1.
Radioteletype
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Radioteletype is a telecommunications system consisting originally of two or more electromechanical teleprinters in different locations connected by radio rather than a wired link. These machines were later superseded by personal computers running software to emulate teleprinters, Radioteletype evolved from earlier landline teleprinter operations that began in the mid-1800s. The US Navy Department successfully tested printing telegraphy between an airplane and ground station in 1922. Later that year, the Radio Corporation of America successfully tested printing telegraphy via their Chatham, Massachusetts, commercial RTTY systems were in active service between San Francisco and Honolulu as early as April 1932 and between San Francisco and New York City by 1934. The US military used radioteletype in the 1930s and expanded this usage during World War II, from the 1980s, teleprinters were replaced by computers running teleprinter emulation software. In some applications, notably military and government, radioteletype is known by the acronym RATT, landline teleprinter operations began in 1849 when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City. Émile Baudot designed a system using a five unit code in 1874 that is still in use today, teleprinter system design was gradually improved until, at the beginning of World War II, it represented the principal distribution method used by the news services. Radioteletype evolved from earlier landline teleprinter operations. The US Department of the Navy successfully tested printing telegraphy between an airplane and ground station in August 1922. Later that year, the Radio Corporation of America successfully tested printing telegraphy via their Chatham, an early implementation of the Radioteletype was the Watsongraph, named after Detroit inventor Glenn Watson in March 1931. Commercial RTTY systems were in service between San Francisco and Honolulu as early as April 1932 and between San Francisco and New York City by 1934. The US Military used radioteletype in the 1930s and expanded this usage during World War II, the Navy called radioteletype RATT and the Army Signal Corps called radioteletype SCRT, an abbreviation of Single-Channel Radio Teletype. The military used frequency shift keying technology and this proved very reliable even over long distances. From the 1980s, teleprinters were replaced by computers running teleprinter emulation software, a radioteletype station consists of three distinct parts, the Teletype or teleprinter, the modem and the radio. The Teletype or teleprinter is an electromechanical or electronic device, electromechanical teleprinters were heavy, complex and noisy, and have been replaced with electronic units. The teleprinter includes a keyboard, which is the means of entering text. An alternative input device is a tape reader and, more recently. Alternative output devices are tape perforators and computer storage media, the line output of a teleprinter can be at either digital logic levels or line levels
2.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
3.
Teletype Model 33
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The Teletype Model 33 is an electromechanical teleprinter designed for light-duty office. It is less rugged and less expensive than earlier Teletype machines, the Teletype Corporation introduced the Model 33 as a commercial product in 1963 after being originally designed for the US Navy. The Model 33 was one of the first products to employ the then new ASCII code, a companion Model 32 used the more established five-level Baudot code. Because of its low price and ASCII-compatibility, the Model 33 was widely used with early minicomputers, Teletype Corporations Model 33 terminal, introduced in 1963, is one of the most popular terminals in the data-communications industry. Over a half-million Model 32s and 33s were made by 1975, a Model 33 cost about $700, much less than other teleprinters and computer terminals at the time, such as the Friden Flexowriter and the IBM1050. Early video terminals, such as the Tektronix 4010, did not become available until 1970, however the introduction of integrated circuits and semiconductor memory later that decade allowed the price of cathode-ray-tube-based terminals to fall below the price of a Teletype. Teletype machines were replaced in new installations by dot-matrix printers. Basic CRT-based terminals which could only print lines and scroll them are called glass teletypes to distinguish them from more sophisticated devices. Teletype Corporation discontinued Model 33 production in 1981, while the manufacturer called the Model 33 teleprinter with a tape punch and tape reader a Model 33 ASR, many users, specifically computer users, called this equipment an ASR-33. This naming discrepancy continued from the Teletype Model 28 to other Teletype equipment in later DEC documentation, for example, Digital Equipment Corporations PDP-15 Price List from April 1970 lists a number of Teletype Corporation teletypewriters using this alternate naming convention. This alternate naming convention was continued as other computer manufacturers published their documentation, for example, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems sold the Teletype Model 33 ASR as Teletype ASR-33. The design objective for the Model 33 was a machine that would fit into an office space, match with other office equipment of the time. Since this machine was designed for light duty use, adjustments that Teletype made in previous teleprinters by turning screws were made by bending metal bars and levers, many Model 33 parts were not heat treated and hardened. However, the base was die cast, but self-tapping screws were used, in another cost saving measure, the paper tape equipment was dependent on the keyboard and page printer mechanisms. Independent use of the tape punch and reader is not possible with the Model 33 ASR. The Model 33 used the seven-bit upper-case only ASCII code, also known as CCITT International Telegraphic Alphabet No,5, with one parity bit and two stop bits. The Model 33 is usually geared to run at maximum speed ten characters per second speed, i. e.100 words per minute, but other speeds are available,60 wpm,66 wpm,68.2 wpm, there were also many typewheel options. The Teletype Parts Bulletin lists sixty-nine available Model 33 typewheel options, the Teletype Model 33 contained an answer-back mechanism that was generally used in dial-up networks such as the TWX network
4.
Punched tape
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Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store data. Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms, however, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence. The resulting paper tape, also called a chain of cards, was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair and this led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but one continuous card, or a tape. In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams, in 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented a Monotype System, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was read by the caster. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster, the system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way. Data were represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location, tapes originally had five rows of holes for data. Later tapes had 6,7 and 8 rows, an early electro-mechanical calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows. A row of smaller sprocket holes that were always punched served to feed the tape, later optical readers used the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes are a bit to one side, making it clear which way to orient the tape in the reader, text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the century and had 5 holes. The Baudot code was never used in teleprinters, instead, modifications such as the Murray code, Western Union code, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, and American Teletypewriter code, were used, other standards, such as Teletypesetter, FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had 6 holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a code for data processing. This 7-level code was adopted by some users, including AT&T. Others, such as Telex. Tape for punching was 0.00394 inches thick, the two most common widths were 11/16 inch for five bit codes, and 1 inch for tapes with six or more bits
5.
Computer terminal
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A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system. The function of a terminal is confined to display and input of data, a terminal that depends on the host computer for its processing power is called a dumb terminal or thin client. A personal computer can run terminal emulator software that replicates the function of a terminal, sometimes allowing concurrent use of local programs and access to a distant terminal host system. The terminal of the first working programmable, fully automatic digital Turing-complete computer, the Z3, had a keyboard, early user terminals connected to computers were electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters, such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR, originally used for telegraphy or the Friden Flexowriter. Later printing terminals such as the DECwriter LA30 were developed, however printing terminals were limited by the speed at which paper could be printed, and for interactive use the paper record was unnecessary. The problem was that the amount of memory needed to store the information on a page of text was comparable to the memory in low end minicomputers then in use. Displaying the information at video speeds was also a challenge and the control logic took up a rack worth of pre-integrated circuit electronics. Another approach involved the use of the tube, a specialized CRT developed by Tektronix that retained information written on it without the need to refresh. The Datapoint 3300 from Computer Terminal Corporation was announced in 1967 and shipped in 1969 and it solved the memory space issue mentioned above by using a digital shift-register design, and using only 72 columns rather than the later more common choice of 80. Some type of blinking cursor that can be positioned, the term intelligent in this context dates from 1969. Notable examples include the IBM2250 and IBM2260, predecessors to the IBM3270, providing even more processing possibilities, workstations like the Televideo TS-800 could run CP/M-86, blurring the distinction between terminal and Personal Computer. Most terminals were connected to minicomputers or mainframe computers and often had a green or amber screen, typically terminals communicate with the computer via a serial port via a null modem cable, often using an EIA RS-232 or RS-422 or RS-423 or a current loop serial interface. In fact, the design for the Intel 8008 was originally conceived at Computer Terminal Corporation as the processor for the Datapoint 2200. While early IBM PCs had single color green screens, these screens were not terminals. The screen of a PC did not contain any character generation hardware, all signals and video formatting were generated by the video display card in the PC, or by the CPU. An IBM PC monitor, whether it was the monochrome display or the 16-color display, was technically much more similar to an analog TV set than to a terminal. With suitable software a PC could, however, emulate a terminal, the Data General One could be booted into terminal emulator mode from its ROM. Since the advent and subsequent popularization of the computer, few genuine hardware terminals are used to interface with computers today
6.
Typewriter
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A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for writing characters similar to those produced by printers movable type. A typewriter operates by means of keys that strike a ribbon to transmit ink or carbon impressions onto paper, typically, a single character is printed on each key press. The machine prints characters by making ink impressions of type elements similar to the used in movable type letterpress printing. At the end of the century, the term typewriter was also applied to a person who used a typing machine. After its invention in the 1860s, the quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by writers, in offices. As with the automobile, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights, historians have estimated that some form of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design. Some of the early typing instruments, In 1575 an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazzetto, invented the scrittura tattile, in 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. In 1802 Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his blind sister to write, in 1808 Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter. He also invented carbon paper to provide the ink for his machine, in 1823 Italian Pietro Conti di Cilavegna invented a new model of typewriter, the tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo. In 1829, William Austin Burt patented a machine called the Typographer which, the Science Museum describes it merely as the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented, but even that claim may be excessive, since Turris invention pre-dates it. Even in the hands of its inventor, this machine was slower than handwriting, Burt and his promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent, so the invention was never commercially produced, because the typographer used a dial, rather than keys, to select each character, it was called an index typewriter rather than a keyboard typewriter. Index typewriters of that era resemble the squeeze-style embosser from the 1960s more than they resemble the modern keyboard typewriter, by the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, from 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production. Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was developed as an aid to the blind, in 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti. It was a machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed. In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood, in that same year the Brazilian emperor D
7.
Point-to-point (telecommunications)
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In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection between two nodes or endpoints. An example is a call, in which one telephone is connected with one other. This is contrasted with a point-to-multipoint or broadcast connection, in which many nodes can receive information transmitted by one node, other examples of point-to-point communications links are leased lines, microwave relay links, and two way radio. Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P and this usage of P2P is distinct from P2P referring to peer-to-peer for file sharing networks. A traditional point-to-point data link is a medium with exactly two endpoints and no data or packet formatting. The host computers at either end had to take responsibility for formatting the data transmitted between them. The connection between the computer and the medium was generally implemented through an RS-232 or similar interface. Computers in close proximity may be connected by wires directly between their interface cards, when connected at a distance, each endpoint would be fitted with a modem to convert analog telecommunications signals into a digital data stream. When the connection used a telecommunications provider, the connections were called a dedicated, leased, the ARPANET used leased lines to provide point-to-point data links between its packet-switching nodes, which were called Interface Message Processors. In, the term point-to-point telecommunications relates to fixed wireless communications for Internet or voice over IP via radio frequencies in the multi-gigahertz range. The Telecommunications Industry Associations engineering committees develop U. S. standards for point-to-point communications, online tools help users find if they have such line of sight. The telecommunications signal is typically bi-directional, either time division multiple access or channelized, in hubs and switches, a hub provides a point-to-multipoint circuit which divides the total bandwidth supplied by the hub among each connected client node. Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit, one example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. Nailing down a switched connection saves the cost of running a circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio
8.
Point-to-multipoint communication
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Point-to-multipoint is often abbreviated as P2MP, PTMP, or PMP. Point-to-multipoint telecommunications is most typically used in wireless Internet and IP telephony via gigahertz radio frequencies, P2MP systems have been designed both as single and bi-directional systems. A central antenna or antenna array broadcasts to several receiving antennas, Point to Multipoint is the most popular approach for wireless communications that have a large number of nodes, end destinations or end users. Point to Multipoint generally assumes there is a central Base Station to which remote Subscriber Units or Customer Premises Equipment, connections between the Base Station and Subscriber Units can be either Line of Sight or for lower-frequency radio systems Non-Line-of-Sight where link budgets permit. Generally, lower frequencies can offer non-Line-of Sight connections, various software planning tools can be used to determine feasibility of potential connections using topographic data as well as link budget simulation. Often the point to multipoint links are installed to reduce the cost of infrastructure and increase the number of CPEs, Point to Multipoint wireless networks employing directional antennas are affected by the hidden node problem in case they employ a CSMA/CA medium access control protocol. The negative impact of the hidden node problem can be mitigated using a TDMA based protocol or a polling protocol rather than the CSMA/CA protocol, the telecommunications signal in a Point to Multipoint system is typically bi-directional, either time division multiple access or channelized. Systems using Frequency Division Duplexing offer full duplex connections between base station and remote sites, and Time Division Duplex systems offer half duplex connections, Point to Multipoint systems can be implemented in Licensed, Semi-licensed or Unlicensed frequency bands depending on the specific application. The Base Station may have a single Omnidirectional antenna or multiple Sector Antennas which is used to increase both range and capacity. All-to-all communication Multipoint microwave distribution system Point-to-point Wireless Communications Wireless Access Point List of emerging technologies Backhaul
9.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
10.
Mainframe computer
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The term originally referred to the large cabinets called main frames that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later, the term was used to distinguish high-end commercial machines from less powerful units, most large-scale computer system architectures were established in the 1960s, but continue to evolve. Their high stability and reliability enable these machines to run uninterrupted for decades, Mainframes are defined by high availability, one of the main reasons for their longevity, since they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic. The term reliability, availability and serviceability is a characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning and implementation is required to exploit these features, and if improperly implemented, in the late 1950s, most mainframes had no explicitly interactive interface, but only accepted sets of punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and programs. In cases where interactive terminals were supported, these were used almost exclusively for applications rather than program development, typewriter and Teletype devices were also common control consoles for system operators through the 1970s, although ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices. By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user interfaces and operated as timesharing computers, users gained access through specialized terminals or, later, from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. By the 1980s, many mainframes supported graphical terminals, and terminal emulation and this format of end-user computing reached mainstream obsolescence in the 1990s due to the advent of personal computers provided with GUIs. After 2000, most modern mainframes have partially or entirely phased out classic green screen terminal access for end-users in favour of Web-style user interfaces, the infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced during the mid-1990s, when CMOS mainframe designs replaced the older bipolar technology. IBM claimed that its newer mainframes could reduce data center energy costs for power and cooling, modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers, in this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without disrupting system function, with specificity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with most server solutions. Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. In practice many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and shared DASD, or with shared, Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output and emphasize throughput computing. Since the late-1950s, mainframe designs have included subsidiary hardware which manage the I/O devices and it is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files. Gigabyte to terabyte-size record files are not unusual, compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it reasonably quickly. Other server families also offload I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing, Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing. This hardware-level feature, also found in HPs NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing
11.
Minicomputer
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A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that developed in the mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors. The class formed a group with its own software architectures. Minis were designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation, many were sold indirectly to Original Equipment Manufacturers for final end use application. During the two decade lifetime of the class, almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained. They usually took up one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets, the definition of minicomputer is vague with the consequence that there are a number of candidates for the first minicomputer. An early and highly successful minicomputer was Digital Equipment Corporations 12-bit PDP-8, later versions of the PDP-8 took advantage of small-scale integrated circuits. The important precursors of the PDP-8 include the PDP-5, LINC, the TX-0, the TX-2, DEC gave rise to a number of minicomputer companies along Massachusetts Route 128, including Data General, Wang Laboratories, Apollo Computer, and Prime Computer. Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers and they grew to have relatively high processing power and capacity. They were used in manufacturing process control, telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment, in the 1970s, they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer-aided design industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed. The 7400 series of TTL integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late 1960s, the 74181 arithmetic logic unit was commonly used in the CPU data paths. Each 74181 had a bus width of four bits, hence the popularity of bit-slice architecture, some scientific computers, such as the Nicolet 1080, would use the 7400 series in groups of five ICs for their uncommon twenty bits architecture. Starting in the 1980s, many minicomputers used VLSI circuits, the result was that minicomputers and computer terminals were replaced by networked workstations, file servers and PCs in some installations, beginning in the latter half of the 1980s. Also, the Microsoft Windows series of operating systems, beginning with Windows NT, now included server versions that supported preemptive multitasking, Digital Equipment Corporation was once the leading minicomputer manufacturer, at one time the second-largest computer company after IBM. DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998, while Data General was acquired by EMC Corporation, today only a few proprietary minicomputer architectures survive. The IBM System/38 operating system, which introduced many advanced concepts, realising the importance of the myriad lines of legacy code written, AS stands for Application System. Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs written for the System/34. The AS/400 was replaced by the iSeries, which was replaced by the System i. In 2008, the System i was replaced by the IBM Power Systems, by contrast, competing proprietary computing architectures from the early 1980s, such as DECs VAX, Wang VS and Hewlett Packards HP3000 have long been discontinued without a compatible upgrade path
12.
Computer data storage
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Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a function and fundamental component of computers. The central processing unit of a computer is what manipulates data by performing computations, in practice, almost all computers use a storage hierarchy, which puts fast but expensive and small storage options close to the CPU and slower but larger and cheaper options farther away. In the Von Neumann architecture, the CPU consists of two parts, The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit. The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data, without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior and this is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators, digital signal processors, and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions, most modern computers are von Neumann machines. A modern digital computer represents data using the numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits, a piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, the works of Shakespeare, about 1250 pages in print. Data is encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character, digit, by adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to both detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. A random bit flip is typically corrected upon detection, the cyclic redundancy check method is typically used in communications and storage for error detection. A detected error is then retried, data compression methods allow in many cases to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string and reconstruct the original string when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage for many types of data at the cost of more computation, analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not. For security reasons certain types of data may be encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and this traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. In contemporary usage, memory is usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory, typically DRAM or other forms of fast but temporary storage
13.
Telex
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The telex network is a switched network of teleprinters similar to a telephone network, for the purposes of sending text-based messages. The term refers to the network, not the teleprinters, point-to-point teleprinter systems had been in use long before telex exchanges were formed starting in the 1930s. Teleprinters evolved from systems, and like the telegraph they used the presence or absence of a pre-defined level of current to represent the mark or space symbols. This is as opposed to the telephone system, which used differing voltages to encode frequency information. For this reason, telex exchanges were entirely separate from the system, with their own signalling standards, exchanges. When telephone and telex exchange equipment was co-located, which was not uncommon, Telex provided the first common medium for international record communications using standard signalling techniques and operating criteria as specified by the International Telecommunication Union. Customers on any telex exchange could deliver messages to any other, to lower line usage, telex messages were normally first encoded onto paper tape and then read into the line as quickly as possible. The system normally delivered information at 50 baud or approximately 66 words per minute encoded using the International Telegraph Alphabet No.2, Telex began in Germany as a research and development program in 1926 that became an operational teleprinter service in 1933. The service, operated by the Reichspost had a speed of 50 baud — approximately 66 words per minute, Telex service spread within Europe and around the world. By 1978, West Germany, including West Berlin, had 123,298 telex connections, long before automatic telephony became available, most countries, even in central Africa and Asia, had at least a few high-frequency telex links. Often, government postal and telegraph services initiated these radio links, the most common radio standard, CCITT R.44 had error-corrected retransmitting time-division multiplexing of radio channels. Most impoverished PTTs operated their telex-on-radio channels non-stop, to get the value from them. The cost of TOR equipment has continued to fall, modern cablegrams or telegrams actually operate over dedicated telex networks, using TOR whenever required. Telex served as the forerunner of modern fax, email, abbreviated English as used in texting originated with telex operators exchanging informal messages in real time — they became the first texters long before the introduction of mobile phones. Telex users could send the message to several places around the world at the same time, like email today. This involved transmitting the message via paper tape to the InfoMaster Computer, in this way, a single message could be sent to multiple distant Telex and TWX machines as well as delivering the same message to non-Telex and non-TWX subscribers via Western Union Mailgram. Telex messages are routed by addressing them to an address, e. g.14910 ERIC S. Solutions also exist for the routing of messages to different telex terminals within a subscriber organization, by using different terminal identities
14.
Microwave
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Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter, with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves, the broad definition includes both UHF and EHF bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz, in all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band at minimum. Frequencies in the range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations, S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band. The prefix micro- in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range and it indicates that microwaves are small, compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology. Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, therefore on the surface of the Earth microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 30 -40 miles. Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies, in a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the troposphere. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in tropospheric scatter communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon and their short wavelength allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small high gain antennas from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore beams of microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links, an advantage of narrow beams is that they allow frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. Parabolic antennas are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, flat microstrip antennas are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Where omnidirectional antennas are required, for example in wireless devices and Wifi routers for wireless LANs, small monopoles, dipole, or patch antennas are used. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, the term microwave also has a more technical meaning in electromagnetics and circuit theory. As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to away from the discrete resistors, capacitors. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, high-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum tubes to generate microwaves
15.
Modem
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A modem is a network hardware device that modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is attempting to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily, modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second. Modems can also be classified by their rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift keying with two frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols, to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols, news wire services in the 1920s used multiplex devices that satisfied the definition of a modem. However, the function was incidental to the multiplexing function, so they are not commonly included in the history of modems. S. SAGE modems were described by AT&Ts Bell Labs as conforming to their newly published Bell 101 dataset standard, while they ran on dedicated telephone lines, the devices at each end were no different from commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101,110 baud modems. The 201A and 201B Data-Phones were synchronous modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying, the famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also introduced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex service at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines, frequency-shift keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2 gave an important boost to the use of remote low-speed terminals such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR and KSR, AT&T reduced modem costs by introducing the originate-only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems. For many years, the Bell System maintained a monopoly on the use of its phone lines, however, the seminal Hush-a-Phone v. FCC case of 1956 concluded it was within the FCCs jurisdiction to regulate the operation of the Bell System. The FCC found that as long as a device was not electronically attached to the system and this led to a number of devices that mechanically connected to the phone through a standard handset. Since most handsets were supplied by Western Electric and thus of a standard design and this type of connection was used for many devices, such as answering machines. Acoustically coupled Bell 103A-compatible 300 bit/s modems were common during the 1970s, well-known models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-Jacobson, the latter spun off from an in-house project at Stanford Research Institute. An even lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, designed to be built using parts from electronics scrap, in December 1972, Vadic introduced the VA3400, notable for full-duplex operation at 1,200 bit/s over the phone network. Like the 103A, it used different frequency bands for transmit, in November 1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem to compete with Vadic
16.
Time-sharing
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In computing, time-sharing is the sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming and multi-tasking at the same time. Its introduction in the 1960s and emergence as the prominent model of computing in the 1970s represented a major shift in the history of computing. The earliest computers were expensive devices, and very slow in comparison to later models. These programs might take hours, or even weeks, to run, as computers grew in speed, run times dropped, and soon the time taken to start up the next program became a concern. Batch processing methodologies evolved to decrease these dead periods by queuing up programs so that as soon as one program completed, to support a batch processing operation, a number of comparatively inexpensive card punch or paper tape writers were used by programmers to write their programs offline. When typing was complete, the programs were submitted to the operations team, important programs were started quickly, how long before less important programs were started was unpredictable. When the program run was completed, the output was returned to the programmer. The complete process might take days, during which time the programmer might never see the computer, the alternative of allowing the user to operate the computer directly was generally far too expensive to consider. This was because users might have long periods of entering code while the computer remained idle and this situation limited interactive development to those organizations that could afford to waste computing cycles, large universities for the most part. Programmers at the universities decried the behaviors that batch processing imposed and they experimented with new ways to interact directly with the computer, a field today known as human–computer interaction. Time-sharing was developed out of the realization that any single user would make inefficient use of a computer. Given an optimal size, the overall process could be very efficient. Similarly, small slices of time spent waiting for disk, tape, in a paper published in December 1958 by W. F. Bauer, he wrote that The computers would handle a number of problems concurrently. Implementing a system able to take advantage of this was initially difficult, batch processing was effectively a methodological development on top of the earliest systems. Since computers still ran single programs for single users at any time, developing a system that supported multiple users at the same time was a completely different concept. The state of each user and their programs would have to be kept in the machine and this would take up computer cycles, and on the slow machines of the era this was a concern. However, as computers rapidly improved in speed, and especially in size of memory in which users states were retained. The first project to implement a system was initiated by John McCarthy at MIT in 1959, initially planned on a modified IBM704
17.
Computer monitor
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A computer monitor or a computer display is an electronic visual display for computers. A monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry, casing, the display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display or a flat panel LED display, while older monitors used a cathode ray tubes. It can be connected to the computer via VGA, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, LVDS or other proprietary connectors, originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television receivers were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers have used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and computer monitors, has changed from 4,3 to 16,10, to 16,9. Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a limited amount of information. Instead, a printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the programs operation. Multiple technologies have used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode ray tubes but they have largely superseded by LCD monitors. The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes, high-resolution CRT displays were developed for specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use. Either computer could be connected to the terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350, by the end of the 1980s color CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall, CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered viewing angles close to 180 degrees. CRTs still offer some image quality advantages over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made much less obvious. There are multiple technologies that have used to implement liquid crystal displays. Commonly, the laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points, monochrome
18.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
19.
Telecommunications device for the deaf
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A telecommunications device for the deaf is a teleprinter, an electronic device for text communication over a telephone line, that is designed for use by persons with hearing or speech difficulties. Other names for the device include teletypewriter, textphone, and minicom, the typical TDD is a device about the size of a typewriter or laptop computer with a QWERTY keyboard and small screen that uses an LED, LCD, or VFD screen to display typed text electronically. In addition, TDDs commonly have a spool of paper on which text is also printed – old versions of the device had only a printer. The text is transmitted live, via a line, to a compatible device. Special telephone services have developed to carry the TDD functionality even further. In certain countries there are systems in place so that a person can communicate with a hearing person on an ordinary voice phone using a human relay operator. There are also services, enabling people who can hear but cannot speak. The term TDD is sometimes discouraged because people who are deaf are increasingly using mainstream devices and technologies to carry out most of their communication, the devices described here were developed for use on the partially-analog Public Switched Telephone Network. They do not work well on the new internet protocol networks, thus as society increasingly moves toward IP based telecommunication, the telecommunication devices used by people who are deaf will not be TDDs. In the US for example, the use of the term TDD is discouraged to avoid confusion with these devices being referred to as TTYs. Furthermore, these were referred to by the TTY initialism. When computers had keyboard input mechanisms and page printer output, before CRT terminals came into use, the TDD concept was developed by James C. Marsters, a dentist and private pilot who became deaf as an infant because of scarlet fever, and Robert Weitbrecht. APCOM collected old teleprinter machines from the Department of Defense and junkyards, the entire configuration of teleprinter machine, acoustic coupler, and telephone set became known as the TTY. Weitbrecht invented the acoustic coupler modem in 1964, the actual mechanism for TTY communications was accomplished electro-mechanically through frequency shift keying allowing only half-duplex communication, where only one person at a time can transmit. During the late 1960s, Paul Taylor combined Western Union Teletype machines with modems to create teletypewriters and he distributed these early, non-portable devices to the homes of many in the deaf community in St. Louis, Missouri. He worked with others to establish a local telephone wake-up service, in the early 1970s, these small successes in St. Louis evolved into the nation’s first local telephone relay system for the deaf. The battery-powered MCM was invented and designed by a news anchor and interpreter, Kit Patrick Corson, in conjunction with Michael Cannon
20.
Samuel Morse
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Samuel Finley Breese Morse was an American painter and inventor. After having established his reputation as a painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of the Morse code and helped to develop the use of telegraphy. Samuel F. B. Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the first child of the pastor Jedidiah Morse, who was also a geographer and his father was a great preacher of the Calvinist faith and supporter of the American Federalist party. He thought it helped preserve Puritan traditions, and believed in the Federalist support of an alliance with Britain, Morse strongly believed in education within a Federalist framework, alongside the instillation of Calvinist virtues, morals, and prayers for his first son. After attending Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, Samuel Morse went on to Yale College to receive instruction in the subjects of philosophy, mathematics. While at Yale, he attended lectures on electricity from Benjamin Silliman, in 1810, he graduated from Yale with Phi Beta Kappa honors. Morse expressed some of his Calvinist beliefs in his painting, Landing of the Pilgrims and his image captured the psychology of the Federalists, Calvinists from England brought to North America ideas of religion and government, thus linking the two countries. This work attracted the attention of the notable artist, Washington Allston, Allston wanted Morse to accompany him to England to meet the artist Benjamin West. Allston arranged — with Morses father — a three-year stay for painting study in England, the two men set sail aboard the Lybia on July 15,1811. In England, Morse perfected his painting techniques under Allstons watchful eye, by the end of 1811, at the Academy, he was moved by the art of the Renaissance and paid close attention to the works of Michelangelo and Raphael. After observing and practicing life drawing and absorbing its anatomical demands, the young artist produced his masterpiece, to some, the Dying Hercules seemed to represent a political statement against the British and also the American Federalists. The muscles symbolized the strength of the young and vibrant United States versus the British, during Morses time in Britain, the Americans and British were engaged in the War of 1812. Both societies were conflicted over loyalties, anti-Federalist Americans aligned themselves with the French, abhorred the British, and believed a strong central government to be inherently dangerous to democracy. As the war raged on, Morses letters to his parents became more anti-Federalist in tone, in one such letter, Morse wrote, I assert that the Federalists in the Northern States have done more injury to their country by their violent opposition measures than a French alliance could. Their proceedings are copied into the English papers, read before Parliament, and circulated through their country and they call them cowards, a base set, say they are traitors to their country and ought to be hanged like traitors. Although Jedidiah Morse did not change Samuels political views, he continued as an influence, critics believe that the elder Morses Calvinist ideas are integral to Morses Judgment of Jupiter, another significant work completed in England. Jupiter is shown in a cloud, accompanied by his eagle, with his hand spread above the parties, Marpessa, with an expression of compunction and shame, is throwing herself into the arms of her husband
21.
Alexander Bain (inventor)
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Alexander Bain was a Scottish inventor and engineer who was first to invent and patent the electric clock. He installed the railway lines between Edinburgh and Glasgow. Bain was born in Watten, Caithness, Scotland and he had a twin sister, Margaret, and, in total, he had six sisters and six brothers. Bain did not excel in school and was apprenticed to a clockmaker in Wick, having learned the art of clockmaking, he went to Edinburgh, and in 1837 to London, where he obtained work as a journeyman in Clerkenwell. Bain frequented the lectures at the Polytechnic Institution and the Adelaide Gallery, in 1840, desperate for money to develop his inventions, Bain mentioned his financial problems to the editor of the Mechanics Magazine, who introduced him to Sir Charles Wheatstone. Bain demonstrated his models to Wheatstone, who, when asked for his opinion, said Oh, three months later Wheatstone demonstrated an electric clock to the Royal Society, claiming it was his own invention. However, Bain had already applied for a patent for it, Wheatstone tried to block Bains patents, but failed. Bains first patent was dated 11 January 1841, and was in the names of John Barwise, chronometer maker and it describes his electric clock which uses a pendulum kept moving by electromagnetic impulses. He improved on this in later patents, including a proposal to derive the required electricity from an earth battery, a similar concept appears in Sir William Thomsons siphon recorder. Bain also proposed to make the record messages by printing them. His telegraph was also abroad, The initial Austrian Bain instruments were made by Johann Michael Ekling in Vienna. Telegraphenwerkstätte Wein, the Imperial Royal Telegraph Workshops Vienna, Alexander Bain, A Short History of the Electric Clocks Bains extant electric clocks come from two stages of development between the 1840s and the 1860s. Examples can be seen in the National Maritime Museum of London, the London Science Museum, the Royal Scottish Museum, the most rare and interesting mantel clocks are in private hands. One featured in the Electrifying Time exhibition in 1977 at the London Science Museum, Bain sometimes found complex and ornate solutions to relatively simple, although not easy to solve problems. The most complex, his clock, worked on an electro-magnetic pull push. At a very time, Matthäus Hipp constructed a more simple and reliable system which used a simple toggle switch to impulse the pendulum every so often. Bain worked on a fax machine in 1843 to 1846. He used a clock to synchronise the movement of two pendulums for line-by-line scanning of a message, for transmission, Bain applied metal pins arranged on a cylinder made of insulating material
22.
David Edward Hughes
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David Edward Hughes, was a British-American inventor, practical experimenter, and professor of music known for his work on the printing telegraph and the microphone. He is generally considered to have born in London but his family moved around that time so he may have been born in Corwen. His family moved to the U. S. while he was a child, in 1855 he patented a printing telegraph. He moved back to London in 1857 and further pursued experimentation and invention, in 1879 he identified what seemed to be a new phenomenon during his experiments, sparking in one device could be heard in a separate portable microphone apparatus he had set up. Hughes was born in 1831, the son of a talented family hailing originally from Y Bala. At only six years old, he is known to have played the harp, Hughes also worked as a practical experimenter, coming up with the printing telegraph in 1855. He moved back to London in 1857 to sell his invention and he worked on microphones and on the invention of the induction balance. Despite Hughes facility as an experimenter, he had little mathematical training and he was a friend of William Henry Preece. In 1855, Hughes designed a printing telegraph system, in Europe, the Hughes Telegraph System became an international standard. In 1878 Hughes published his work on the effects of sound on the electronic sound pickups, called transmitters. Based on its ability to pick up extremely weak sounds, Hughes referred to it as a microphone effect and he conducted a simple demonstration of this principle of loose contact by laying an iron nail across two other nails connected to a battery and galvanometer. His paper was read before the Royal Society of London by Thomas Henry Huxley on May 8,1878, Hughes published his work during the time that Thomas Edison was working on a carbon telephone transmitter and Emile Berliner was working on a loose-contact transmitter. Both Hughes and Edison may have based their work on Philipp Reis telephone work, Hughes seems to have come across the phenomenon of radio waves nine years before they were proven to exist by Heinrich Hertz in 1888. In 1879 while working in London Hughes discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seemed to be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance. By trial and error experiments he found he could pick up these aerial waves as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of 500 yards. Stokes was convinced the phenomenon Hughes was demonstrating was merely electromagnetic induction, Hughes was not a physicist and seems to have accepted Stokes observations and did not pursue the experiments any further. The world will be right in placing his name on the highest pinnacle, in the same publication Elihu Thomson put forward a claim that Hughes was really the first to transmit radio. The carbon rod and two blocks, which he would refer to as a coherer in 1899 is also similar to devices known as crystal radio detectors
23.
Frederick G. Creed
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Frederick George Creed was a Canadian-born inventor, who spent most of his adult life in Britain. He worked in the field of telecommunications, and is remembered as a key figure in the development of the teleprinter. He also played a role in the development of SWATH vessels. Creed was born in Mill Village, Nova Scotia, and at the age of 15 began his life as a check boy for Western Union in Canso. He then worked for the Central and South American Telegraph and Cable Company in Peru, Creed quit his job and moved to Glasgow, Scotland, where he began work in an old shed. Using an old typewriter bought from the Sauchiehall Street market, he created his first keyboard perforator and he also created a reperforator and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper and this was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System. Although told by Lord Kelvin that there is no future in that idea and he opened a small factory in Glasgow in 1904. Two years later the Glasgow Herald adopted the Creed system, claiming that it was three times faster than the rival Morse apparatus, in 1909, in order to be closer to the Post Office headquarters in London, Creed moved along with 6 of his mechanics to Croydon. Working with Danish telegraph engineer Harald Bille, he established Creed, Bille & Company Ltd. in 1912, after Billes death in a railway accident in 1916, his name was dropped from the companys title and it became simply Creed & Company. Creeds system received a major boost that same year when the Daily Mail newspaper adopted it for transmission of the entire contents of its newspaper from London to Manchester. In 1913, the first experiments were made in high-speed telegraphy by radio transmission between the Croydon factory and Creeds home about 5 kilometres away, however, the outbreak of World War I in 1914 diverted the companys activities to military equipment. In 1915, with production continually expanding, the company found its original premises inadequate and it spent most of World War I producing high-quality instruments, manufacturing facilities for which were very limited in the UK. Among the items produced were amplifiers, spark-gap transmitters, aircraft compasses, high-voltage generators, bomb release apparatus, other companies followed suit in Australia, Denmark, India, South Africa, and Sweden. In 1924 Creed entered the field with their Model 1P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murrays Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code and he invented the SWATH before 1938, when he presented it to the British Admiralty, and was awarded a British patent for it in 1946. He died before it saw commercial development, the first vessel being launched by the Netherlands in 1968. Creed died at his home in Croydon in 1957 at the age of 86, Creeds home at 20, Outram Road, Addiscombe, East Croydon, is marked with a commemorative English Heritage blue plaque
24.
Morse code
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Morse code is a method of transmitting text information as a series of on-off tones, lights, or clicks that can be directly understood by a skilled listener or observer without special equipment. It is named for Samuel F. B, Morse, an inventor of the telegraph. Because many non-English natural languages use more than the 26 Roman letters, each Morse code symbol represents either a text character or a prosign and is represented by a unique sequence of dots and dashes. The duration of a dash is three times the duration of a dot, each dot or dash is followed by a short silence, equal to the dot duration. The letters of a word are separated by an equal to three dots, and the words are separated by a space equal to seven dots. The dot duration is the unit of time measurement in code transmission. To increase the speed of the communication, the code was designed so that the length of each character in Morse varies approximately inversely to its frequency of occurrence in English. Thus the most common letter in English, the letter E, has the shortest code, Morse code is used by some amateur radio operators, although knowledge of and proficiency with it is no longer required for licensing in most countries. Pilots and air controllers usually need only a cursory understanding. Aeronautical navigational aids, such as VORs and NDBs, constantly identify in Morse code, compared to voice, Morse code is less sensitive to poor signal conditions, yet still comprehensible to humans without a decoding device. Morse is, therefore, an alternative to synthesized speech for sending automated data to skilled listeners on voice channels. Many amateur radio repeaters, for example, identify with Morse, in an emergency, Morse code can be sent by improvised methods that can be easily keyed on and off, making it one of the simplest and most versatile methods of telecommunication. The most common signal is SOS or three dots, three dashes, and three dots, internationally recognized by treaty. Beginning in 1836, the American artist Samuel F. B, Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph system. This system sent pulses of current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, around 1837, Morse, therefore, developed an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code. Around the same time, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber as well as Carl August von Steinheil had already used codes with varying lengths for their telegraphs. In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England began using a telegraph that also used electromagnets in its receivers
25.
Printing telegraph
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The printing telegraph was invented by Royal Earl House in 1846. Houses equipment could transmit around 40 instantly readable words per minute, the printer could copy and print out up to 2,000 words per hour. This invention was first put in operation and exhibited at the Mechanics Institute in New York in 1844, house’s Type Printing Telegraph of 1849 was Royal Earl Houses second and much improved type-printing instrument and was widely used on lines on Americas east coast from 1850. Hughes telegraph devices, which also had piano style keyboards, were popular in France. Early stock ticker machines are also examples of printing telegraphs, the device was made by linking two 28-key piano-style keyboards by wire. Each piano key represented a letter of the alphabet and when pressed caused the letter to print at the receiving end. A shift key gave each main key two optional values, a 56-character typewheel at the sending end was synchronised to coincide with a similar wheel at the receiving end. It was thus an example of a data transmission system. The benefit of the Printing Telegraph is that it allows the operator to use a keyboard to directly input the text of the message. The receiver would then receive the instantly readable text of the message on a paper strip and this is in contrast to the telegraphs that used Morse Code dots and dashes which needed to be converted into readable text. The machine is furnished with keys similar to a piano, each key representing a letter in the alphabet, thus all mistakes arising from blind chirography will be thoroughly appreciated by our citizens. The machine will be put into operation this afternoon, Printing Telegraphs were quite temperamental and suffered frequent breakdowns. Transmission speed was much slower than the Morse system. The complexity of the original House device meant that production was limited, an improved version was designed by George Phelps. The Globotype was invented by David McCallum as a response to problems with the printing telegraph, various layouts were produced to improve the efficiency of the keyboard system and accommodate several other alphabets
26.
Daisy wheel printing
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Daisy wheel printing is an impact printing technology invented in 1969 by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. Daisy wheel printing was used in typewriters, word processors and computers from 1972. The daisy wheel is considered to be so named because of its resemblance to the daisy flower, by 1980 daisy wheel printers had become the dominant technology for high-quality print. Dot-matrix impact, thermal, or line printers were used where speed was required. Daisy wheel technology is now only in some electronic typewriters. In 1889 Arthur Irving Jacobs patented a daisy wheel design that was used on the Victor index typewriter, a. H. Reiber of Teletype Corporation received U. S. Patent 2,146,380 in 1939 for a daisy wheel printer, in 1972 a team at Diablo Systems led by engineer David S.4 cps. Xerox acquired Diablo that same year, following which Lee departed to set up Qume Corporation in 1973, xeroxs Office Product Division had already been buying Diablo printers for its Redactron text editors. After 7 years trying to make Diablo profitable, the OPD focused on developing and selling the Diablo 630 which was bought by companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation. The Diablo 630 could produce letter quality output as good as that produced by an IBM Selectric or Selectric-based printer, a further advantage was that it supported the entire ASCII printing character set. Its servo-controlled carriage also permitted the use of proportional spaced fonts, Xerox later adapted Diablos daisy wheel technology into a typewriter that sold for less than $50. An automated factory was built near Dallas that took less than 30 minutes to assemble a Xerox typewriter, the Xerox typewriter was well received but never achieved the projected sales numbers due to the advent of the PC and word processing software. The typewriter was modified to be compatible with PCs but the engineering which made it a low cost device reduced its flexibility. The heart of the system is a metal or plastic daisy wheel holding an entire character set as raised characters moulded on each petal. In use a servo motor rotates the wheel to position the required character between the hammer and the ribbon. The solenoid-operated hammer then fires, driving the character type onto the ribbon, the daisy wheel and hammer are mounted on a sliding carriage similar to that used by dot matrix printers. Different typefaces and sizes can be used by replacing the daisy wheel, however, printing a document with frequent font changes and thus requiring frequent wheel changes was a tedious task. Like all other impact printers, daisy wheel printers are noisy, most daisy-wheel printers could print a line and then, using built-in memory, print the following line backwards, from right to left
27.
Mechanics' Institutes
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Mechanics Institutes are educational establishments, originally formed to provide adult education, particularly in technical subjects, to working men. Similar organisation are sometimes simply called Institutes, as such, they were often funded by local industrialists on the grounds that they would ultimately benefit from having more knowledgeable and skilled employees. The Mechanics Institutes were used as libraries for the working class. Its purpose was to address societal needs by incorporating fundamental scientific thinking, the school revolutionised access to education in science and technology for ordinary people. The second Institute in Scotland was incorporated in Glasgow in November 1823, under the auspices of the Andersonian University, Birkbeck had first instituted free lectures on arts, science and technical subjects in 1800. This mechanics class continued to meet after he moved to London in 1804, the first Mechanics Institute in England was opened at Liverpool in July 1823. The London Mechanics Institute followed in December 1823, and the Mechanics Institutes in Ipswich, by the mid-19th century, there were over 700 institutes in towns and cities across the UK and overseas, some of which became the early roots of other colleges and universities. See for example the University of Gloucestershire, which has the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute and it was as a result of delivering a lecture series at the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute that the famous radical George Holyoake was arrested and then convicted on a charge of blasphemy. From the 1850s, Mechanics Institutes quickly spread throughout Victoria wherever a hall, over 1200 Mechanics Institutes were built in Victoria but just over 500 remain today, and only six still operate their lending library services. The Industrial Revolution created a new class of reader in Britain by the end of the 18th century, mechanics, later popular non-fiction and fiction books were added to these collections. The first known library of type was the Birmingham Artisans Library. Some mechanics libraries only lasted a decade or two, many eventually became public libraries or were given to public libraries after the Public Libraries Act 1850 passed. Beyond a lending library, Mechanics Institutes also provided lecture courses, laboratories, the Glasgow Institute, founded in 1823, not only had all three, it was also provided free light on two evenings a week from the local Gas Light Company. The London Mechanics Institute installed gas illumination by 1825, revealing the demand, Ballarat Mechanics Institute, Ballarat Berwick Mechanics Institute, Berwick Briagolong Mechanics Institute, Briagolong Footscray Mechanics Institute Inc. Birkbeck, University of London Lurgan, County Armagh and it is chartered the following year and is eventually superseded in New Haven by The Young Mens Institute Library. 1795 The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association of Boston, Massachusetts, was formed for the purposes of promoting the mechanic arts. 1820 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York established, renamed and became the Mechanics Institute in 1858. 1821 The English High School is established in Boston, MA, as the first public high school,1824 The Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts opens in Philadelphia
28.
Western Union
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The Western Union Company is an American financial services and communications company. Its North American headquarters is in Meridian, Colorado, though the designation of nearby Englewood is used in its mailing address. Up until it discontinued the service in 2006, Western Union was the best-known U. S. company in the business of exchanging telegrams, Western Union has several divisions, with products such as person-to-person money transfer, money orders, business payments and commercial services. They offered standard Cablegrams, as well as more products such as Candygrams, Dollygrams. Western Union, as a monopoly, dominated the telegraph industry in the late 19th century. It was the first communications empire and set a pattern for American-style communications businesses as they are known today, meanwhile, Ezra Cornell had bought back one of his bankrupt companies and renamed it the New York & Western Union Telegraph Company. Originally fierce competitors, by 1856 both groups were convinced that consolidation was their only alternative for progress. The merged company was named the Western Union Telegraph Company at Cornells insistence, Western Union bought out smaller companies rapidly, and by 1860 its lines reached from the East Coast to the Mississippi River, and from the Great Lakes to the Ohio River. In 1861 it opened the first transcontinental telegraph, in 1865 it formed the Russian–American Telegraph in an attempt to link America to Europe, via Alaska, into Siberia, to Moscow. The company enjoyed phenomenal growth during the few years. Under the leadership of presidents Jeptha Wade and William Orton its capitalization rose from $385,700 in 1858 to $41 million in 1876. However it was top-heavy with stock issues, and faced growing competition from several firms, in 1881 Gould took control of Western Union. It introduced the first stock ticker in 1866, and a time service in 1870. The next year,1871, the company introduced its money transfer service, in 1879, Western Union left the telephone business, having lost a patent lawsuit with Bell Telephone Company. As the telephone replaced the telegraph, money transfer would become its primary business, when the Dow Jones Transportation Average stock market index for the New York Stock Exchange was created in 1884, Western Union was one of the original eleven all-American companies tracked. By 1900, Western Union operated a million miles of telegraph lines, the company continued to grow, acquiring more than 500 smaller competitors. Its monopoly power was almost complete in 1943 when it bought Postal Telegraph, in 1914, Western Union offered the first charge card for consumers, in 1923 it introduced teletypewriters to join its branches. Singing telegrams followed in 1933, intercity fax in 1935, in 1958, it began offering Telex service to customers in New York City
29.
Paper tape
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Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store data. Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms, however, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence. The resulting paper tape, also called a chain of cards, was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair and this led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but one continuous card, or a tape. In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams, in 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented a Monotype System, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was read by the caster. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster, the system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way. Data were represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location, tapes originally had five rows of holes for data. Later tapes had 6,7 and 8 rows, an early electro-mechanical calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows. A row of smaller sprocket holes that were always punched served to feed the tape, later optical readers used the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes are a bit to one side, making it clear which way to orient the tape in the reader, text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the century and had 5 holes. The Baudot code was never used in teleprinters, instead, modifications such as the Murray code, Western Union code, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, and American Teletypewriter code, were used, other standards, such as Teletypesetter, FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had 6 holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a code for data processing. This 7-level code was adopted by some users, including AT&T. Others, such as Telex. Tape for punching was 0.00394 inches thick, the two most common widths were 11/16 inch for five bit codes, and 1 inch for tapes with six or more bits
30.
Letter frequency
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The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Iraqi mathematician Al-Kindi, who formally developed the method. No exact letter frequency distribution underlies a given language, since all writers write slightly differently, however, most languages have a characteristic distribution which is strongly apparent in longer texts. Linotype machines for the English language assumed the letter order, from most to least common, to be etaoin shrdlu cmfwyp vbgkjq xz based on the experience, the equivalent for the French language was elaoin sdrétu cmfhyp vbgwqj xz. Similar ideas are used in modern techniques such as Huffman coding. Letter frequency was used by telegraph systems, such as the Murray Code. Letter frequencies, like word frequencies, tend to vary, both by writer and by subject. One cannot write an essay about x-rays without using frequent Xs, different authors have habits which can be reflected in their use of letters. Hemingways writing style, for example, is different from Faulkners. Accurate average letter frequencies can only be gleaned by analyzing a large amount of representative text, with the availability of modern computing and collections of large text corpora, such calculations are easily made. Examples can be drawn from a variety of sources and there are especially for general fiction with the position of h and i. Herbert S. Also, to note that different dialects of a language will also affect a letters frequency and this would highly affect the frequency of the letter z as it is a rarely used letter elsewhere in the English language. The top twelve letters constitute about 80% of the total usage, the top eight letters constitute about 65% of the total usage. Letter frequency as a function of rank can be fitted well by several rank functions, the use of letter frequencies and frequency analysis plays a fundamental role in cryptograms and several word puzzle games, including Hangman, Scrabble and the television game show Wheel of Fortune. One of the earliest descriptions in classical literature of applying the knowledge of English letter frequency to solving a cryptogram is found in E. A. Poes famous story The Gold-Bug, where the method is applied to decipher a message instructing on the whereabouts of a treasure hidden by Captain Kidd. Letter frequencies had an effect on the design of some keyboard layouts. The most frequent letters are on the row of the Blickensderfer typewriter. There are three ways to count letter frequency that result in different charts for common letters
31.
Newline
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In computing, a newline, also known as a line ending, end of line, or line break, is a special character or sequence of characters signifying the end of a line of text and the start of a new line. The actual codes representing a newline vary across operating systems, which can be a problem when exchanging text files between systems with different newline representations, the concepts of line feed and carriage return are closely associated, and can be considered either separately or together. In the physical media of typewriters and printers, two axes of motion, down and across, are needed to create a new line on the page. Although the design of a machine must consider them separately, the logic of software can combine them together as one event. This is why a newline in character encoding can be defined as LF, some character sets provide a separate newline character code. EBCDIC, for example, provides an NL character code in addition to the CR, Unicode, in addition to providing the ASCII CR and LF control codes, also provides a next line control code, as well as control codes for line separator and paragraph separator markers. Two ways to view newlines, both of which are self-consistent, are that newlines either separate lines or that they terminate lines, if a newline is considered a separator, there will be no newline after the last line of a file. Some programs have problems processing the last line of a file if it is not terminated by a newline, on the other hand, programs that expect newline to be used as a separator will interpret a final newline as starting a new line. Conversely, if a newline is considered a terminator, all lines including the last are expected to be terminated by a newline. In many applications a separate character called manual line break exists for forcing line breaks inside a single paragraph. The glyph for the character for a hard return is usually a pilcrow. Some rare systems, such as QNX before version 4, used the ASCII RS character as the newline character, EBCDIC systems—mainly IBM mainframe systems, including z/OS and i5/OS —use NL as the character combining the functions of line-feed and carriage-return. The equivalent UNICODE character is called NEL, note that EBCDIC also has control characters called CR and LF, but the numerical value of LF differs from the one used by ASCII. Additionally, some EBCDIC variants also use NL but assign a different numeric code to the character, operating systems for the CDC6000 series defined a newline as two or more zero-valued six-bit characters at the end of a 60-bit word. Some configurations also defined a character as a colon character. ZX80 and ZX81, home computers from Sinclair Research Ltd, used a specific character set with code NEWLINE as the newline character. OpenVMS uses a file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored, the records themselves could contain the same line terminator characters, which could either be considered a feature or a nuisance depending on the application
32.
Joy Morton
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Joy Sterling Morton was an American businessman and entrepreneur best known for founding Morton Salt and establishing the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. He was born on September 27,1855 in Nebraska City and his mother, Caroline Joy, was an accomplished artist, musician, and gardener. His father, Julius Sterling Morton, a newspaperman and a leader in Nebraska territorial, J. Sterling Morton served as United States Secretary of Agriculture in the second administration of President Grover Cleveland. In 1880, Morton married Carrie Jane Lake, the daughter of Nebraska Supreme Court Judge George Lake, two years after Joy Morton’s first wife died in 1915, he married Margaret Gray, who became a local leader in health care. At 15, Morton began to manage the farm and estate. He also took a job at the local bank, at age 18, he fell ill with spinal meningitis. Needing physical exercise and an environment for full recovery, he farmed his own land for two years. Later, he worked for railroads in Omaha, Nebraska, and Aurora, Illinois, by 1886 he owned the firm, naming it Joy Morton and Company, and branched out into the distribution and processing of agricultural products in Nebraska and Illinois. In 1910 he incorporated his salt firm as the Morton Salt Company and he remained the companys president until 1930 when Daniel Peterkin, Sr. became president while he served as chairman of the board until his death in 1934. He died on May 9,1934 in Lisle, Illinois, among Morton’s brands are Morton Salt and Argo Starch. Morton also supported the development of the teleprinter and formed the Morkrum company with the inventor Howard Krum, the company was later renamed to Morkrum-Kleinschmidt, then to Teletype Corporation. It was sold to American Telephone & Telegraph Company in 1930 for $30,000,000, Morton took an active interest in the future of Chicago, chairing the Chicago Commercial Club’s railway terminal committee for Daniel Burnhams and Edward Bennett’s 1909 Plan of Chicago. Morton also served on the Chicago Plan Commission for 25 years and was an advocate of inland waterway transportation. His advocacy of air rights in Chicago helped make possible the construction of buildings above railway lines, throughout his life, Morton believed that inland waterways were essential to the development of commerce and to the growth of cities. In 1922, Morton established the Morton Arboretum on 178 acres of adjacent to his estate in Lisle. Today, the Morton Arboretum has grown to 1,700 acres, as Morton began to define the direction his arboretum should take, he sought the advice of Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of Harvard’s Arnold Arboretum. After his fathers death, he hired the architect Jarvis Hunt to redesign and enlarge Arbor Lodge into a 52-room mansion and used it as his familys summer home. After he began his own arboretum, Morton honored his father by giving Arbor Lodge, today Arbor Lodge is officially known as Arbor Lodge State Historical Park and Arboretum
33.
Morton Salt
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Morton Salt is an American food company producing salt for food, water conditioning, industrial, agricultural, and road/highway use. Based in Chicago, the business is North Americas leading producer and marketer of salt and it is a subsidiary of the German mining company K+S. The company began in Chicago, Illinois, in 1848 as a sales agency. Wheeler, started by the Onondaga salt companies to sell their salt to the Midwest, in 1910, the business, which had by that time become both a manufacturer and a merchant of salt, was incorporated as the Morton Salt Company. It was named after the owner and founder, Joy Morton, Joy Morton starting working for E. I. Wheeler in 1880, buying into the company for $10,000, with which he bought a fleet of lake boats to move salt west. In 1982, the business was purchased by Thiokol Corporation, producing Morton Thiokol Incorporated, Morton Thiokol divested itself of Morton in 1989, following the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, which was blamed on Morton Thiokol products. Morton received the companys consumer products divisions, while Thiokol retained only the space propulsion systems concern. In 1999 Morton Salt was acquired by the Philadelphia-based Rohm and Haas Company, Inc. on 2 April 2009, it was reported that Morton Salt was being acquired by German fertilizer and salt company K+S for a total enterprise value of US$1. 7bn. The sale, completed by October 2009, was in conjunction with the Dow Chemical Companys takeover of Rohm and Haas. In or about 1919, Morton acquired Bevis Rock Salt Company, a family business run by A. Bevis Longstreth. Longstreth had designed and invented a container for Bevis Salt that included both a spout for pouring and a grill for shaking and it depicted a little girl holding the container over a bird and pouring salt on its tail. Longstreth went on to found Thiokol Chemical Corporation, which in 1982 acquired Morton Salt, the Morton Salt Companys current headquarters office is in the River Point building at 444 West Lake Street in Chicago, becoming its first tenant in December 2016. Its previous headquarters was at 123 North Wacker Drive, also in 2014, the Morton Salt Girl was voted into the Advertising Week Walk of Fame on Madison Avenue in New York City, it is the first girl icon to be inducted. Morton Salt is the sponsor of the Morton Arboretum, a 1, 700-acre botanical garden in Lisle and it was established by Joy Morton, the companys founder, in 1922 to encourage the display and study of shrubs, trees, and vines. About 300,000 visitors a year hike on miles of trails, the worlds largest salt plant, owned by Morton, is located in Manistee, Michigan, USA. Morton Salt is one of three official endorsements by Ron Swanson on Parks and Recreation, as part of their 2016 Walk Her Walk campaign, Morton Salt funded the development of the music video The One Moment by the band OK Go, released on November 23,2016. History of salt Iodized salt Sodium chloride Morton Salt – Official site
34.
Teletype Corporation
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Because of the nature of its business, as stated in the corporate charter, Teletype Corporation was allowed a unique mode of operation within Western Electric. It was organized as an entity, and contained all the elements necessary for a separate corporation. Teletypes charter permitted the sale of equipment to customers outside the AT&T Bell System, the primary customer outside of the Bell System was the United States Government. The Teletype Corporation continued in this manner until January 8,1982, the date of settlement of United States v. AT&T, at that time, Western Electric was fully absorbed into AT&T as AT&T Technologies, and the Teletype Corporation became AT&T Teletype. The last vestiges of what had been the Teletype Corporation ceased in 1990, one of the three Teletype manufacturing buildings in Skokie remains in use as a parking garage for a shopping center. Every other floor of the building has been removed, the other two buildings were demolished. The Teletype Corporation had its roots in the Morkrum Company, in 1902, electrical engineer Frank Pearne approached Joy Morton, head of Morton Salt, seeking a sponsor for Pearnes research into the practicalities of developing a printing telegraph system. Krum was interested in helping Pearne, so space was set up in a laboratory in the attic of Western Cold Storage, Frank Pearne lost interest in the project after a year, and left to get involved in teaching. Krum was prepared to continue Pearne’s work, and in August 1903 a patent was filed for a page printer. In 1904, Krum filed a patent for a type wheel printing telegraph machine which was issued in August 1907, in 1906, the Morkrum Company was formed, with the company name combining the Morton and Krum names and reflecting the financial assistance provided by Joy Morton. This is the time when Charles Krums son, Howard Krum and it was Howard who developed and patented the start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter. In 1908, a working teleprinter was produced, called the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, in 1925, the Morkrum Company and the Kleinschmidt Electric Company merged to form the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company. In December 1928, the changed its name to the less cumbersome Teletype Corporation. In 1930, the Teletype Corporation was purchased by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company for $30,000,000 in stock, while other principals in the Teletype Corporation retired, Howard Krum stayed on as a consultant. Morkrum Printing Telegraph – This was the first mechanically successful teleprinter, a Blue Code Version was used in 1910 as a part of the first commercial teleprinter circuit that ran on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City. In 1914, a Green Code Version was installed using Western Union Telegraph Company lines for the Associated Press and was used to distribute news to competing newspapers in New York City. The Model 11 was a Tape Printer which used gummed paper tape that could be pasted onto a telegram blank and this was the first teleprinter to successfully operate from an airplane. Morkrum Model GPE Perforator – The Morkrum Company Model GPE Green Code Perforator was designed about 1913 and this equipment continued to be produced for the next 50 years
35.
Creed & Company
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Creed & Company was a British telecommunications company founded by Frederick George Creed which was an important pioneer in the field of teleprinter machines. It was merged into the International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation in 1928, the company was founded by Frederick George Creed and Danish telegraph engineer Harald Bille, and was first incorporated in 1912 as Creed, Bille & Company Limited. After Billes death in a accident in 1916, his name was dropped from the companys title. The Company spent most of World War I producing high-quality instruments, among the items produced were amplifiers, spark-gap transmitters, aircraft compasses, high-voltage generators, bomb release apparatus, and fuses for artillery shells and bombs. In 1924 Creed entered the field with their Model 1P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murrays Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code, in July 1928, Creed & Company were merged into ITT. During World War II Creed Company manufactured some of the British Typex machines, the First 50 years History of Nova Scotia Creed and Company Limited
36.
Daily Mail
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The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016. Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month, the Daily Mail has been accused of racism, and printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research. The Mail was originally a broadsheet but switched to a format on 3 May 1971. On this date it absorbed the Daily Sketch, which had been published as a tabloid by the same company. The publisher of the Mail, the Daily Mail and General Trust, is currently a FTSE250 company, the paper has a circulation of around two million, which is the fourth largest circulation of any English-language daily newspaper in the world. Circulation figures according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations in March 2014 show gross daily sales of 1,708,006 for the Daily Mail. According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of Daily Mail readers voted for the Conservative Party, compared to 21% for Labour, the main concern of Viscount Rothermere, the current chairman and main shareholder, is that the circulation be maintained. The Mail has been edited by Paul Dacre since 1992, the Daily Mail, devised by Alfred Harmsworth and his brother Harold, was first published on 4 May 1896. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. The planned issue was 100,000 copies but the print run on the first day was 397,215, Lord Salisbury, 19th-century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, dismissed the Daily Mail as a newspaper produced by office boys for office boys. By 1902, at the end of the Boer Wars, the circulation was over a million, from the beginning, the Mail also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions. In 1900 the Daily Mail began printing simultaneously in both Manchester and London, the first national newspaper to do so, the same production method was adopted in 1909 by the Daily Sketch, in 1927 by the Daily Express and eventually by virtually all the other national newspapers. Printing of the Scottish Daily Mail was switched from Edinburgh to the Deansgate plant in Manchester in 1968 and, for a while, in 1987, printing at Deansgate ended and the northern editions were thereafter printed at other Associated Newspapers plants. In 1906 the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the English Channel, punch magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to Mars, but by 1910 both the Mails prizes had been won. Before the outbreak of World War I, the paper was accused of warmongering when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the British Empire
