the suite. The audio may be from the film soundtrack, the term MOS is used, on a slate, when a scene is filmed without sync sound or any sound. A clapperboard slate is used at the start and sometime at the end of scene to mark particular takes recorded during a production, some color suites are at video post production facilities that rent them by the hour for the transfer of TV commercials, documentaries and movies. These color suites would have a client area behind the colorist, with the client present this would be called a supervised session. Test film 3D LUT Cintel, telecine equipment, color motion picture film Da Vinci Systems Pandora International Digital intermediate Display resolution Faroudja, inventors of reverse telecine technologies
6.
Post-production
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Post-production, or postproduction, is part of the process of filmmaking, video production, and photography. It occurs in the making of pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio recordings, photography. It is a term for all stages of production occurring after shooting or recording individual program segments, traditional post-production has been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. Post-production is many different processes grouped under one name and these typically include, Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision list Writing, recording, and editing the soundtrack. Adding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery and digital copy from which release prints will be made, sound design, sound effects, ADR, foley, and music, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or mixing with professional audio equipment. Transfer of colour motion picture film to video or DPX with a telecine, the process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading tools and the addition of music and sound, for instance, a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience. Post-production was named a dying industry by Phil Izzo, the once exclusive service offered by high-end post-production facilities have been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. As such, traditional services are being surpassed by digital. In television, the phases of post-production include, editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and it is imperative that post-production executes and oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready. Professional post-producers usually apply a certain range of image editing operations to the raw image format provided by a photographer or an image-bank, there is a range of proprietary and free and open-source software, running on a range of operating systems available to do this work. The first stage of post-production usually requires loading the RAW images into the post-production software, if there is more than one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize the images before loading them. After that, if necessary, the step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool for a perfect. The next stage would be cleaning the image using tools such as the tool, clone tool. The next stages depend on what the client ordered, if its a photo-montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the background. In advertising, it usually requires assembling several images together in a photo-composition, types of work usually done, Advertising that requires one background and one or more models. Fashion photography that usually requires a really heavy post-production for editorial and/or advertising, techniques used in music post-production include comping, timing and pitch correction, and adding effects. This process is referred to as mixing and can also involve equalization
7.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
8.
Television set
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A television set, more commonly called a television, TV, TV set, television receiver, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and loudspeakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, the ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax, VHS and later DVD. It was also the display device for the first generation of home computers, in the 2010s flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays, especially LED-backlit LCDs, largely replaced cathode ray tubes and other displays. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of display and can also play content from a USB device. Mechanical televisions were sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States. The Baird Televisor is considered the first mass-produced television, selling about a thousand units, the first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France, Britain, and America. The cheapest model with a 12-inch screen was $445, an estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7, 000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U. S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. While only 0. 5% of U. S. households had a television in 1946,55. 7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947,1.4 million in 1952, by the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in colour by 1969, during the first decade of the 21st century, CRT picture tube display technology was almost entirely supplanted worldwide by flat panel displays. By the early 2010s, LCD TVs, which increasingly used LED-backlit LCDs, television sets may employ one of several available display technologies. The production of plasma and CRT displays has been almost completely discontinued, the cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the beam onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets or others, the CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster
9.
Videocassette recorder
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Use of a VCR to record a television program to play back at a more convenient time is commonly referred to as timeshifting. VCRs can also play back prerecorded tapes, in the 1980s and 1990s, prerecorded videotapes were widely available for purchase and rental, and blank tapes were sold to make recordings. These features began as simple mechanical counter-based single-event timers, but were replaced by more flexible multiple-event digital clock timers. In later models the multiple timer events could be programmed through a menu interface displayed on the playback TV screen and this feature allowed several programs to be recorded at different times without further user intervention, and became a major selling point. The history of the recorder follows the history of videotape recording in general. Ampex introduced the Quadruplex videotape professional broadcast standard format with its Ampex VRX-1000 in 1956 and it became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder using two-inch wide tape. Due to its price of US$50,000, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks. In 1959 Toshiba announced a new method of recording known as helical scan, first implemented in reel-to-reel videotape recorders, the Telcan, produced by the UK Nottingham Electronic Valve Company in 1963, was the first home video recorder. It could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60, however, there were several drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to assemble, and could only record 20 minutes at a time. It recorded in black-and-white, the format available in the UK at the time. The half-inch tape Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was their first VTR intended for home use, Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with their own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US$1,000 for the home consumer market. The EIAJ format was a standard format used by various manufacturers. EIAJ-2 used a cartridge that contained a supply reel, the reel was part of the recorder, and the tape had to be fully rewound before removing the cartridge. In 1972, videocassettes of movies became available for home use, Sony demonstrated a videocassette prototype in October 1969, then set it aside to work out an industry standard by March 1970 with seven fellow manufacturers. The result, the Sony U-matic system, introduced in Tokyo in September 1971, was the worlds first commercial videocassette format. Its cartridges, resembling larger versions of the later VHS cassettes, used 3/4-inch tape and had a playing time of 60 minutes. Sony also introduced two machines to use the new tapes, U-matic, with its ease of use, quickly made other consumer videotape systems obsolete in Japan and North America, where U-matic VCRs were widely used by television newsrooms schools and businesses. But the high cost - US$1,395 in 1971 for a combination TV/VCR, in 1970, Philips developed a home video cassette format specially made for a TV station in 1970 and available on the consumer market in 1972
10.
DVD
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DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD, such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs can be recorded using a DVD recorder. Rewritable DVDs can be recorded and erased many times, DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. The OED also states that in 1995, The companies said the name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disk’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disk’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications, Digital versatile disc is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forums mission statement. There were several formats developed for recording video on optical discs before the DVD, Optical recording technology was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958 and first patented in 1961. A consumer optical disc data format known as LaserDisc was developed in the United States and it used much larger discs than the later formats. CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm size of audio CDs, Video CD became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc formats were being developed. By the time of the launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc. Representatives from the SD camp asked IBM for advice on the system to use for their disc. Alan E. Bell, a researcher from IBMs Almaden Research Center, got that request and this group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. On August 14,1995, an ad hoc group formed from five computer companies issued a release stating that they would only accept a single format. The TWG voted to both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions, as a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB for a dual-layered, single-sided disc
11.
Blu-ray
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Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs and quadruple layers are available for BD-XL re-writer drives, the name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as films and physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats, high-definition video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution, at up to 60 frames per second. DVD discs had been limited to a resolution of 480p or 576p. The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its release in June 2006. During the high definition disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the US were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales, Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and the continued sale of DVDs. As of January 2016, 44% of U. S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player, the information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, Sony started two projects in collaboration with Philips applying the new diodes, UDO, and DVR Blue, a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc. The core technologies of the formats are similar, the first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000 by Sony. A trademark for the Blue Disc logo was filed February 9,2001, on February 19,2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10,2003, the Sony BDZ-S77, but there was no standard for prerecorded video, and no movies were released for this player. On October 4,2004, the name Blu-ray Disc Founders was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association, the Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004
12.
Computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
13.
Film industry
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The film industry or motion picture industry comprises the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking, i. e. Though the expense involved in making movies almost immediately led film production to concentrate under the auspices of standing production companies, advances in affordable film making equipment, and expansion of opportunities to acquire investment capital from outside the film industry itself, have allowed independent film production to evolve. Hollywood is the oldest film industry of the world and the largest in terms of box office gross, other centers include Hong Kong and in Europe the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, and Germany are the countries that lead movie production. The worldwide theatrical market had a box office of US$38.3 billion in 2015. The top three continents/regions by box office gross were, Asia-Pacific with US$14.1 billion, North America with US$11.1 billion and Europe, distinct from the centers are the locations where movies are filmed. Because of labor and infrastructure costs, many films are produced in other than the one in which the company which pays for the film is located. For example, many U. S. movies are filmed in Canada, many Nigerian movies are filmed in Ghana, while many Indian movies are filmed in the Americas, Europe, Singapore etc. The cinema of the United States, often referred to as Hollywood, has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20th century. The United States cinema is the oldest film industry in the world which originated more than 121 years ago and also the largest film industry in terms of revenue. Hollywood is the nexus of the U. S. film industry with established film study facilities such as the American Film Institute, LA Film School. However, four of the six film studios are owned by East Coast companies. Today, American film studios collectively generate several hundred movies every year, only The Walt Disney Company — which owns the Walt Disney Studios — is fully based in Southern California. And while Sony Pictures Entertainment is headquartered in Culver City, California, its parent company, most shooting now takes place in California, New York, Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. Hollywood is the most popular film industry with the highest number of screens, between 2009-2015, Hollywood consistently grossed $10 billion annually. Jenkins used his Phantoscope to project his film before an audience of family, friends, the film featured a vaudeville dancer performing a Butterfly Dance. Jenkins and his new partner Thomas Armat modified the Phantoscope for exhibitions in temporary theaters at the Cotton States Exposition in the fall of 1895, the Phantoscope was later sold to Thomas Edison, who changed the name of the projector to Edisons Vitascope. Nestor Studios was Hollywoods first movie studio, founded on October 27,1911 It was built by David Horsley for Nestor Motion Picture Company and it was then owned and operated by David Horsley and his brother, William Horsley. The first motion picture stage in Hollywood was built behind the tavern, other East Coast studios had moved production to Los Angeles, prior to Nestors move west
14.
Video production
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Video production is the process of creating video by capturing moving images, and creating combinations and reductions of parts of this video in live production and post-production. In most cases the captured video will be recorded on the most current electronic media such as SD cards, in the past footage was captured on video tape, hard disk, or solid state storage. Video tape capture is now obsolete and solid state storage is reserved for just that and it is now distributed digitally in formats such as the Moving Picture Experts Group format, QuickTime, Audio Video Interleave, Windows Media Video, and DivX. It is the equivalent of filmmaking, but with images recorded digitally instead of on film stock, practically, video production is the art and service of creating content and delivering a finished video product. This can include production of programs, television commercials, corporate videos, event videos, wedding videos. A video production can range in size, corporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate Communication, Training and Education, videotaping conferences and conventions, products and services, and sales. An on-site editor then creates a video presentation that is shown before the close of the convention. Many associations take advantage of the venue to gather interviews of their principals. Video productions video tape or memory-based recording device or a version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape. Two styles of producing video are ENG - Electronic news-gathering and EFP - Electronic field production, Television broadcast productions include television commercials, infomercials, newscasts, entertainment shows, documentaries, news magazines, sitcom and reality shows. They may be distributed by broadcast syndication, Video production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. Event video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a conference or concert. Video of live events can be sent by microwave or a truck from the event location to a television studio in order to be broadcast. It differs from types of video production in three ways,1. It augments traditional teaching tools used in educational programs. It may incorporate motion video with sound, computer animations, stills, capture of content may include use of cell phone integrated cameras and extend to commercial high-definition Broadcast quality cameras. The primary purpose of using video in distance education is to improve understanding, webcasting is also being used in education for distance learning projects, one innovative use was the DiveLive programs. For the first time ever, live video and audio was broadcast from an archaeological site to the World Wide Web
15.
Filmmaking
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Filmmaking is the process of making a film. Filmmaking takes place in places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political contexts. Typically, it involves a number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete. Film production consists of five stages, Development, The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc. Financing for the project has to be sought and greenlit, pre-production, Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected and sets are built. Production, The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot, post-production, The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. Distribution, The finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. In this stage, the project producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, true story, video game, comic book, graphic novel, or an original idea, etc. After identifying a theme or underlying message, the works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Next they produce an outline, which breaks the story down into one-paragraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a 25-to-30-page description of the story, its mood and this usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. Another way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced, next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, however, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. A film distributor may be contacted at a stage to assess the likely market. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience, not all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take DVD sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment and they will also pitch the film to actors and directors in order to attach them to the project. Many projects fail to move beyond this stage and enter so-called development hell, if a pitch succeeds, a film receives a green light, meaning someone offers financial backing, typically a major film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts, once all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period
16.
Spirit DataCine
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Spirit DataCine is a telecine and/or a motion picture film scanner. This device is able to transfer 16mm and 35mm motion picture film to NTSC or PAL television standards or one of many High-definition television standards, with the data transfer option a Spirit DataCine can output DPX data files. The image pick up device is a solid state charge-coupled device and this eliminated the need for glass vacuum tube CRTs used on older telecines. The units can transfer negative film, primetime, intermediate film and print film, one option is a Super 8 gate for the transfer of Super 8 mm film. With a sound pick up option, optical 16mm and 35mm sound can be reproduced, the unit can operate stand alone or be controlled by a scene by scene color corrector. Ken Burns, the creator of the The Civil War documentary film included in the DVD release, the operator of the unit is called a Colorist or Colorist Assistant. The Spirit DataCine has become the standard for high-end real-time film transfer, over 370 units are used in post production facilities around the world. The Spirit DataCine is made by DFT Digital Film Technology GmbH in Darmstadt, all Spirit DataCines use continuous transport motion, using a capstan and constant film tension. An optional optic audio, pick up system can be mounted in the capstan, all Spirit DataCines use a xenon lamp for illumination into a diffusion chamber to minimize dust and scratch visibility. With the standard 35mm lens gate, super 35 mm and academy 35 mm are supported, also 2,3,4, perf are supported. VistaVision 8-perf and 6 perf are an option, the unit comes with select-a-speed, this gives the section of a film speeds from 2.00 frames per second to 57.00 fps in SDTV and 2.00 to 31.00 fps in HDTV interlace format. With the optional 16mm lens gate standard 16mm and Super 16 mm are supported, with the 16mm lens gate an optional Super 8 mm film gate can be added. 16mm audio system also support 16mm mag or magnetic sound track on the motion picture would be picked up by a head. Spirit DataCines use a charge-coupled device Line Array - CCD for imaging, in print mode a “white” light is shone through the exposed film image into a lens and then to prism, color glass separates out the image into the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is projected at a different CCD. Spirit DataCines can output to different TV standards, or HDTV, the Spatial Processor can change the size of the image, pan and scan, letterbox or make other aspect ratio and rotation changes, also product interlaced video if needed. The Spatial Processor also produces the 2,3 pulldown, if needed for the format, an optional Scream grain reducer can reduce film grain in all three color channels. The DFT Digital Film Technology, formerly Grass Valley Spirit 4K/2K/HD replaced the Spirit 2000 Datacine, the SDC-2000 did not use a color prisms and/or dichroic mirrors, color separation was done in the CCD
17.
Television program
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It may be a single production, or more commonly, a series of related productions. A limited number of episodes of a show may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series. Television series are without a fixed length and are divided into seasons or series. While there is no defined length, U. S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries, a one-time broadcast may be called a special, or particularly in the UK a special episode. A television film is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video, a program can be either recorded, as on video tape, other various electronic media forms, played with an on-demand player or viewed on live television. Television programs may be fictional, or non-fictional and it may be topical, or historical. They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy, a drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting. The program follows their lives and adventures, except for soap opera-type serials, many shows especially before the 1980s, remained static without story arcs, and the main characters and premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters lives during the episode, because of this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order. Since the 1980s, there are series that feature progressive change to the plot. For instance, Hill Street Blues and St. Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time television series to have this kind of dramatic structure. While the later series, Babylon 5 is an example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run. In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a component of major media companies revenues than film. Some also noted the increase in quality of television programs. When a person or company decides to create a new series, they develop the elements, consisting of the concept, the characters, the crew. Then they offer it to the networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series. They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they’re looking for, to create the pilot, the structure and team of the whole series must be put together. If the network likes the pilot, they pick up the show to air it the next season, sometimes they save it for mid-season, or request rewrites and further review
18.
Kinescope
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Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure, or a film made using the process. Kinescopes were the practical way to preserve live television broadcasts prior to the introduction of videotape in 1956. A small number of theatrically released feature films have also produced as kinescopes. The term kinescope originally referred to the cathode ray tube used in television receivers, hence, the recordings were known in full as kinescope films or kinescope recordings. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The General Electric laboratories in Schenectady, New York experimented with making still, there is some evidence to suggest that the BBC experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was suspended in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. However, the evidence for this is anecdotal, and indeed there is no written record of any BBC Television production of The Scarlet Pimpernel during the 1936–1939 period. The incident is, however, dramatised in Jack Rosenthals 1986 television play The Fools on the Hill, according to a 1949 film produced by RCA, silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were shot off television monitors at a speed of eight frames per second, by the mid-1940s, RCA and NBC were refining the filming process and including sound, the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy. By early 1946, television cameras were being attached to American guided missiles to aid in their remote steering, films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missiles performance. The first known surviving example of the process in Britain is from October 1947. Hall sings Chi-Baba, Chi-Baba and I Cant Give You Anything But Love, as well as accompanying herself on ukulele, the six-minute footage of Miss Hall is all that survives of the show. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth IIs 1953 coronation also exists, most, if not all, videotapes from the 405-line era have long since been wiped as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently, the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, a handful of shows, including some episodes of Doctor Who and most of the first series of Adam Adamant Lives. were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped. Although the quality was less desirable, television programs of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner. NBC, CBS, and DuMont set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while ABC chose Chicago. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16mm kinescope prints each week to their affiliates across the United States, by 1954 the television industry’s film consumption surpassed that of all of the Hollywood studios combined. It was impossible to slow or freeze frame a videotape at that time, so the tape would be copied to a kinescope
19.
Slide projector
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A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device for showing photographic slides. Slide projectors were widely used in educational and other institutional settings. This glass transmits visible wavelengths but absorbs infrared, light passes through the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected onto a perpendicular flat screen so the audience can view its reflection. Alternatively, the image may be projected onto a translucent rear projection screen, often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing and this form of projection also avoids the audience interrupting the light stream by casting their shadows on the projection or by bumping into the projector. Slide projectors get smarter all the time
20.
Film chain
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A film chain or film island is a television – professional video camera with one or more projectors aligned into the photographic lens of the camera. With two or more projectors a system of mirrors that can pop-up are used in a multiplexer. These mirrors switch different projectors into the camera lens, the camera could be fed live to air for broadcasting through a vision mixer or recorded to a VTR for post-production or later broadcast. In most TV use this has been replaced by a telecine, the projectors often are,16 mm film movie projector, a 35 mm slide projector and a 35 mm film movie projector. In low-end use the motion picture 35 mm projector would be replaced by a second 16 mm projector or 8 mm film, the multiplexer with the camera and projectors surrounding it would often be called a film island. The optical or mag or magnetic soundtrack on the motion picture would be picked up by the projector. The slide projector at a TV station would be used for the TV stations logo, some used a dual-rotating drum slide projector that would have its own mirrors to switch between the drums. The film projectors used in a chain are not standard. A special five-blade shutter is used to convert the films 24 frames per second into NTSCs 30 frame per second video, if this was not used, the video would have major flicker problems. This process is called a 3,2 pull down, modern telecines use the same process, but it is done electronically, not with a five-blade shutter. 3,2 pull down means that a frame is shown for three TV fields. The next film frame is shown for two TV fields, the add field in the 3 is used to convert the 24 frames per second to 30 frames per second. A normal projector has a shutter that shows the same frame twice. Before modern continuous motion telecines, film chains were sometime referred to as telecines, all film projectors use sprocket rollers to move the film and a pull-down claws to move and stop the film in the gate. The film is moved in the gate while the blocks the light. In PAL, SECAM, and other 25 frames per second systems and this gives a one-to-one film to video frame transfer ratio. Thus a standard two-bladed shutter can be used, see frame rate differences for more information. A film chain usually used a camera tube as this reduced flicker
21.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
22.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
23.
Home movies
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Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video weblogs, the development of home movie-making has depended critically on availability of equipment and media formats at prices affordable to consumers. Development of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography, for example, the 17.5 mm Birtac format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and was able to be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the frames were half the height of 35 mm frames. Since the camera doubled as a printer and projector, equipment costs were also reduced, another breakthrough in making film practical for home users was the introduction of safety film in the 1920s. Many competing film formats were introduced in the decades until 16 mm safety film was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923. In 1932, Kodak introduced another new format,8 mm, now called Standard 8 or Regular 8, the film usually came in 16 mm wide Double 8 form, which ran through the camera in two passes and was slit in half after processing. The Straight 8 variant came already cut to 8 mm width, in either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family, the smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors. The introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, the original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodaks 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the film width as standard 8 mm. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera, single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base. The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies, videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example, large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely. Home movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations, the prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera
24.
Videotape
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Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
25.
Synchronization
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Synchronization is the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. The familiar conductor of an orchestra serves to keep the orchestra in time, systems operating with all their parts in synchrony are said to be synchronous or in sync, those which are not are asynchronous. Today, synchronization can occur on a basis through the GPS-enabled timekeeping systems. The invention of a marine chronometer revolutionized marine navigation. By the end of the 19th century, time signals in the form of a gun, flag. Each line handled the problem by synchronizing all its stations to headquarters as a standard railroad time, in some territories, sharing of single railroad tracks was controlled by the timetable. The need for strict timekeeping led the companies to settle on one standard, in electrical engineering terms, for digital logic and data transfer, a synchronous circuit requires a clock signal. In a different sense, electronic systems are synchronized to make events at points far apart appear simultaneous or near-simultaneous from a certain perspective. Poincare phase oscillators are model systems that can interact and partially synchronize within random or regular networks, in the case of global synchronization of phase oscillators, an abrupt transition from unsynchronized to full synchronization takes place when the coupling strength exceeds a critical threshold. This is known as the Kuramoto model phase transition, synchronization is an emergent property that occurs in a broad range of dynamical systems, including neural signaling, the beating of the heart and the synchronization of fire-fly light waves. Synchronization of movement is defined as similar movements between two or more people which are temporally aligned and this is different to mimicry, as these movements occur after a short delay. Muscular bonding is the idea that moving in time evokes particular emotions and this sparked some of the first research into movement synchronization and its effects on human emotion. In dyads, groups of two people, synchronization has been demonstrated to increase affiliation, self-esteem, compassion and altruistic behaviour and increase rapport. During arguments, synchrony between the pair has been noted to decrease, however it is not clear whether this is due to the change in emotion or other factors. This is known as interpersonal synchrony, there has been dispute regarding the true effect of synchrony in these studies. Research in this area detailing the effects of synchrony, have attributed this to synchrony alone, however. Indeed, the Reinforcement of Cooperation Model suggests that perception of synchrony leads to reinforcement that cooperation is occurring, more research is required to separate the effect of intentionality from the beneficial effect of synchrony. Film synchronization of image and sound in sound film, synchronization is important in fields such as digital telephony, video and digital audio where streams of sampled data are manipulated
26.
Analog television
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Analog television or analogue television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by variations of either the amplitude. Analog signals vary over a range of possible values which means that electronic noise. So with analog, a weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, a moderately weak signal and a very strong digital signal transmit equal picture quality. Analog television may be wireless or can be distributed over a network using cable converters. All broadcast television systems preceding digital transmission of digital television used analog signals, analog television around the world has been in the process of shutting down since the late 2000s. The earliest systems were mechanical systems which used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver, synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. However these mechanical systems were slow, the images were dim and flickered severely, camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. Analog television did not really begin as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube, the electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a spinning disc system, all-electronic systems became popular with households after the Second World War. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using different systems, the official systems of transmission are named, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of lines, channel width, vision bandwidth, vision-sound separation, each frame of a television image is composed of lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness, the set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion, the analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information, so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal. The first commercial systems were black-and-white, the beginning of color television was in the 1950s. A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance, synchronization, and audio signals, the transmission system must include a means of television channel selection
27.
Screen tearing
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Screen tearing is a visual artifact in video display where a display device shows information from multiple frames in a single screen draw. The artifact occurs when the feed to the device is not in sync with the displays refresh rate. This can be due to non-matching refresh rates—in which case the line moves as the phase difference changes. It can also occur simply from lack of sync between two equal frame rates, in case the tear line is at a fixed location that corresponds to the phase difference. During video motion, screen tearing creates a look as edges of objects fail to line up. Screen tearing is less noticeable when more than two frames finish rendering during the same interval, since this means the screen has several narrower tears instead of a single wider one. Ways to prevent video tearing depend on the device and video card technology, software in use. The most common solution is to use multiple buffering, most systems use multiple buffering and some means of synchronization of display and video memory refresh cycles. Nvidia and AMD video adapters provide an Adaptive Vsync option and this will only turn on vertical synchronization when the frame rate of the software exceeds the displays refresh rate, disabling it otherwise. This eliminates the stutter that occurs as the engine frame rate drops below the displays refresh rate. Alternatively, technologies like FreeSync and G-Sync reverse the concept, adapting the displays refresh rate to the content coming from the computer and these technologies require specific support from both the video adapter and the display. When vertical synchronization is used, the rate of the rendering engine gets limited to the video signal frame rate. Though this feature normally improves video quality, it involves trade-offs in some cases, vertical synchronization can also cause artifacts in video and movie presentations, as they are generally recorded at frame rates significantly lower than the typical monitor frame rates. Otherwise, the monitor and video card throttle the benchmarking program, some graphics systems let the software perform its memory accesses so that they stay at the same time point relative to the display hardwares refresh cycle. In this case, the writes to the areas of the display that have just been updated. This allows for copy routines or rendering engines with less predictable throughput, alternatively, software can instead stay just ahead of the active refresh point. Depending on how far ahead one chooses to stay, this method may demand code that copies or renders the display at a fixed, too much latency causes the monitor to overtake the software on occasion, leading to rendering artifacts, tearing, etc
28.
SECAM
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SECAM, also written SÉCAM, is an analogue colour television system first used in France. It was one of three major television standards, the others being the European PAL and North American NTSC. Development of SECAM began in 1956 by a led by Henri de France working at Compagnie Française de Télévision. The first SECAM broadcast was made in France in 1967, making it the first such standard to go live in Europe, the system was also selected as the standard for colour in the Soviet Union, who began broadcasts shortly after the French. The standard spread from these two countries to many client states and former colonies, SECAM remained a major standard into the 2000s. It is in the process of being phased out and replaced by DVB, work on SECAM began in 1956. The technology was ready by the end of the 1950s, a version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but not introduced. The first proposed system was called SECAM I in 1961, followed by studies to improve compatibility. These improvements were called SECAM II and SECAM III, with the latter being presented at the 1965 CCIR General Assembly in Vienna, further improvements were SECAM III A followed by SECAM III B, the adopted system for general use in 1967. Soviet technicians were involved in the development of the standard, and created their own incompatible variant called NIR or SECAM IV, the team was working in Moscows Telecentrum under the direction of Professor Shmakov. The NIR designation comes from the name of the Nautchno-Issledovatelskiy Institut Radio, two standards were developed, Non-linear NIR, in which a process analogous to gamma correction is used, and Linear NIR or SECAM IV that omits this process. SECAM was inaugurated in France on 1 October 1967, on la deuxième chaîne, a group of four suited men—a presenter and three contributors to the systems development—were shown standing in a studio. Following a count from 10, at 2,15 pm the black-and-white image switched to color, in 1967, CLT of Lebanon became the third television station in the world, after the Soviet Union and France, to broadcast in color utilizing the French SECAM technology. The first color television sets cost 5000 Francs, color TV was not very popular initially, only about 1500 people watched the inaugural program in color. A year later, only 200,000 sets had been sold of an expected million and this pattern was similar to the earlier slow build-up of color television popularity in the US. SECAM was later adopted by former French and Belgian colonies, Greece, the Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries, and Middle Eastern countries. However, with the fall of communism, and following a period when multi-standard TV sets became a commodity, other countries, notably the United Kingdom and Italy, briefly experimented with SECAM before opting for PAL. Since late 2000s, SECAM is in the process of being phased out, some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers
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Pitch (music)
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Pitch can be determined only in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. Pitch is a major attribute of musical tones, along with duration, loudness. Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a purely objective physical property, Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent, frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each persons subjective perception of a wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this not necessarily mean that most people wont agree on which notes are higher and lower. Sound waves themselves do not have pitch, but their oscillations can be measured to obtain a frequency and it takes a sentient mind to map the internal quality of pitch. However, pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as frequencies in cycles per second, or hertz, by comparing sounds with pure tones, Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method. According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high. That is, high pitch means very rapid oscillation, and low pitch corresponds to slower oscillation, despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down, the exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the frequency is increased or reduced. The pitch of tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases, for instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder, theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided into place coding, place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane. However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in the low, temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus
30.
Semitones
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A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically. It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale, for example, C is adjacent to C♯, the interval between them is a semitone. In music theory, a distinction is made between a diatonic semitone, or minor second and a semitone or augmented unison. In twelve-tone equal temperament all semitones are equal in size, in other tuning systems, semitone refers to a family of intervals that may vary both in size and name. In quarter-comma meantone, seven of them are diatonic, and 117.1 cents wide, while the five are chromatic. 12-tone scales tuned in just intonation typically define three or four kinds of semitones, for instance, Asymmetric five-limit tuning yields chromatic semitones with ratios 25,24 and 135,128, and diatonic semitones with ratios 16,15 and 27,25. The condition of having semitones is called hemitonia, that of having no semitones is anhemitonia, a musical scale or chord containing semitones is called hemitonic, one without semitones is anhemitonic. The minor second occurs in the scale, between the third and fourth degree, and between the seventh and eighth degree. It is also called the diatonic semitone because it occurs between steps in the diatonic scale, the minor second is abbreviated m2. Its inversion is the major seventh, listen to a minor second in equal temperament. Here, middle C is followed by D♭, which is a tone 100 cents sharper than C, melodically, this interval is very frequently used, and is of particular importance in cadences. In the perfect and deceptive cadences it appears as a resolution of the leading-tone to the tonic, in the plagal cadence, it appears as the falling of the subdominant to the mediant. It also occurs in many forms of the cadence, wherever the tonic falls to the leading-tone. Harmonically, the interval usually occurs as some form of dissonance or a tone that is not part of the functional harmony. It may also appear in inversions of a seventh chord. In unusual situations, the second can add a great deal of character to the music. For instance, Frédéric Chopins Étude Op.25, No.5 opens with a melody accompanied by a line that plays fleeting minor seconds and these are used to humorous and whimsical effect, which contrasts with its more lyrical middle section. This eccentric dissonance has earned the piece its nickname, the wrong note étude and this kind of usage of the minor second appears in many other works of the Romantic period, such as Modest Mussorgskys Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks
31.
Audio time stretching and pitch scaling
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Time stretching is the process of changing the speed or duration of an audio signal without affecting its pitch. Pitch scaling or pitch shifting is the opposite, the process of changing the pitch without affecting the speed, similar methods can change speed, pitch, or both at once, in a time-varying way. These processes are used, for instance, to match the pitches and they are also used to create effects such as increasing the range of an instrument. The simplest way to change the duration or pitch of an audio clip is to resample it. This is an operation that effectively rebuilds a continuous waveform from its samples. When the new samples are played at the sampling frequency. Unfortunately, the frequencies in the sample are always scaled at the rate as the speed. In other words, slowing down the recording lowers the pitch, speeding it up raises the pitch and this is analogous to speeding up or slowing down an analogue recording, like a phonograph record or tape, creating the Chipmunk effect. In order to preserve an audio signals pitch when stretching or compressing its duration, given an original discrete-time audio signal, this strategys first step is to split the signal into short analysis frames of fixed length. The analysis frames are spaced by a number of samples. To achieve the actual time-scale modification, the frames are then temporally relocated to have a synthesis hopsize H s ∈ N. This frame relocation results in a modification of the duration by a stretching factor of α = H s / H a. However, simply superimposing the unmodified analysis frames typically results in undesired artifacts such as phase discontinuities or amplitude fluctuations, to prevent this kind of artifacts, the analysis frames are adapted to form synthesis frames, prior to the reconstruction of the time-scale modified output signal. The strategy of how to derive the synthesis frames from the frames is a key difference among different TSM procedures. One way of stretching the length of a signal without affecting the pitch is to build a phase vocoder after Flanagan, Golden, recent improvements allow better quality results at all compression/expansion ratios but a residual smearing effect still remains. Another method for time stretching relies on a model of the signal. In this method, peaks are identified in frames using the STFT of the signal, the tracks are then re-synthesized at a new time scale. This method can yield results on both polyphonic and percussive material, especially when the signal is separated into sub-bands
32.
Friends
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Friends is an American television sitcom, created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22,1994, to May 6,2004, lasting ten seasons. With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, the series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright, Marta Kauffman, Kauffman and Crane began developing Friends under the title Insomnia Cafe between November and December 1993. They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven-page treatment of the show to NBC, after several script rewrites and changes, including a title change to Six of One and Friends Like Us, the series was finally named Friends. Filming took place at Warner Bros, All ten seasons of Friends ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings, ultimately reaching the No.1 spot with its eighth season. Friends received acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular shows of all time. The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season. The show ranked no.21 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, in 1997, the episode The One with the Prom Video was ranked no.100 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time. In 2013, Friends ranked no.24 on the Writers Guild of Americas 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time, Rachel Green flees her wedding day and seeks out childhood friend Monica Geller, a New York City chef. Episodes typically depict the friends comedic and romantic adventures and career issues, the six characters each have many dates and serious relationships, such as Monica with Richard Burke and Ross with Emily Waltham. The series featured six main characters throughout its run, Jennifer Aniston portrays Rachel Green, Rachel first moves in with Monica in season one after nearly marrying Barry Farber, whom she realizes she does not love. Rachel and Ross Geller are later involved in a relationship throughout the series. Rachel’s first job is as a waitress at the coffeehouse Central Perk, Rachel and Ross have a daughter named Emma in The One Where Rachel Has a Baby, Part Two at the end of season eight. In the final episode of the series, Ross and Rachel finally confess their love for each other, Courteney Cox portrays Monica Geller, the mother hen of the group and a chef, known for her perfectionist, bossy, competitive, and obsessive-compulsive nature. Monica is often teased by the others for having been extremely overweight as a child. Monica works as a chef in various restaurants throughout the show, Monica’s first serious relationship is with long-time family friend Richard Burke, who is twenty-one years her senior. The couple maintains a relationship for some time, until Richard expresses that he does not want to have children. Lisa Kudrow portrays Phoebe Buffay, a masseuse and self-taught musician
33.
Oklahoma! (1955 film)
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Is a 1955 musical film based on the 1943 stage musical Oklahoma. The production was the musical directed by Fred Zinnemann. Was the first feature photographed in the Todd-AO70 mm widescreen process. The film received a review from The New York Times. Was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, Curly rides his horse through the cornfield. He arrives at Aunt Ellers farm, Laurey Williams, is Aunt Ellers niece, with whom Curly is in love. Laurey clearly feels the way, but is loath to admit it. Curly has come to ask her to a party that night, to make him jealous, she agrees to go with Jud, Aunt Ellers surly hired hand, though she is afraid of him. Aunt Eller meets roving cowboy Will Parker at the station, who has just returned from Kansas City, meanwhile, Laurey meets up with Ado Annie, who is with another man, a traveling salesman named Ali Hakim. Laurey reminds her that Will Parker is returning from Kansas, Ado Annie is in a dilemma, unable to decide between Will and Ali. She explains to Laurey that she can never resist a romantic man, will is reunited with Ado Annie, and meets Ali Hakim, unaware that he has been spending time with Ado Annie. He reminds Ado Annie that her father has agreed to let him marry her in exchange for $50 and he has managed to earn $50 – but has spent it all on presents for Ado Annie. She initially tries to resist, but Will wins her over, several local families arrive at Aunt Ellers ranch to prepare for the party that night. When Gertie flirts with Curly, he is uninterested, but uses the flirtation to make Laurey jealous, Laurey is hurt, but, as she and the other girls freshen up for the party, she tries to convince them, and herself, that she doesnt care. Ado Annies father learns that Will has spent all his money, in the orchard, Laurey tells Curly to keep his distance, but Curly is quick to point out that she is as much to blame for the rumours as he is. Curly asks Laurey if she will go to the party with him instead, in anger, Curly goes to confront Jud about his feelings for Laurey. At first, things seem harmless enough, Curly teases Jud about his reputation, and Jud joins in. But Jud deduces why Curly has come to see him, as the party draws near, Laurey is miserable
34.
The Archie Show
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The Archie Show is an American animated comedy series produced by Filmation for CBS. Based on the Archie comic books, created by Bob Montana in 1941, Filmation continued to produce Archie television series until 1978. On the show, the friends appeared as a pop band featuring Archie on lead guitar. The Archies had a real-life #1 hit single in 1969 with their song, Sugar, Sugar, written by Jeff Barry, the Archie Show utilized a laugh track, the first such example from what was colloquially known as a Saturday morning cartoon. Owing to the success of The Archie Show, most animated series would begin using laugh tracks until the early 1980s, previous animated series that used laugh tracks, such as The Flintstones and The Jetsons, were broadcast during prime time with the target audience being adults. A typical episode started with the first Archie story, introduced by Archie, next was a dance of the week segment starting with a teaser, then after the commercial break Archie introduced the dance, followed by the song of the week performed by The Archies. After that was a short joke followed by the second Archie story, all 17 episodes were presented in this format. The Archie Show was designed to emulate the live-action series The Monkees by including rock music into each episode. Dallas McKennon - Archie Andrews, Hot Dog, Mr. Weatherbee, Pop Tate, Mr. With vocals provided by Ron Dante and Toni Wine and their most successful song is Sugar, Sugar, which stood at the top of the pop charts for four weeks in 1969. Sugar, Sugar became the number 1 song of 1969 on the Billboard charts, a cover of Sugar, Sugar, performed by Mary Lou Lord with Semisonic, is included on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning, Cartoons Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records. The shows main composer Ray Ellis would later work on other Filmation projects, the New Archie and Sabrina Hour was subsequently divided into The Bang-Shang Lalapalooza Show and Sabrina, Super Witch during its original network run. While the other Archie shows were on CBS, these shows were on NBC, collectively, most episodes of these series were later put into television syndication in 1976 as The Archies. Strangely, the segments from Comedy Hour were missing in this syndication package. In 2010, the show airing on Retro Television Network. Hal Erickson, author of Television Cartoon Shows, An Illustrated Encyclopedia described The Archie Show as not what one could call inspired, Erickson criticized the humor that was described as executed in a fragmented fashion and made doubly obvious by the overuse of a canned laughtrack. Single-disc DVD compilations featuring four episodes each were released in 2004, there were four volumes in all, Archie & Friends Featuring The Archie Show includes three episodes of The Archie Show. Also included is one episode of U. S, of Archie and a segment from The Archie Comedy Hour. Archie & Friends Featuring Sabrina The Teenage Witch includes three Sabrina half-hours, one episode of U. S, of Archie and a segment from The Archie Comedy Hour
35.
Three-two pull down
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Three-two pull down is a term used in filmmaking and television production for the post-production process of transferring film to video. Film runs at a rate of 24 frames per second. Every interlaced video frame has two fields for each frame, the three-two pull down is where the telecine adds a third video field to every second video frame, but the untrained eye cannot see the addition of this extra video field. In the figure, the film frames A-D are true or original images since they have been photographed as a complete frame, the AB and D frames on the right, the NTSC footage, are original frames. The third and fourth frames have been created by blending movie fields from different frames, in the United States and other countries where television uses the 59.94 Hz vertical scanning frequency, video is broadcast at 29.97 frame/s. For the films motion to be rendered on the video signal. The term “pulldown” comes from the process of “pulling” the film downward within the film portion of the transport mechanism. This is accomplished in two steps, the first step is to slow down the film motion by 1/1000 to 23.976 frames/s. The difference in speed is imperceptible to the viewer, for a two-hour film, play time is extended by 7.2 seconds. The second step of the 2,3 pulldown is distributing cinema frames into video fields, every original film frame can be considered to consist of two incomplete images or fields, one for the odd-numbered lines of the image, and one for the even-numbered lines. There are, therefore, eight fields for every four frames, which are called A, B, C. But these eight fields have to be stretched to ten fields by repeating two of the fields, the telecine alternately places A frame across two fields, B frame across three fields, C frame across two fields, and D frame across three fields. This can be written as A1-A2, B1-B2, B2-C1, C2-D1, D2-D2, the cycle repeats itself completely after four film frames have been exposed. A3,2 pattern is identical to the one shown above except that it is shifted by one frame. For instance, a cycle starts with film frame B yields a 3,2 pattern, B1-B2, B2-C1, C2-D1, D2-D2. In other words, there is no difference between the 2-3 and 3-2 patterns, in fact, the 3-2 notation is misleading because according to SMPTE standards for every four-frame film sequence the first frame is scanned twice, not three times. The above method is a classic 2,3, which was used before frame buffers allowed for holding more than one frame, the 2,3,3,2 pattern is supported by the Panasonic DVX-100B video camera under the name Advanced Pulldown. Note that just fields are displayed—no frames hence no dirty frames—in interlaced display such as on a CRT, dirty frames may appear in other methods of displaying the interlaced video
36.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
37.
Panasonic AG-DVX100
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The Panasonic AG-DVX100, first released in December 2002, was the first consumer-affordable digital progressive scan camcorder, able to record 576p SD video at 24 progressive frames per second. The camera is popular among television studios and is popular with independent film makers because of its film-emulating features, currently the latest and last revision is the DVX100B. The camera records to tape, but third party developers have modified DVX100 cameras to dump raw images to a tethered laptop, however, the company most known for doing this, Reel Stream, is no longer operational. The high definition successor to the AG-DVX100 is the AG-HMC150, the AG-HVX200 is considered to be the DVX100s Big Brother. Panasonic created a line of cameras that support recording in 24p. 24p stands for 24 frames per second progressive, a rate which is commonly used in motion picture production. These features give the recordings a film quality appearance, the original AG-DVX100 nor the later AG-DVX100A and B revisions cannot record in HD. The original Panasonic AG-DVX100 is a 4,3 aspect ratio SD camera only, difference in original model and A revision are small. The B revision introduced the ability to properly monitor 16,9 aspect ratio, the B revisions CCD sensors have a native aspect ratio of 4,3. At the time, Progressive video was rare for cameras below the US$10,000 price point, the AG-DVX100 originally retailed around MSRP US$2,995 in 2002. At that time, the DVX100 was rivaled in standard definition video only by the Canon XL-1 which also records progressive video, the DVX100 contains a 3-CCD image sensor system, with 410,000 pixels each. The camera can record 24p video in telecined fashion, 30p video in PsF fashion, the camera incorporates CineGamma functionality to approximate the characteristic curve of film. The DVX100 also features two XLR audio inputs, another feature for cameras in its price range. It includes a 4-pin FireWire port, as well as S-Video and RCA in and it features manual and servo zoom, with a second zoom control and record button on top of the handle for recording from low angles. A Scanner Darkly was also using the DVX100, but processed through Rotoshop to give it a more animated feel. The documentary Iraq in Fragments was also shot with this camera over a period in Iraq. Seasons 1-5 of the popular TV show Its Always Sunny In Philadelphia is also shot with the DVX100, the Man From Earth was shot from only two DVX100 cameras. Seasons 1-5 of The Angry Video Game Nerd were shot with the DVX100, later seasons were shot with the Panasonic HVX200
38.
Standard 8 mm film
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The format, initially known as Cine Kodak Eight, was developed by Kodak to provide a cheaper and more portable alternative to the 16 mm film format introduced a decade earlier. Standard 8 mm film stock consists of 16 mm film reperforated to have twice the number of perforations along its edges. This film is run through the camera, exposing one edge of the film only, the spool is then reversed and the film run through again, exposing the other edge. After processing the film is cut down the centre and spliced together to give one roll of 8mm wide film. The format was an success, but retains a number of inherent problems and quirks. This procedure is tricky for the user and needs to be carried out in subdued light to avoid fogging of the edges of the film. In addition, the six feet of the finished film includes a characteristic burst of light corresponding to the reversal point. In the early 1960s, a new filming and projection standard of 18 frames per second was introduced, although many cameras, in reality, this was not the case, since the plastic pressure plate could be moulded to far smaller tolerances than their metal counterparts could be machined. Finally, Super 8s smaller sprocket holes, while allowing a larger size, were also inherently more liable to tear. The first camera produced was Kodaks own Cine Kodak Eight Model 20, like many subsequent cameras, it was extremely simple and powered by clockwork. The Swiss company Paillard-Bolex SA introduced its first 8 mm camera in 1938 and its first pocket 8 mm camera aimed squarely at the amateur market, bolex cameras and projectors continued to occupy the high end of the market. In the US, Bell and Howell introduced an 8 mm projector in 1934, and in 1935, Standard 8 mm equipment was also manufactured by Carl Zeiss, the Austrian firm Eumig, Fuji, and Canon, amongst others. Eastman Kodak officially discontinued manufacture of the film in 1992, however, private marketed film by a major U. S. manufacturer has continued at least twelve years into the 21st century sofar. John Schwind, of International Film, is the current supplier for this major US company in the entire world. There are many still in use by film students, hobbyists. This was the first new introduction of a type K-14 stock since 1988 and this film was kept in production until 2006, coinciding with the discontinuation of Kodachrome 40A in that same year. Foma R-100 film also continues to be produced by the European manufacturer Foma, due to aging punch dies, this film does NOT have an advantage over Super 8 film in terms of image steadiness, unfortunately. The most commonly used film stocks were produced by Kodak, in particular, the 10 ASA Kodachrome colour reversal stock, with its distinctive colour rendition and fine grain, was closely associated with the format
39.
Super 8 film
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Super 8mm film is a motion picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement over the older Double or Regular 8 mm home movie format. The film is nominally 8mm wide, the same as older formatted 8mm film, but the dimensions of the rectangular perforations along one edge are smaller, the Super 8 standard also allocates the border opposite the perforations for an oxide stripe upon which sound can be magnetically recorded. Unlike Super 35, the stock used for Super 8 is not compatible with standard 8mm film cameras. There are several varieties of the system used for shooting. The most popular system by far was the Kodak system and this is enough film for 2.5 minutes at the professional motion picture standard of 24 frames per second, and for 3 minutes and 20 seconds of continuous filming at 18 frames per second for amateur use. In 1973 the system was upgraded with a cartridge, which included film with magnetic sound. In 1975 an even larger 200-foot cartridge became available which could be used in specifically designed cameras, the sound and the 200 foot cartridge system are no longer available, but the 50 foot silent cartridge system is still manufactured. Historically, Super 8 film was a stock for home projection used primarily for the creation of home movies. It became a popular consumer product in the late 1960s through the 1970s. During the mid-to-late 1980s Super 8 began to re-emerge as a method for movie production. This included emulsions from Kodak, Fuji and Ilford, today Super 8 color negative film is the main color stock used. There are also Super 8 reversal films available including 200D Agfa color and black-and-white from Foma, ADOX and ORWO, in addition, coded notches cut into the Super 8 film cartridge exterior allow the camera to recognize the film speed automatically. Not all cameras can all the notches correctly, however. Canon keeps an exhaustive list of their Super 8 cameras with detailed specifications on what film speeds can be used with their cameras, usually, testing one cartridge of film can help handle any uncertainty a filmmaker may have about how well their Super 8 camera reads different film stocks. Color stocks were available only in tungsten, and almost all Super 8 cameras come with a switchable daylight filter built in. The original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, the film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path. Sound film requires a longer path, and a second aperture for the recording head. Sound cameras were compatible with silent cartridges, but not vice versa, Sound film was typically filmed at a speed of 18 or 24 frames per second
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