1.
Shukhov Tower
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The Shukhov radio tower, also known as the Shabolovka tower, is a broadcasting tower in Moscow designed by Vladimir Shukhov. The 160-metre-high free-standing steel diagrid structure was built in the period 1920–1922, the Shukhov tower is a hyperboloid structure consisting of a series of hyperboloid sections stacked on one another to approximate an overall conical shape. The tower has a structure, and its steel shell experiences minimum wind load. The tower sections are single-cavity hyperboloids of rotation made of straight beams, the original plan was for a 350 m tall tower. This was reduced to 160 m because steel was in short supply in Russia during the time of its construction, the tower is located a few kilometres south of the Moscow Kremlin, but is not accessible to tourists. The street address of the tower is Shabolovka Street,37, however, there is as yet no planned schedule for the required restoration work. There is a model of Shukhovs Shabolovka Tower at the Information Age gallery at the Science Museum in London, the model is at 1,30 scale and was installed in October 2014. Die Kunst der sparsamen Konstruktion. ”, Rainer Graefe und andere,192 S, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart,1990, ISBN 3-421-02984-9. Jesberg, Paulgerd Die Geschichte der Bauingenieurkunst, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03078-2,1996, ricken, Herbert Der Bauingenieur, Verlag für Bauwesen, Berlin, ISBN 3-345-00266-3,1994, pp.230. giovannardierontini
2.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
3.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
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The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
4.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
5.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
6.
Coaxial cable
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Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, digital audio and this allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference, the cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor, the advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with signals inside the cable, larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less leakage. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, the characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should be matched to ensure maximum power transfer, other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality. Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, the inner conductor might be solid or stranded, stranded is more flexible. To get better performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry. The insulator surrounding the conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic. The properties of control some electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene insulator, used in lower-loss cables, solid Teflon is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air and have spacers to keep the conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield and this allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat
7.
Microwave transmission
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Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are measured in small numbers of centimetre, these are called microwaves. This part of the spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz to 300 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 0.1 cm, communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, a disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation, they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can. Microwave radio transmission is used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications. Other parts of the radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. Wireless transmission of power Proposed systems e. g, in microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance between stations to 30 or 40 miles. Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U. S. carried long distance telephone calls. The first system, dubbed TD-2 and built by AT&T, connected New York and these included long daisy-chained series of such links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. Much of the traffic is now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication satellites. Antennas must be highly directional, these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances. Because of the frequencies used, a line-of-sight path between the stations is required. Additionally, in order to avoid attenuation of the beam an area around the beam called the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles, obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted attenuation. In the planning process, it is essential that path profiles are produced, multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects. Rare events of temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality
8.
Roaming
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To roam is to wander around, to go from place to place without a certain direction or purpose. In the context of mobile networks the word is used when a mobile phone is used outside of the range of its home network. Roaming ensures that a wireless device is kept connected to a network without breaking the connection. For example, should a subscriber travel beyond their cell phone companys transmitter range, their cell phone would automatically hop onto another phone companys service, Using another phone companys service can be done by using the subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically supported by mobility management, authentication, authorization, device equipment and functionality, such as SIM card capability, antenna and network interfaces, and power management, determine the access possibilities. Username/password based roaming, GSM subscriber roams onto a Public WLAN operated by, although these user/network scenarios focus on roaming from GSM Network Operators network, clearly roaming can be bi-directional, i. e. from Public WLAN Operators to GSM Networks. Traditional roaming in networks of the standard, e. g. In the case of session continuity, seamless access to these services across different access types is provided, the differentiation between home network and visited network is technically given by the type of subscriber entry in a specific network. The visiting subscriber acquires an entry in a database of the visited network. Thus, the term roaming is not linked to a specific network standard, if a subscriber can use their personal service profile, which they use in the home network, in the visited network as well, this is also referred to as Global Service Roaming Capability. The legal roaming business aspects negotiated between the partners for billing of the services obtained are usually stipulated in so called roaming agreements. The GSM Association broadly outlines the content of such roaming agreements in standardized form for its members, if there is no roaming agreement between the two networks, maintenance of service is impossible, and service is denied by the visited network. The visited network contacts the home network and requests information about the roaming device using the IMSI number. If successful, the visited network begins to maintain a temporary subscriber record for the device, likewise, the home network updates its information to indicate that the cell phone is on the host network so that any information sent to that device can be correctly routed. It occurs for example when a call is made to a cell phone. Signaling process, The calling subscriber dials the mobile subscribers MSISDN of the cell phone. Based on the contained in the MSISDN, the call is routed to the mobile network gateway MSC. Its done with an ISUP IAM message, to locate the MS, the GMSC sends to the HLR a MAP SRI message
9.
Fiber to the x
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Fiber to the x is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances. FTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fibre deployment, arranged into two groups, FTTP/FTTH/FTTB and FTTC/N, the telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are, FTTP, This term is used either as a term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses. FTTH, Fiber reaches the boundary of the space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point Ethernet are architectures that deliver services over FTTH networks directly from an operators central office. FTTD, Fiber connection is installed from the computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the users desk. FTTO, Fiber connection is installed from the main computer room/core switch to a special mini-switch located at the user´s workstation or service points and this mini-switch provides Ethernet services to end user devices via standard twisted pair patch cords. The switches are located all over the building, but managed from one central point. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of technologies, FTTF This is very similar to FTTB. In a fiber to the front yard scenario, each fiber node serves a single subscriber and this allows for multi-gigabit speeds using XG-fast technology. The fiber node may be reverse-powered by the subscriber modem, FTTN is often an interim step toward full FTTH and is typically used to deliver advanced triple-play telecommunications services. FTTC is occasionally ambiguously called FTTP, leading to confusion with the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system, the FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN. While fiber optic cables can carry data at speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines. For example, the form of gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling. However,1 Gbit/s ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometres, therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the segments can use standard ethernet or coaxial cable. Google Fiber provides speed of 1 Gbit/s, still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e. g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s
10.
Fiber broadband
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Fiber to the x is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances. FTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fibre deployment, arranged into two groups, FTTP/FTTH/FTTB and FTTC/N, the telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are, FTTP, This term is used either as a term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses. FTTH, Fiber reaches the boundary of the space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point Ethernet are architectures that deliver services over FTTH networks directly from an operators central office. FTTD, Fiber connection is installed from the computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the users desk. FTTO, Fiber connection is installed from the main computer room/core switch to a special mini-switch located at the user´s workstation or service points and this mini-switch provides Ethernet services to end user devices via standard twisted pair patch cords. The switches are located all over the building, but managed from one central point. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of technologies, FTTF This is very similar to FTTB. In a fiber to the front yard scenario, each fiber node serves a single subscriber and this allows for multi-gigabit speeds using XG-fast technology. The fiber node may be reverse-powered by the subscriber modem, FTTN is often an interim step toward full FTTH and is typically used to deliver advanced triple-play telecommunications services. FTTC is occasionally ambiguously called FTTP, leading to confusion with the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system, the FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN. While fiber optic cables can carry data at speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines. For example, the form of gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling. However,1 Gbit/s ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometres, therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the segments can use standard ethernet or coaxial cable. Google Fiber provides speed of 1 Gbit/s, still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e. g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s
11.
Consumer demand
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In economics, demand is the quantity of a commodity or a service that people are willing or able to buy at a certain price. The relationship between price and quantity demanded is also known as demand curve, preferences and choices, which underly demand, can be represented as functions of cost, benefit, odds and other variables. Innumerable factors and circumstances could affect a buyers willingness or ability to buy a good, Some of the more common factors are, Goods own price, The basic demand relationship is between potential prices of a good and the quantities that would be purchased at those prices. Generally the relationship is negative meaning that an increase in price will induce a decrease in the quantity demanded and this negative relationship is embodied in the downward slope of the consumer demand curve. The assumption of a relationship is reasonable and intuitive. If the price of a new novel is high, a person decide to borrow the book from the public library rather than buy it. Price of related goods, The principal related goods are complements, a complement is a good that is used with the primary good. Examples include hotdogs and mustard, beer and pretzels, automobiles, If the price of the complement goes up the quantity demanded of the other good goes down. Mathematically, the representing the price of the complementary good would have a negative coefficient in the demand function. For example, Qd = a - P - Pg where Q is the quantity of automobiles demanded, P is the price of automobiles, the other main category of related goods are substitutes. Substitutes are goods that can be used in place of the primary good, the mathematical relationship between the price of the substitute and the demand for the good in question is positive. If the price of the substitute goes down the demand for the good in question goes down, personal Disposable Income, In most cases, the more disposable income a person has the more likely that person is to buy. Tastes or preferences, The greater the desire to own a good the more one is to buy the good. There is a distinction between desire and demand. Desire is a measure of the willingness to buy a good based on its intrinsic qualities, demand is the willingness and ability to put ones desires into effect. It is assumed that tastes and preferences are relatively constant, consumer expectations about future prices, income and availability, If a consumer believes that the price of the good will be higher in the future, he/she is more likely to purchase the good now. If the consumer expects that his/her income will be higher in the future, availability as well as predicted or expected availability also affects both price and demand. Population, If the population grows this means that demand will also increase, nature of the good, If the good is a basic commodity, it will lead to a higher demand This list is not exhaustive
12.
Mail
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The mail or post is a system for physically transporting documents and other small packages, or, the postcards, letters, and parcels themselves. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems, since the mid-19th century national postal systems have generally been established as government monopolies with a fee on the article prepaid. Proof of payment is often in the form of adhesive postage stamps, modern private postal systems are typically distinguished from national postal agencies by the names courier or delivery service. Postal authorities often have other than transporting letters. In some countries, a postal, telegraph and telephone service oversees the system, in addition to telephone. Some countries postal systems allow for savings accounts and handle applications for passports, the Universal Postal Union, established in 1874, includes 192 member countries and sets the rules for international mail exchanges. The word mail comes from the Medieval English word male, referring to a bag or pack. It was spelled that way until the 17th century, and is distinct from the word male, the French have a similar word, malle for a trunk or large box, and mála is the Irish term for a bag. In the 17th century, the mail began to appear as a reference for a bag that contained letters. Over the next hundred years the word began to be applied strictly to the letters themselves. The U. S. Postal Service delivers the mail, the term email first appeared in the 1970s. The term snail-mail is a retronym to distinguish it from the quicker email, various dates have been given for its first use. Post is derived from Medieval French poste, which stems from the past participle of the Latin verb ponere. The practice of communication by written documents carried by an intermediary from one person or place to another almost certainly dates back nearly to the invention of writing, however, development of formal postal systems occurred much later. The earliest surviving piece of mail is also Egyptian, dating to 255 BC, the first credible claim for the development of a real postal system comes from Ancient Persia, but the point of invention remains in question. He also negotiated with neighbouring countries to do the same and had built from the city of Post in Western Iran all the way up to the city of Hakha in the East. Other writers credit his successor Darius I of Persia, other sources claim much earlier dates for an Assyrian postal system, with credit given to Hammurabi and Sargon II. Mail may not have been the mission of this postal service
13.
Telegraph
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
14.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
15.
Vladimir Odoyevsky
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Prince Vladimir Fyodorovich Odoyevsky was a prominent Russian philosopher, writer, music critic, philanthropist and pedagogue. He became known as the Russian Hoffmann on account of his keen interest in phantasmagoric tales, the last of his family, Prince Odoevsky was genealogically the most senior member of the House of Rurik. Considered by his contemporaries as a typical Muscovite, he was educated at the Nobility School of the Moscow University in 1816-22. In the mid-1820s, Odoyevsky presided over the Lyubomudry Society, where he and his fellow students met to discuss the ideas of Friedrich Schelling, at that period, he came to know many future Slavophiles and Westernizers, but refused to identify himself with any of these movements. Since 1824, Odoyevsky was active as a critic and journalist. In 1824 he and Wilhelm Küchelbecker founded the short-lived Moscow literary magazine Mnemozina, perhaps most famously, he co-edited the Sovremennik with Alexander Pushkin in the mid-1830s. In 1826, he moved to St Petersburg, where he joined the staff of the Imperial Public Library, two decades later, he was put in charge of the Rumyantsev Museum. Odoyevsky finally returned to Moscow in 1861 but continued to serve as a senator until his death and he is buried in the Donskoy monastery necropolis. Following the success of Pushkins The Queen of Spades, Odoyevsky wrote a number of stories on the dissipated life of the Russian aristocracy. On account of his short stories from the 1820s and 1830s. His most mature book was the collection of essays and novellas entitled The Russian Nights, loosely patterned after the Noctes Atticae, the book took two decades to complete. It contains some of Odoyevskys best known fiction, including the dystopian novellas The Last Suicide, the stories are interlaced with philosophic conversations redolent of the French Encyclopedists. As a music critic, Odoyevsky set out to propagate the national style of Mikhail Glinka and his followers and he also wrote a romanticised biography of the Russian violinist Ivan Khandoshkin, whose career he presented as thwarted by the malign influence of such Italian musicians as Giuseppe Sarti. Johann Sebastian Bach and Beethoven appear as characters in some of his novellas, Odoyevsky was active in the foundation of the Russian Musical Society, Moscow Conservatory, and St. Petersburg Conservatory. Odoyevsky took part in development of electroplating technology, invented by Moritz von Jacobi in Russia, in 1844 Odoyevsky wrote a book, Galvanism applied in technology. He made a number of experiments and developed cobalt electroplating, recently, Odoyevsky has been credited to have predicted blogging, and the basic principles of the Internet. In his unfinished utopian novel Year 4338, he mused, Finally, today we received a journal from the prime minister. You need to know that in many houses, especially well connected, such journals are published
16.
Sergey Lebedev (scientist)
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Sergey Alexeyevich Lebedev was a Soviet scientist in the fields of electrical engineering and computer science, and designer of the first Soviet computers. Lebedev was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia and he graduated from Moscow Highest Technical School in 1928. From then until 1946 he worked at All-Union Electrotechnical Institute in Moscow, in 1939 he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Sciences for the development of the theory of artificial stability of electrical systems. During World War II, Lebedev worked in the field of automation of complex systems. His group designed a weapon-aiming stabilization system for tanks and a guidance system for airborne missiles. To perform these tasks Lebedev developed a computer system to solve ordinary differential equations. From 1946 to 1951 he headed the Kiev Electrotechnical Institute of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, for this work he received the Stalin prize in 1950. In 1948 Lebedev learned from foreign magazines that scientists in western countries were working on the design of electronic computers, in the autumn of the same year he decided to focus the work of his laboratory on computer design. Lebedevs first computer, BESM-1, was completed by the end of 1951, Lebedev then began development of a new, more powerful computer, the M-20, the number denoting its expected processing speed of twenty thousand operations per second. In 1958 the machine was accepted as operational and put into series production, simultaneously the BESM-2, a development of the BESM-1, went into series production. Though the BESM-2 was slower than the M-20, it was more reliable and it was used to calculate satellite orbits and the trajectory of the first rocket to reach the surface of the Moon. Lebedev and his team developed several computers, notably the BESM-6. In 1952, Lebedev became a professor at the Moscow Institute of Physics, from 1953 until his death he was the director of what is now called the Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Engineering. Lebedev died in Moscow and is interred at Novodevichy Cemetery, in 1996 the IEEE Computer Society recognized Sergei Lebedev with a Computer Pioneer Award for his work in the field of computer design and his founding of the Soviet computer industry. History of computing hardware List of pioneers in computer science
17.
Missile defense
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Missile defense is a system, weapon, or technology involved in the detection, tracking, interception, and destruction of attacking missiles. Originally conceived as a defence against nuclear-armed intercontinental ballistic missiles, its application has broadened to include shorter-ranged non-nuclear tactical, the United States, Russia, China, India, Israel, and France have all developed such air defense systems. In the United States, missile defense was originally the responsibility of the U. S. Army, Missile Defense Agency has developed maritime systems and command and control that will eventually be transferred to the Navy and Air Force for operation and sustainment. Each entails unique requirements for intercept, and a system capable of intercepting one missile type frequently cannot intercept others. However, there is overlap in capability. Targets long-range ICBMs, which travel at about 7 km/s, examples of currently active systems, Russian A-135 system which defends Moscow, and the U. S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system that defends the United States from missiles launched from Asia. Geographic range of defense can be regional or national. Targets medium-range missiles, which travel at about 3 km/s or less, in this context, the term theater means the entire localized region for military operations, typically a radius of several hundred kilometers. Defense range of defensive systems is usually on this order. Examples of deployed or soon-to-be deployed theater missile defenses, Israeli Arrow missile, American THAAD, targets short-range tactical ballistic missiles, which usually travel at less than 1.5 km/s. Tactical anti-ballistic missiles have short ranges, typically 20–80 km, examples of currently-deployed tactical ABMs, American MIM-104 Patriot and Russian S-300V. Ballistic missiles can be intercepted in three regions of their trajectory, boost phase, midcourse phase, or terminal phase, intercepting the missile while its rocket motors are firing, usually over the launch territory. Advantages Bright, hot rocket exhaust makes detection and targeting easier, decoys cannot be used during boost phase. At this stage, the missile is full of flammable propellant, disadvantages Difficult to geographically position interceptors to intercept missiles in boost phase. Intercepting the missile in space after the rocket burns out, Very large geographic defensive coverage, potentially continental. Disadvantages Requires large, heavy missiles and sophisticated powerful radar which must often be augmented by space-based sensors. Intercepting the missile after it reenters the atmosphere Advantages Smaller, lighter anti-ballistic missile is sufficient, balloon decoys do not work during reentry. Disadvantages Very short intercept time, possibly less than 30 seconds, possible blanketing of target area with hazardous materials in the case of detonation of nuclear warhead
18.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
19.
Lake Balkhash
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Lake Balkhash is one of the largest lakes in Asia and 15th largest in the world. It is located in Central Asia in southeastern Kazakhstan and belongs to an endorheic basin shared by Kazakhstan and China, the Ili is fed by precipitation, largely vernal snowmelt, from the mountains of Chinas Xinjiang region. The lake currently covers an area of about 16,400 km2, however, like the Aral Sea, it is shrinking as a result of the diversion of water from rivers that feed it. The lake is divided by a strait into two distinct parts, the western part is fresh water, while the eastern half is saline. The eastern part is on average 1.7 times deeper than the western section, the largest city near the lake is also named Balkhash and has about 66,000 inhabitants. Major industrial activities in the area include mining, ore processing and fishing, while the size of the lake is temporarily growing, there is concern about the lakes shallowing due to desertification and industrial activity. The present name of the lake originates from the word balkas of Tatar, Kazakh, from as early as 103 BC up until the 8th century, the Balkhash polity was known to the Chinese as 布谷/布库/布苏 Pu-Ku/Bu-Ku. From the 8th century on, the land to the south of the lake and it was a land where the nomadic Turks and Mongols of the steppe mingled cultures with the settled peoples of Central Asia. During Chinas Qing dynasty, the formed the northwestern-most boundary of the Empire. In 1864, the lake and its area were ceded to Imperial Russia under the Protocol of Chuguchak. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the became part of Kazakhstan. Rapid erosion of the Tian Shan has meant the depression filled with sand river sediments in what is geologically a very short time span. The basin is a part of Dzungarian Alatau, which also contains lakes Sasykkol, Alakol and these lakes are remnants of an ancient sea which once covered the entire Balkhash-Alakol depression, but was not connected with the Aral–Caspian Depression. The lake has an area of about 16,400 km2 and it is elevated about 340 m above sea level and has a sickle shape. Its length is about 600 km and the width varies from 9–19 km in the part to 74 km in the western part. Saryesik Peninsula, located near the middle of the lake, hydrographically divides it into two different parts. The western part, which comprises 58% of the lake area and 46% of its volume, is relatively shallow, quiet and is filled with freshwater. These parts are connected by the Strait Uzynaral which is 3.5 km wide, the lake includes several small basins
20.
Amateur radio
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The amateur radio service is established by the International Telecommunication Union through the International Telecommunication Regulations. National governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue individual stations licenses with a call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested for their understanding of key concepts in electronics, according to an estimate made in 2011 by the American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved with amateur radio. About 830,000 amateur radio stations are located in IARU Region 2 followed by IARU Region 3 with about 750,000 stations, a significantly smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1. The origins of amateur radio can be traced to the late 19th century, the First Annual Official Wireless Blue Book of the Wireless Association of America, produced in 1909, contains a list of amateur radio stations. This radio callbook lists wireless telegraph stations in Canada and the United States, as with radio in general, amateur radio was associated with various amateur experimenters and hobbyists. Amateur radio enthusiasts have significantly contributed to science, engineering, industry, research by amateur operators has founded new industries, built economies, empowered nations, and saved lives in times of emergency. Ham radio can also be used in the classroom to teach English, map skills, geography, math, science, the term ham radio was first a pejorative that mocked amateur radio operators with a 19th-century term for being bad at something, like ham-fisted or ham actor. It had already used for bad wired telegraph operators. Subsequently, the community adopted it as a moniker, much like the Know-Nothing Party, or other groups. Other, more entertaining explanations have grown up throughout the years, the many facets of amateur radio attract practitioners with a wide range of interests. Many amateurs begin with a fascination of radio communication and then combine other personal interests to make pursuit of the hobby rewarding, some of the focal areas amateurs pursue include radio contesting, radio propagation study, public service communication, technical experimentation, and computer networking. Amateur radio operators use various modes of transmission to communicate, the two most common modes for voice transmissions are frequency modulation and single sideband. FM offers high quality audio signals, while SSB is better at long distance communication when bandwidth is restricted. Radiotelegraphy using Morse code, also known as CW from continuous wave, is the extension of landline telegraphy developed by Samuel Morse. Morse, using internationally agreed message encodings such as the Q code, a similar legacy mode popular with home constructors is amplitude modulation, pursued by many vintage amateur radio enthusiasts and aficionados of vacuum tube technology. Demonstrating a proficiency in Morse code was for years a requirement to obtain an amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes in regulations in 2003, countries are no longer required to demand proficiency
21.
Peer-to-peer
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Peer-to-peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application and they are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the consumption, while P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction, in such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. While P2P systems had previously used in many application domains. The peer-to-peer movement allowed millions of Internet users to directly, forming groups and collaborating to become user-created search engines, virtual supercomputers. The basic concept of peer-to-peer computing was envisioned in earlier systems and networking discussions, reaching back to principles stated in the first Request for Comments. The early Internet was more open than present day, where two machines connected to the Internet could send packets to each other without firewalls and other security measures and this contrasts to the broadcasting-like structure of the web as it has developed over the years. As a precursor to the Internet, ARPANET was a successful client-server network where every participating node could request, however, ARPANET was not self-organized, and it lacked the ability to provide any means for context or content-based routing beyond simple address-based routing. Therefore, a messaging system that is often likened as an early peer-to-peer architecture was established. USENET was developed in 1979 and is a system that enforces a decentralized model of control, the basic model is a client-server model from the user or client perspective that offers a self-organizing approach to newsgroup servers. However, news servers communicate with one another as peers to propagate Usenet news articles over the group of network servers. In May 1999, with more people on the Internet, Shawn Fanning introduced the music. A peer-to-peer network is designed around the notion of equal peer nodes simultaneously functioning as both clients and servers to the nodes on the network. This model of network arrangement differs from the model where communication is usually to. Data is still exchanged directly over the underlying TCP/IP network, but at the application layer peers are able to communicate each other directly. Overlays are used for indexing and peer discovery, and make the P2P system independent from the network topology. Based on how the nodes are linked to each other within the overlay network, unstructured peer-to-peer networks do not impose a particular structure on the overlay network by design, but rather are formed by nodes that randomly form connections to each other
22.
Russian Railways
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JSC Russian Railways, is a Russian vertically integrated company, both managing infrastructure and operating freight and passenger train services. In 2012 it became one of the three largest transport companies in the world, the company was established on September 18,2003, when a decree was passed to separate the railways from the Russian Ministry of the Means of Communication. Full name — Open Joint Stock Company Russian Railways with headquarters in Moscow at Novaya Basmannaya str, the operating units of the central part of the staff are at Kalanchevskaya str. Oleg Belozyorov has been president of the company since August 20,2015, JSC Russian Railways was established by Decision №585 of the Government of the Russian Federation dated September 18,2003. On October 1,2003, the took over the management functions of the rail networks from the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Federation. RZD got 987 companies out of the 2046 that had formed the MR system, the reform saw the creation of a new market segment following the privatization of the networks rolling stock. The company divided the bulk of its fleet between two new operating companies, Freight One and Freight Two, and private players such as GlobalTrans also entering the market. In the mid-1990s, the profitability of MRs railage fell down to negative values, the reforming of the railway sector in Russia started with the establishment of JSC Russian Railways, October 2003. The new company has received more than 95% of the assets under the Ministry of Transport, on October 28,2011, the largest privatization transaction in the denationalization of the Russian railway industry took place at an auction held in Moscow. The Joint Stock Company Freight One, a subsidiary of Russian Railways, thus, Lisin as Russias largest operator of rolling stock got the control of a quarter of the freight market. On October 16,2012, Russian Railways has completed negotiations with potential buyers of the remaining 25-percent plus 1 share stake in JSC Freight One. The best binding offer was received from the Independent Transport Company LLC, the assets were sold for 50 billion rubles. In early November 2012, Russian Railways announced the purchase of 75% of the French logistics company Gefco SA, the total value of the transaction was 800 million euros, the seller being PSA Peugeot Citroen, the parent company of Gefco. On May 23,2007, Russian Railways adopted a new style which changed fundamentally the way the Company presented itself visually to the outside world. The change of corporate identity underwent several stages during the 2007–2010 period, the final version of the logo was designed by BBDO Branding. Also, commissioned by BBDO Branding The Agency HardCase Design created a family of corporate fonts RussianRail, in the new company logo Sans-serif RussianRail Grotesque Medium was used. In 2008, the new logo of Russian Railways became a runner-up for the design competition WOLDA08 award. The Russian Federation is the founder and sole shareholder of JSC Russian Railways, on behalf of its shareholders the powers are exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation
23.
X.25
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X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for packet switched wide area network communication. An X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange nodes as the networking hardware, X.25 is a family of protocols that was popular during the 1980s with telecommunications companies and in financial transaction systems such as automated teller machines. X.25 was originally defined by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee in a series of drafts and finalized in a publication known as The Orange Book in 1976. While X.25 has, to an extent, been replaced by less complex protocols, especially the Internet protocol. X.25 is one of the oldest packet-switched services available and it was developed before the OSI Reference Model. The protocol suite is designed as three conceptual layers, which correspond closely to the three layers of the seven-layer OSI model. It also supports functionality not found in the OSI network layer, X.25 was developed in the ITU-T Study Group VII based upon a number of emerging data network projects. Various updates and additions were worked into the standard, eventually recorded in the ITU series of books describing the telecommunication systems. These books were published every year with different-colored covers. The X.25 specification is only part of the set of X-Series specifications on public data networks. The public data network was the name given to the international collection of X.25 providers. Their combined network had large global coverage during the 1980s and into the 1990s, publicly accessible X.25 networks were set up in most countries during the 1970s and 1980s, to lower the cost of accessing various online services. Beginning in the early 1990s, in North America, use of X.25 networks started to be replaced by Frame Relay, most systems that required X.25 now use TCP/IP, however it is possible to transport X.25 over TCP/IP when necessary. X.25 networks are still in use throughout the world, a variant called AX.25 is also used widely by amateur packet radio. Racal Paknet, now known as Widanet, is still in operation in many regions of the world, running on an X.25 protocol base. Additionally X.25 is still under heavy use in the business even though a transition to modern protocols like X.400 is without option as X.25 hardware becomes increasingly rare. As recently as March 2006, the United States National Airspace Data Interchange Network has used X.25 to interconnect remote airfields with Air Route Traffic Control Centers, france was one of the last remaining countries where commercial end-user service based on X.25 operated. Known as Minitel it was based on Videotex, itself running on X.25, as planned, service was terminated 30 June 2012
24.
U. N.
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
25.
Soviet Republics
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The Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics of the Soviet Union were ethnically based proto-states that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that the rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR. In the final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics, all of them, with the exception of the Russian Federation, had their own local party chapters of the All-Union Communist Party. In 1944, amendments to the All-Union Constitution allowed for branches of the Red Army for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense and this allowed for two Soviet Republics, Ukraine and Byelorussia, to join the United Nations General Assembly as founding members in 1945. All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, however, most of the international community did not consider the Baltic countries to have legitimately been part of the USSR. Their position is supported by the European Union, the European Court of Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Council, in contrast, the Russian government and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate. Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a federation, in accordance with provisions present in the Constitution, each republic retained the right to secede from the USSR. Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the Politburo to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the party organs, and appointments of all party. Each republic had its own set of state symbols, a flag, a coat of arms, and, with the exception of Russia until 1990. Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the Order of Lenin, number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. In majority of years and at the decades of its existence. The Soviet Union considered the initial annexation legal, but officially recognized their independence on September 6,1991, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia, in winter of 1919 The Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in 1919 but fell very soon. The Persian Socialist Soviet Republic, in what is now Iran, the Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the RSFSR. When the Tuvan Peoples Republic joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, the leader of the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria, Todor Zhivkov, suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet Union proposed to annex the Northern Afghanistan as its 16th union republic in what was to become the Afghan Soviet Socialist Republic, though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, openness and restructuring were intended to liberalise, however, they had a number of effects which caused the power of the republics to increase
26.
Anatole Klyosov
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Anatole A. Klyosov is a scientist who worked in the fields of physical chemistry, enzyme catalysis, and industrial biochemistry. In 1989 Klyosov immigrated to the US and he later helped found a company, and later joined it as CSO, that was founded to use enzymes to alter existing anticancer drugs via glycosylation. In 2008 he began publishing work about what he calls DNA genealogy that has been dismissed as pseudoscience, Klyosov earned Ph. D. and D. Sc. degrees in physical chemistry, and an M. S. degree in enzyme kinetics, from Moscow State University. In the late 1970s he worked at Harvard University, he was offered a contract to keep working there but the USSR government would not allow him to take it, from 1979 to 1981 he was professor in the department of chemical enzymology at Moscow State University. From 1981 to 1990, he was professor and head of the Carbohydrates Research Laboratory at the A. N, bach Institute of Biochemistry, USSR Academy of Sciences. He said that he developed methods to use enzymes to convert cotton plant waste products into glucose and he was awarded top Russian prizes in science and technology field, the Lenin Komsomol Prize in 1978 and the USSR State Prize in 1984. In 1989 he was made a fellow of the World Academy of Art, in 2014 he became Foreign Member of the National Academy of Sciences of Georgia. In 1991 he started a business called MIR International. He joined the company as Chief Scientific Officer in 2006, pro-Pharmaceuticals named a new CEO in March 2011, and gave Klyosov a one-year contract to continue as CSO the same month. The company was renamed as Galectin Therapeutics in May 2011 and he then became a member of the companys scientific advisory board. Klyosov described his DNA genealogy as a science and between 2010 and 2016 published 10 books in this field. According to scientists from various fields, DNA genealogy is pseudoscience, Klyosov is the founder and president of the Academy of DNA Genealogy and self-publishes its proceedings via Lulu. In 2013 Klyosov became editor-in-chief of the journal Advances in Anthropology, published by Scientific Research Publishing, jr, Berezin, I. V. Klyosov, A. A. eds. Klyosov, A. A. Witczak, Z. J. Platt, Klyosov, A. A. Witczak, Z. J. Platt, D. eds. Klyosov, A. A. ed. Glycobiology and Drug Design, Klyosov, A. A. Traber, P. G. eds. Galectins and Disease Implications for Targeted Therapeutics, Berezin, I. V. Klyosov, A. A. Практический курс химической и ферментативной кинетики. Klyosov, A. A. Berezin, I. V. Ферментативный катализ, Berezin, I. V. Klyosov, A. A. et al. Egorov, N. S. Samuilov, V. D. eds, Klyosov, A. A. Tyunyayev, A. A. Происхождение человека
27.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
28.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
29.
George Soros
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George Soros is a Hungarian-American investor, business magnate, and philanthropist. Soros is considered by some to be one of the most successful investors in the world, as of February 2017, Soros has a net worth of $25.2 billion making him one of the 30 richest people in the world. Born in Budapest, he escaped Nazi Germany-occupied Hungary and emigrated to England in 1947 and he attended the London School of Economics graduating with a bachelors and eventually a masters in philosophy. He began his business career by taking jobs at merchant banks before starting his first hedge fund, Double Eagle. Profits from his first fund furnished the money to start Soros Fund Management, his second hedge fund. Double Eagle was renamed the Quantum Fund and was the principal firm Soros advised, at its founding, the Quantum Fund had $12 million in assets under management, and as of 2011 it had $25 billion, the majority of his overall net worth. He is a supporter of American progressive and American liberal political causes and dispenses his donations through his foundation. Between 1979 and 2011 Soros donated more than $11 billion to philanthropic causes. Soros was born in Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary to a well-to-do non-observant Jewish family, Soros has described his home as anti-Semitic. His mother Elizabeth came from a family owned a thriving silk shop. His father Tivadar was a lawyer and had been a prisoner of war during and after World War I until he escaped from Russia, Tivadar was an Esperantist writer and taught Soros to speak Esperanto in his childhood. In 1936 Soross family changed their name from the German-Jewish Schwartz to Soros, Tivadar liked the new name because it is a palindrome and because of its meaning. In Hungarian, soros means next in line, or designated successor, Soros was 13 years old in March 1944 when Nazi Germany occupied Hungary. Jewish children were barred from attending school by the Nazis, and Soros, Soros later described this time to writer Michael Lewis, The Jewish Council asked the little kids to hand out the deportation notices. I was told to go to the Jewish Council, and there I was given these small slips of paper. I took this piece of paper to my father and this was a list of Hungarian Jewish lawyers. He said, You deliver the slips of paper and tell the people if they report they will be deported. Soros did not return to that job, his family purchased documents to say that they were Christians, thereby allowing them to survive the war
30.
April Fools' Day
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April Fools Day is celebrated every year on April 1 by playing practical jokes and spreading hoaxes. The jokes and their victims are called April fools, people playing April Fool jokes expose their prank by shouting April Fool. Some newspapers, magazines, and other published media report fake stories, although popular since the 19th century, the day is not a public holiday in any country. Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales contains the first recorded association between April 1 and foolishness, the custom of setting aside a day for the playing of harmless pranks upon ones neighbor is recognized widely throughout the world. Some precursors of April Fools Day include the Roman festival of Hilaria, in Chaucers Canterbury Tales, the Nuns Priests Tale is set Syn March bigan thritty dayes and two. Modern scholars believe there is a copying error in the extant manuscripts. Thus the passage originally meant 32 days after March, i. e.2 May, the anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia, readers apparently misunderstood this line to mean 32 March, i. e. April 1. In Chaucers tale, the vain cock Chauntecleer is tricked by a fox, in 1508, French poet Eloy dAmerval referred to a poisson d’avril, a possible reference to the holiday. In 1539, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote of a nobleman who sent his servants on foolish errands on April 1, in 1686, John Aubrey referred to the holiday as Fooles holy day, the first British reference. On April 1,1698, several people were tricked into going to the Tower of London to see the Lions washed, in the Middle Ages, New Years Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Years was a week-long holiday ending on April 1, some writers suggest that April Fools originated because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates. The use of January 1 as New Years Day was common in France by the century. In the Netherlands, the origin of April Fools Day is often attributed to the Dutch victory at Brielle in 1572, op 1 april verloor Alva zijn bril. is a Dutch proverb, which can be translated to, On the first of April, Alva lost his glasses. In this case, the serve as a metaphor for Brielle. This theory, however, provides no explanation for the celebration of April Fools Day. Although no Biblical scholar or historian are known to have mentioned a relationship, in a 1908 edition of the Harpers Weekly cartoonist newspaper, Bertha R. McDonald wrote, authorities gravely back with it to the time of Noah, in the UK, an April Fool joke is revealed by shouting April fool. At the recipient, who becomes the April fool, a study in the 1950s, by folklorists Iona and Peter Opie, found that in the UK, and in countries whose traditions derived from the UK, the joking ceased at midday
31.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
32.
UUCP
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UUCP is an abbreviation of Unix-to-Unix Copy. The term generally refers to a suite of programs and protocols allowing remote execution of commands and transfer of files, email. A command named uucp is one of the programs in the suite, the UUCP suite also includes uux, uucico, uustat, uuxqt, and uuname. Some versions of the suite include uuencode/uudecode, UUCP can use several different types of physical connections and link layer protocols, but was most commonly used over dial-up connections. Before the widespread availability of Internet access, computers were connected by smaller private networks within a company or organization. They were also equipped with modems so they could be used remotely from character-mode terminals via dial-up telephone lines. UUCP used the computers modems to dial out to other computers, establishing temporary, each system in a UUCP network has a list of neighbor systems, with phone numbers, login names and passwords, etc. When work is queued for a system, the uucico program typically calls that system to process the work. The uucico program can also poll its neighbors periodically to check for work queued on their side, today, UUCP is rarely used over dial-up links, but is occasionally used over TCP/IP. The number of systems involved, as of early 2006, ran between 1500 and 2000 sites across 60 enterprises, UUCPs longevity can be attributed to its low cost, extensive logging, native failover to dialup, and persistent queue management. UUCP was originally written at AT&T Bell Laboratories by Mike Lesk, by 1978 it was in use on 82 UNIX machines inside the Bell system, primarily for software distribution. It was released in 1979 as part of Version 7 Unix, the original UUCP was rewritten by AT&T researchers Peter Honeyman, David A. Nowitz, and Brian E. Redman around 1983. The rewrite is referred to as HDB or HoneyDanBer uucp, which was enhanced, bug fixed. Each of these versions was distributed as software, which inspired Ian Lance Taylor to write a new free software version from scratch in 1991. Taylor UUCP was released under the GNU General Public License, Taylor UUCP addressed security holes which allowed some of the original network worms to remotely execute unexpected shell commands. Taylor UUCP also incorporated features of all versions of UUCP, allowing it to communicate with any other version. UUCP was also implemented for non-UNIX operating systems, most-notably MS-DOS systems, packages such as UUSLAVE/GNUUCP, UUPC and FSUUCP, brought early Internet connectivity to personal computers, expanding the network beyond the interconnected university systems. FSUUCP formed the basis for many bulletin board system packages such as Galacticomms Major BBS, BBS to connect to the UUCP network and exchange email and Usenet traffic
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Association for Progressive Communications
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Pioneering the use of ICTs for civil society, especially in developing countries, APC were often the first providers of Internet in their member countries. APC is a network of social activists who use the internet to make the world a better place. APC is both a network and an organisation, APC members are groups working in their own countries to advance the same mission as APC. APC has more than 47 members from five continents and this is a challenge and a strength, because members are at the two extremes of internet development and in between. At this point they communicated mainly using fax and regular mail, people physically travelled around transporting and sharing databases of information and software on disks. In 1988, on the verge of APC creation, Mitra Ardron describes the characteristic of the future APC user, present operations. She also expresses a commitment to global communication available to everyone. Collaboration between APC and the United Nations began in 1992, in preparation for the UN Conference on Environment and Development, as APC had the only international, civil society communications network in existence at that time, the UNCED secretariat published their information in APC conferences. They had no way of distributing information so economically and so effectively. Email links are set up between Cuba and APC networks and they call the Cuban servers three times a day to deliver and collect email. The cooperation continues over the years, APC received consultative status to the UN with the several quadrennial reports submitted over the years. APC also cooperated with United Nations Development Programme, APC actively participate in UN initiatives such as Millennium Development Goals. The APC Womens Networking Support Programme co-coordinated a womens network to bring an NGO perspective to the UN Beijing +5 review, official declarations promote ICT as a way of enhancing NGO participation in global media policy making. It also gives recommendations for womens portrayal, decision making and advocacy in media industry, APC made a significant impact in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Caribbean by providing civil society organisations with email and e-information using the Fidonet gateways. Fidonet protocol was used because it is store-and-forward technology enabling people to compose, aPCs African networks faced with the strong competition from commercial providers, held an Africa Strategy Development Meeting from February 8–11,1997 in Johannesburg, South Africa. The meeting attended 34 APC members and partner networks from all over Africa, the program areas, action framework and plan as well as womens program were discussed. A powerful statement from the meeting was published as The Holy Family Communiqué from African Electronic Communicators, a legal threat to freedom of information online came from the company Biwater and involved APC member LabourNet, April 1997. Thirteen APC members mirrored the threatened content,2000 was a turning point for APC
34.
1998 Russian financial crisis
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The Russian financial crisis hit Russia on 17 August 1998. It resulted in the Russian government and the Russian Central Bank devaluing the ruble, the crisis had severe impacts on the economies of many neighboring countries. Meanwhile, James Cook, the vice president of The U. S. Russia Investment Fund, suggested the crisis had the effect of teaching Russian banks to diversify their assets. Declining productivity, a fixed exchange rate between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, and a chronic fiscal deficit were the reasons that led to the crisis. The economic cost of the first war in Chechnya, estimated at $5.5 billion, in the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify, two external shocks, the Asian financial crisis that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for crude oil and nonferrous metals, severely impacted Russian foreign exchange reserves. A political crisis came to a head in March when Russian president Boris Yeltsin suddenly dismissed Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin, Yeltsin named Energy Minister Sergei Kiriyenko, then 35 years old, as acting prime minister. On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed Boris Fyodorov as Head of the State Tax Service, in an effort to prop up the currency and stem the flight of capital, in June 1998 Kiriyenko hiked GKO interest rates to 150%. On 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, by 1 August 1998 there were approximately $12.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August 1998 the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6.29, despite the bailout, July 1998 monthly interest payments on Russia’s debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of range, the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the exchange rate threatened to drop below 5.3. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets, which also put pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russias currency and it is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U. S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg. On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble, defaulted on domestic debt, and declared a moratorium on repayment of foreign debt. On that day the Russian government and the Central Bank of Russia issued a Joint Statement announcing, in essence, that, on 17 August 1998 the government declared that certain state securities would be transformed into new securities. At the same time, in addition to widening the currency band, at the time, the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange set a daily official exchange rate through a series of interactive auctions based on written bids submitted by buyers and sellers
35.
President of Russia
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The President of the Russian Federation is the elected head of state, Supreme Commander-in-Chief and holder of the highest office within the Russian Federation. The current President of Russia is Vladimir Putin, in 1991, the office was briefly known as the President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic until 25 December 1991. According to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the President of Russia was head of the executive branch, according to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the President of Russia is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power. In all cases where the President of the Russian Federation is unable to fulfill his duties, they shall be temporarily delegated to the Prime Minister, the Chairman of the Federation Council is the third important position after the President and the Prime Minister. In the case of incapacity of both the President and Prime Minister, the chairman of the house of parliament becomes acting head of state. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation, the president is elected directly through a popular vote to a six-year term. The law prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a consecutive term. In all,3 individuals have served 4 presidencies spanning 6 full terms, on May 7,2012, Vladimir Putin became the 4th and current president. A candidate for office must be a citizen of the Russian Federation who is at least 35 years old and has resided in Russia for at least 10 years. The Constitution of Russia limits the election of one person to the Presidency to two consecutive terms, since the constitution contains no ruling on a total number of terms that a President may serve, a former president may seek re-election after sitting out one complete term. The election of the President is mainly regulated by the Presidential Election Law, the Federation Council calls the presidential elections. If it does not call an election that is due. The Election Day is the second Sunday of the month and the electoral constituency is the territory of the Russian Federation as a whole. Each faction in the State Duma, the house of the Russian parliament has the right to nominate a candidate for the presidential elections. The minimum number of signatures for a presidential candidate fielded by a party with no parliamentary representation is 100,000. Terms were extended from four to six years in 2008, during Dmitry Medvedevs administration, the President is elected in a two-round system every six years, with a two consecutive term limitation. If no candidate wins by an majority in the first round
36.
Rostelecom
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Rostelecom is Russias leading long-distance telephony provider. Domestic long distance service provides about 50% of the companys revenue, in other words, if one makes a long distance call or originates Internet contact to or from Russia, it is likely that Rostelecom is providing part of the service. The companys stock is traded on the MICEX, RTS, OTCBB, London Stock Exchange, prior to 1990, responsibility for the provision of telecommunications services lie at the Ministry of Communications of the USSR. Throughout the 90s, the company which was part of Svyazinvest, was the sole operator in Russia. Alongside it, local companies operated in the different regions of Russia under the umbrella of Svyazinvest while Rostelecom connected between their networks, on 2011, Svyazinvest was liquidated with the regional subsidiaries merged into Rostelecom. Rostelecom has the largest domestic backbone network and last mile connections to approximately 35 million households in Russia, the company offers Karta Svyazi a user-friendly prepaid long-distance telephone card service designed to provide telephony and access to the internet for people on the go. The companys network is based on extant Russian fiber-optic cable lines - FOCL, by cable the network is connected to countries in Europe and East Asia. Fiber-optic cable lines crosses Russian Federation on directions «Moscow — Novorossiysk», «Moscow — Khabarovsk», using the services of the Russian Orbital Group, Rostelecom has built its satellite system for its Eastern region, comprising 11 land stations in Siberia and the Russian Far East. Satellite service for the Western region is being built at this time.5 million subscribers, during the 2010s, Rostelecom and its subsidiaries built mobile networks of the third generation in 27 regions of Russia. Total planned to more than 8 thousand base stations. Suppliers of equipment and solutions for the 3G+ network are Ericsson, on April 2013 the company announced the launch of 3G+ networks in the Sverdlovsk, Kurgan and Chelyabinsk regions, in the south of the Tyumen Oblast and in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Area. This launch followed the introduction of 3G+ services in Perm Krai, the 3G+ network is LTE-ready, so that only minor modifications will be required before the Company can roll out its 4G network in the future. On June 2013 Rostelecom launched its first part of its LTE network in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Olympics, Rostelecom would get a 45% voting stake in the new company, T2 RTK Holding, in exchange for contributing its standalone mobile subsidiaries and assets, including SkyLink. Tele2 Russia, owned by state-controlled bank VTB and Russian businessmen Yuri Kovalchuk and Alexei Mordashov, Rostelecom and Tele2 Russia together have around 38 million mobile subscribers, or a combined market share of 16%. Analysts said the deal makes sense as Rostelecom has been efficient in rolling out mobile networks. By relying on the Tele2 team in mobile expansion Rostelecom removes risks, on February 2014 Rostelecom and Tele2 signed a framework agreement on the integration of mobile assets to the authorized capital of the joint venture T2 Rus Holding. At the first stage of integration, Rostelecom passed seven cellular subsidiaries it owns, Sky Link, Nizhny Novgorod Cellular Communications, Baikalwestcom, Volgograd GSM Yenisei Telecom, Rostelecom - Russian language and English language, corporate website Rostelecom - consumer website
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Media gateway
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Media gateways enable multimedia communications across packet networks using transport protocols such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode and Internet Protocol. Because the media gateway connects different types of networks, one of its functions is to convert between different transmission and coding techniques. Media streaming functions such as echo cancellation, DTMF, and tone sender are also located in the media gateway, Media gateways are often controlled by a separate Media Gateway Controller which provides the call control and signaling functionality. Communication between media gateways and Call Agents is achieved by means of such as MGCP or Megaco or Session Initiation Protocol. Modern media gateways used with SIP are often stand-alone units with their own call and signaling control integrated, mobile access media gateways connect the radio access networks of a public land mobile network PLMN to a next-generation core network. 3GPP standards define the functionality of CS-MGW and IMS-MGW for UTRAN and GERAN based PLMNs
