1.
Teletext Ltd.
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Teletext Holidays is a British travel company. Teletext Holidays product range features short and long haul beach holidays, city breaks, UK getaways, unlike many holiday websites, that attract a niche audience, teletextholidays. co. uk has retained its mass appeal. Traditionally a price comparison site working with 15+ suppliers, in January 2014 Teletext Holidays began working solely with Truly Travel, Teletext Holidays’ main competitors are considered to be any other supplier of affordable holidays for UK holidaymakers, with a particular focus on short-haul beach holidays. Teletext Holidays fill of 1M hotel room nights annually, positioning the company among the top ten OTAs in the UK market,1970 – Teletext television information retrieval service created in the UK by the Philips lead designer for VDUs, John Adams. 1996 – Teletext published its first website featuring a holidays section included alongside the news,1999 – Teletext launches its Holiday Offers Database and associated entry tools for the UK trade 2001 – teletextholidays. co. uk launches a stand-alone website, offering predominantly package holidays. 2003 – teletextholidays. co. uk’s integrated flights search launches,2005 – teletextholidays. co. uk launched a new integrated hotel search, giving users access to over 100,000 hotels worldwide. This search facility complements the successful product and features accommodation from around the world. A new search function allows customers to search for hotels, apartments or villas, users can also select the number of people per room and display prices for the entire holiday duration rather than per night, as is the case with many other sites. 2006 – An audience of 2.7 million people visits Teletext’s digital services every week, Teletext Holidays is further integrated into holiday advertisers wider marketing campaigns due to banner advertising on holiday index pages directing consumers to its exclusive display pages. 2009 – Victoria Sanders became marketing director 2009 – Teletext Holidays launched online “Sunshine Price Index” for holidays, the index shows typical prices across popular destinations, including the UK, tracking the average prices giving an average daily cost for holidaymakers during their trip. 2010 – Teletext shuts down news and information services on TV to focus on travel,2010 – Teletext Holidays reinvents its brand with the launch of its new website following its analogue services closing
2.
ARD (broadcaster)
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ARD is a joint organisation of Germanys regional public-service broadcasters. It was founded in 1950 in West Germany to represent the interests of the new, decentralised. The ARD is the worlds largest public broadcaster, with a budget of €6.9 billion and 22,655 employees, the budget comes primarily from the licence fees every household, every company and even every public institution like city governments are required to pay. For an ordinary household the fee is currently €17.50 per month, households living on welfare do not have to pay the fee. The fees are not collected directly by the ARD, but by the Beitragsservice, an organization of the ARD member broadcasters, the second public TV broadcaster ZDF. ARD maintains and operates a television network, called Das Erste to differentiate it from ZDF, a. k. a. das Zweite. ARDs programmes are aired over its own terrestrial broadcast network, as well as via cable, satellite, ARD also produces two free-to-air digital channels and participates in the production of cable/satellite channels Phoenix, KI. KA, 3sat and arte. ARDs programming is produced by its members, which operate 54 regional and local radio stations and seven regional TV networks. Deutsche Welle, Germanys international broadcaster, is also a member of ARD, ARD is not owned by anybody, particularly not by Germany. ARD-members like BR are not owned by their Land, either, with the Rundfunkfreiheit, they have an independent position. The winning Allies of World War II determined that German radio after World War II would not broadcast the same propaganda as the pre-war Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft. A federal structure, the renunciation of state influence and the avoidance of economic dependence were to be the key of the radio, the new entity was financed by an obligatory fee which every German household with at least one radio receiver paid. Each station received the money collected in its state, larger ARD members subsidised smaller ones up to a certain extent. In 1947, American military governor Lucius D. Clay declared diversity of opinion as the main aim of post-war media policy. Individuals aligned with the post-war Allied forces in their sectors of Germany had a local influence on local regional broadcasters. NDR cites the influence of Hugh Greene on the years of their organisation. ARD members are free of government influence and rely for only a small part of their income on advertising. They are financed mainly from licence fees from radio and TV owners, the mandated aim of the ARD corporations is not only to inform and to entertain, but also to encourage the integration of various parts of society and allow minorities a say in programming
3.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
4.
Philips
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Koninklijke Philips N. V. is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891, by Gerard Philips and it is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries. Philips is organized into three divisions, Philips Consumer Lifestyle, Philips Healthcare and Philips Lighting. As of 2012, Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues, Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the US$200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, Philips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. The Philips Company was founded in 1891, by Gerard Philips and this first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. In 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative, soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their business by founding the Philips corporation. In the 1920s, the company started to other products. In 1939, they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave, the Chapel is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s. On 11 March 1927, Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI, PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world. The international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, Philips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service. Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station, by the late 1940s, the Type 10 was ready to be handed over to Philips subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be produced and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore, approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. However, they filed a number of patents and amassed a wealth of information. The first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”, in the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today
5.
Subtitle (captioning)
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The encoded method can either be pre-rendered with the video or separate as either a graphic or text to be rendered and overlaid by the receiver. Teletext subtitle language follows the audio, except in multi-lingual countries where the broadcaster may provide subtitles in additional languages on other teletext pages. EIA-608 captions are similar, except that North American Spanish stations may provide captioning in Spanish on CC3, DVD and Blu-ray only differ in using run-length encoded graphics instead of text, as well as some HD DVB broadcasts. Sometimes, mainly at festivals, subtitles may be shown on a separate display below the screen. Television subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing is referred to as closed captioning in some countries. The word subtitle is the prefix followed by title. In some cases, such as opera, the dialog is displayed above the stage in what are referred to as surtitles. Today, professional subtitlers usually work with specialized software and hardware where the video is digitally stored on a hard disk. Besides creating the subtitles, the subtitler usually also tells the computer software the exact positions where each subtitle should appear and disappear, for cinema film, this task is traditionally done by separate technicians. The end result is a file containing the actual subtitles as well as position markers indicating where each subtitle should appear and disappear. These markers are based on timecode if it is a work for electronic media. For multimedia-style Webcasting, check, SMIL Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language, same-language captions, i. e. without translation, were primarily intended as an aid for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Internationally, there are several studies which demonstrate that same-language captioning can have a major impact on literacy. This method of subtitling is used by television broadcasters in China. Same Language Subtitling is the use of Synchronized Captioning of Musical Lyrics as a Repeated Reading activity, the basic reading activity involves students viewing a short subtitled presentation projected onscreen, while completing a response worksheet. Closed captioning is the American term for closed subtitles specifically intended for people who are deaf and these are a transcription rather than a translation, and usually contain descriptions of important non-dialog audio as well such as or and lyrics. From the expression closed captions the word caption has in recent years come to mean a subtitle intended for the hard of hearing, be it open or closed. In British English subtitles usually refers to subtitles for the hard of hearing, however, programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning
6.
Closed captioning
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Closed captioning and subtitling are both processes of displaying text on a television, video screen, or other visual display to provide additional or interpretive information. Both are typically used as a transcription of the portion of a program as it occurs. Other uses have been to provide a textual alternative language translation of a presentations primary audio language that is usually burned-in to the video, hTML5 defines subtitles as a transcription or translation of the dialogue. When sound is available but not understood by the viewer and captions as a transcription or translation of the dialogue, sound effects, relevant musical cues, when sound is unavailable or not clearly audible. The term closed indicates that the captions are not visible until activated by the viewer, on the other hand, open, burned-in, baked on, or hard-coded captions are visible to all viewers. Most of the world does not distinguish captions from subtitles, in the United States and Canada, however, these terms do have different meanings. Subtitles assume the viewer can hear but cannot understand the language or accent, or the speech is not entirely clear, so they transcribe only dialogue and some on-screen text. Also, the closed caption has come to be used to also refer to the North American EIA-608 encoding that is used with NTSC-compatible video. The United Kingdom, Ireland, and most other countries do not distinguish between subtitles and closed captions and use subtitles as the general term, the equivalent of captioning is usually referred to as subtitles for the hard of hearing. In New Zealand, broadcasters superimpose an ear logo with a line through it that represents subtitles for the hard of hearing, even though they are currently referred to as captions. In the UK, modern digital television services have subtitles for the majority of programs, so it is no longer necessary to highlight which have captioning and which do not. Remote control handsets for TVs, DVDs, and similar devices in most European markets often use SUB or SUBTITLE on the used to control the display of subtitles/captions. Regular open-captioned broadcasts began on PBSs The French Chef in 1972, WGBH began open captioning of the programs Zoom, ABC World News Tonight, and Once Upon a Classic shortly thereafter. Closed captioning was first demonstrated at the First National Conference on Television for the Hearing Impaired in Nashville, the closed captioning system was successfully encoded and broadcast in 1973 with the cooperation of PBS station WETA. As a result of tests, the FCC in 1976 set aside line 21 for the transmission of closed captions. PBS engineers then developed the caption editing consoles that would be used to caption prerecorded programs, real-time captioning, a process for captioning live broadcasts, was developed by the National Captioning Institute in 1982. In real-time captioning, court reporters trained to write at speeds of over 225 words per minute give viewers instantaneous access to news, sports. As a result, the sees the captions within two to three seconds of the words being spoken, explaining spelling and grammatical errors and garbled characters
7.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
8.
SECAM
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SECAM, also written SÉCAM, is an analogue colour television system first used in France. It was one of three major television standards, the others being the European PAL and North American NTSC. Development of SECAM began in 1956 by a led by Henri de France working at Compagnie Française de Télévision. The first SECAM broadcast was made in France in 1967, making it the first such standard to go live in Europe, the system was also selected as the standard for colour in the Soviet Union, who began broadcasts shortly after the French. The standard spread from these two countries to many client states and former colonies, SECAM remained a major standard into the 2000s. It is in the process of being phased out and replaced by DVB, work on SECAM began in 1956. The technology was ready by the end of the 1950s, a version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but not introduced. The first proposed system was called SECAM I in 1961, followed by studies to improve compatibility. These improvements were called SECAM II and SECAM III, with the latter being presented at the 1965 CCIR General Assembly in Vienna, further improvements were SECAM III A followed by SECAM III B, the adopted system for general use in 1967. Soviet technicians were involved in the development of the standard, and created their own incompatible variant called NIR or SECAM IV, the team was working in Moscows Telecentrum under the direction of Professor Shmakov. The NIR designation comes from the name of the Nautchno-Issledovatelskiy Institut Radio, two standards were developed, Non-linear NIR, in which a process analogous to gamma correction is used, and Linear NIR or SECAM IV that omits this process. SECAM was inaugurated in France on 1 October 1967, on la deuxième chaîne, a group of four suited men—a presenter and three contributors to the systems development—were shown standing in a studio. Following a count from 10, at 2,15 pm the black-and-white image switched to color, in 1967, CLT of Lebanon became the third television station in the world, after the Soviet Union and France, to broadcast in color utilizing the French SECAM technology. The first color television sets cost 5000 Francs, color TV was not very popular initially, only about 1500 people watched the inaugural program in color. A year later, only 200,000 sets had been sold of an expected million and this pattern was similar to the earlier slow build-up of color television popularity in the US. SECAM was later adopted by former French and Belgian colonies, Greece, the Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries, and Middle Eastern countries. However, with the fall of communism, and following a period when multi-standard TV sets became a commodity, other countries, notably the United Kingdom and Italy, briefly experimented with SECAM before opting for PAL. Since late 2000s, SECAM is in the process of being phased out, some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers
9.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
10.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
11.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
12.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
13.
Broadcasting (networking)
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In telecommunication and information theory, broadcasting is a method of transferring a message to all recipients simultaneously. All-to-all communication is a communication method in which each sender transmits messages to all receivers within a group. This contrasts with the point-to-point method in which each sender communicates with one receiver, in computer networking, broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be received by every device on the network. In practice, the scope of the broadcast is limited to a broadcast domain, Broadcasting a message is in contrast to unicast addressing in which a host sends datagrams to another single host identified by a unique IP address. Broadcasting is the most general method, and is also the most intensive in the sense that a large number of messages are required. Broadcasting may be performed as all scatter in which each sender performs its own scatter in which the messages are distinct for each receiver, the MPI message passing method which is the de facto standard on large computer clusters includes the MPI_Alltoall method. Not all network technologies support broadcast addressing, for example, neither X.25 nor frame relay have broadcast capability, instead it relies on multicast addressing - a conceptually similar one-to-many routing methodology. However, multicasting limits the pool of receivers to those that join a specific multicast receiver group, both Ethernet and IPv4 use an all-ones broadcast address to indicate a broadcast packet. Token Ring uses a value in the IEEE802.2 control field. Broadcasting may be abused to perform a type of DoS-attack known as a Smurf attack, the attacker sends fake ping requests with the source IP-address of the victim computer. The victim computer is flooded by the replies from all computers in the domain, broadcast radiation Point-to-multipoint communication Unicast Encyclopædia Britannica entry broadcast network Network Broadcasting and Multicast
14.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
15.
Teletext
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Teletext is a television information retrieval service created in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s by the Philips Lead Designer for VDUs, John Adams. It offers a range of text-based information, typically including news, weather, paged subtitle information is also transmitted within the television signal. It is closely linked to the PAL broadcast system used in Europe, other teletext systems have been developed to work with the SECAM and NTSC systems, but teletext failed to gain widespread acceptance in North America and other areas where NTSC is used. In contrast, teletext is nearly ubiquitous across Europe as well as other regions. Common teletext services include TV schedules, regularly updated current affairs and sport news, Teletext is broadcast in numbered pages. For example, a list of news headlines appear on page 110. The broadcaster constantly sends out pages in sequence, there will typically be a delay of a few seconds from requesting the page and it being broadcast and displayed, the time being entirely dependent in the number of pages being broadcast. More sophisticated receivers use a memory to store some or all of the teletext pages as they are broadcast. For this reason, some pages are broadcast more than once in each cycle, Teletext is also used for carrying special packets interpreted by TVs and video recorders, containing information about channels, programming, etc. Transmitting and displaying subtitles was relatively easy and it requires limited bandwidth, at a rate of perhaps a few words per second. However, it was found that by combining even a slow data rate with a memory, whole pages of information could be sent. In the early 1970s work was in progress in Britain to develop such a system, the goal was to provide UK rural homes with electronic hardware that could download pages of up-to-date news, reports, facts and figures targeting U. K. agriculture. The original idea was the brainchild of Philips Laboratories in 1970, in 1971, CAL engineer John Adams created a design and proposal for UK broadcasters. A major objective for Adams during the development stage was to make Teletext affordable to the home user. In reality, there was no scope to make an economic Teletext system with 1971 technology, however, as low cost was essential to the projects long term success, this obstacle had to be overcome. Meanwhile, the General Post Office, whose telecommunications division later became British Telecom, had been researching a similar concept since the late 1960s, unlike Teledata which was a one-way service carried in the existing TV signal, Viewdata was a two-way system using telephones. Since the Post Office owned the telephones, this was considered to be an excellent way to more customers to use the phones. In 1972 the BBC demonstrated their system, now known as Ceefax, the Independent Television Authority announced their own service in 1973, known as ORACLE
16.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
17.
MHEG-5
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MHEG-5, or ISO/IEC 13522-5, is part of a set of international standards relating to the presentation of multimedia information, standardised by the Multimedia and Hypermedia Experts Group. It is most commonly used as a language to describe interactive television services, MHEG-5 is a licence-free and public standard for interactive TV middleware that is used both to send and receive interactive TV signals. It allows a range of TV-centric interactive services to be deployed. It is used by Freeview and Freesat in the UK, Freeview in New Zealand, TVB in Hong Kong, Freeview in Australia, Saorview in Ireland and has been specified in South Africa. Recent work by the DTG in the UK has led to the development of the MHEG-5 Interaction Channel, the principles behind the MHEG-IC are to provide a seamless viewer experience of broadcast delivered content augmented with content delivered over IP as an extension of the channel or network. Broadcasters have full control of the user experience. The MHEG-IC gives access to streamed on-demand video content in addition to traditional text, MHEG-5 is an object-based declarative programming language which can be used to describe a presentation of text, images and video. An MHEG-5 application consists of a number of Scenes which the user of the application can move between and these blocks of code consist of elementary actions which can perform operations such as changing the text displayed by a text object, or starting a video clip playing. MHEG-5 specifies a hierarchy of classes that are available to the application author, unlike in object oriented languages, it is not possible for new classes to be defined. The standard defines two representations of MHEG applications, one of which is textual and the other is represented in ASN.1, applications are normally written in the textual notation and then encoded into ASN.1 for interpretation by the MHEG engine. MHEG-5 is suited to programming interactive kiosks and interactive television services, MHEG-5 has been selected as the mandatory interactivity engine for CI+ compliant TVs. The MHEG-5 language itself is just that, a language, to be useful in any particular context, the language needs to be profiled. A broadcast profile of the language has been standardized by ETSI, in the United Kingdom, MHEG-5 is used to provide interactive services for digital television such as the BBCs red button Ceefax replacement service. The full specification of how MHEG-5 is used in the context of the UK Freeview platform is the UK Profile of MHEG-5, MHEG is also used on Freesat for its programming guide in addition to the DVB EIT, as opposed to the OpenTV platform used on Sky. In New Zealand, the profile as in UK is used, with minor additions for the Maori language. The guide receiver key is used to activate the MHEG-5 programming guide, in Australia, this guide practice was adopted for the phase 2 Freeview and VAST receivers referenced by the label Freeview EPG. In Hong Kong, TVB has also selected MHEG-5 for interactive services available on its digital-only channels, Ireland has selected MHEG-5 middleware for interactive services as a recommended feature of its Minimum Receiver Requirements for DTT in Ireland. The name for Irelands free digital service is Saorview, note, You can download the PDF version of above image from http, //mheg5. net/down/class. pdf
18.
Multimedia Home Platform
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Multimedia Home Platform is an open middleware system standard designed by the DVB project for interactive digital television. The MHP enables the reception and execution of interactive, Java-based applications on a TV-set, Interactive TV applications can be delivered over the broadcast channel, together with audio and video streams. These applications can be for information services, games, interactive voting, e-mail. MHP applications can use a return channel that has to support IP. In May 2010 the largest deployments DVB-MHP are in Italy, Korea, Belgium and Poland with trials or small deployments in Germany, Spain, Austria, Colombia, Uruguay and Australia. MHP service was offered in Finland by Finnish Broadcasting Corporation. The shutdown wasnt ever officially announced, ultimately the reason for the shutdown was that MHP never gained critical mass. MHP-capable STBs are no longer available in Finland, the U. S. cable industry has specified its own middleware system referred as OCAP, which is largely based on MHP. Currently, Belgiums largest cable provider Telenet is rolling out their DVB-MHP system, norways upcoming terrestrial digital TV network NTV will also use the DVB-MHP standard. The MHP specifies an extensive application execution environment for digital interactive TV, independent of the underlying, vendor-specific, the interoperable MHP applications are running on top of these APIs. A so-called Navigator-application, which is part of the software, allows the user the access to all MHP applications. Sometimes Navigator can be also a Java program itself but that is not a requirement, the MHP is just a part of a family of specifications, which all base on the Globally Executable MHP -Standard, which was defined to allow the worldwide adoption of MHP. MHP applications come in two flavours, the first type are DVB-HTML applications. DVB-HTML applications are a set of HTML pages that are broadcast as part of a service, the spec is based around a modularized version of XHTML1.1, and also includes CSS2.0, DOM2.0, and ECMAScript. The second, and by far the most popular flavour is DVB-J applications and these are written in Java using the MHP API set and consist of a set of class files that are broadcast with a service. DVB-Java applications are known as Xlets and these are a concept similar to applets for Web pages that has been introduced by Sun in the JavaTV specification. Like applets, the interface allows an external source to start. The MHP set-top boxes may provide a backchannel for applications that wish to communicate with the outside world, typical upstream backchannels are phone line or broadband Internet connection
19.
General Post Office
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The General Post Office was officially established in England in 1660 by Charles II and it eventually grew to combine the functions of state postal system and telecommunications carrier. Similar General Post Offices were established across the British Empire, in 1969 the GPO was abolished and the assets transferred to The Post Office, changing it from a Department of State to a statutory corporation. For the more recent history of the system in the United Kingdom, see the article Royal Mail. Originally, the GPO was a monopoly covering the despatch of items from a sender to a specific receiver. The postal service was known as the Royal Mail because it was built on the system for royal. In 1661 the office of Postmaster General was created to oversee the GPO, the GPO created a network of post offices where senders could submit items. All post was transferred from the post office of origination to distribution points called sorting stations, initially it was the recipient of the post who paid the fee, and he had the right to refuse to accept the item if he did not wish to pay. The charge was based on the distance the item had been carried so the GPO had to keep an account for each item. The first general post office in London opened in 1643, just 8 years after King Charles I legalised use of the posts for private correspondence. It was probably on Cloak Lane near Dowgate Hill, coffee houses in the City such as Lloyds and Garraways organised private transport of mail among their patrons. The Royal Mail moved its headquarters to Lombard Street in the City in 1678 to better curtail such practices, when the Central London Railway was built in 1900 its nearby station was named Post Office. Smirkes building was felt to be too small by this time, however, in 1912, the former GPO East was demolished, the current headquarters of BT, a post World War II building, occupies the site of the old Telegraph Office. The theory was used to state control of the mail service into every form of electronic communication possible on the basis that every sender used some form of distribution service. These distribution services were considered in law as forms of electronic post offices and this applied to telegraph and telephone switching stations. In the mid 19th century several private companies were established in the UK. The responsibility for the electric telegraphs was officially transferred to the GPO on Friday,4 February 1870, overseas telegraphs did not fall within the monopoly. The private telegraph companies that existed were bought out. The new combined telegraph service had 1,058 telegraph offices in towns,6,830,812 telegrams were transmitted in 1869 producing revenue of £550,000
20.
BT Group
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BT Group plc is a holding company which owns British Telecommunications plc, a British multinational telecommunications services company with head offices in London, United Kingdom. It has operations in around 180 countries, BTs origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network. In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, the Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation. British Telecommunications, trading as British Telecom, was formed in 1980, British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming British Telecommunications plc, with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors. The Government sold its stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993. BT has a listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange. BT controls a number of large subsidiaries, BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016. The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016, BTs origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain. Among them was the first commercial service, the Electric Telegraph Company. As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912. These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom, in January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. John Hudson, with his premises in nearby Shudehill. As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together, the first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester. From 1878, the service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company. In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office, in 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services. Those services all folded within a few years, the exception being Kingston upon Hull. Converting the Post Office into an industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer. In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected, in 1961, more proposals were ignored
21.
Viewdata
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Samuel Fedida was credited as inventor of the system. Fedida had the idea for Viewdata in 1968, the first prototype became operational in 1974. The access, request and reception are usually via common carrier broadcast channels and this is in contrast with teletext. Originally Viewdata was accessed with a special terminal and a modem running at CCITT V.23 speed. By 2004 it was accessed over TCP/IP using Viewdata client software on a personal computer running Microsoft Windows. As of 2015, Viewdata is still in use in the United Kingdom, travel agents use it to look up the price and availability of package holidays and flights. Once they find what the customer is looking for they can place a booking, there are a number of factors still holding up a move to a Web based standard. It was made in the late 1970s and early 1980s to make it easier for travel consultants to check availability, some Viewdata boards still exist, with accessibility in the form of Java Telnet clients. Prestel This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document Federal Standard 1037C
22.
Ceefax
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Ceefax was the worlds first teletext information service. It was started by the BBC in 1974 and ended at 23,32,19 BST on 23 October 2012, the service then ceased after 38 years of broadcasting. During the late 1960s, engineers Geoff Larkby and Barry Pyatt, at the Designs Department of the BBC and its object was to transmit a printable page of text during the nocturnal close-down period of normal television transmission. Sir Hugh Carleton Greene, then Director General of the BBC, was interested in making farming, the remit received by BBC Designs Department was the equivalent of one page of The Times newspaper to be transmitted during shut-down. Their system employed a modified, Alexander Muirhead designed, rotating drum, facsimile transmitter and this printer used pressure-sensitive till-roll paper passing over a drum with a raised helix of steel wire. The drum was synchronised with the drum by means of the Start of Page. The combination of rotating helix and oscillating moving blade, with the till-roll paper moving linearly between them, enabled a raster to be drawn on the paper. This early electro-mechanical system was nicknamed BEEBFAX – Beeb was the popular name for the BBC. Initial tests were conducted by sending scans of Christmas Cards over the telephone system from London to Bristol in 1969. The system was less popular in the Designs Department laboratory, due to the clatter of the Muirhead facsimile. Messrs Larkby & Pyatt went on to several improvements using digital technology. Developed by BBC engineers who were working on ways of providing televisual subtitles for the deaf, james Redmond, the BBCs Director of Engineering at the time, was a particular enthusiast. Other broadcasters soon took up the idea, including the Independent Broadcasting Authority, before the Internet and the World Wide Web become popular, Ceefax pages were often the first location to report a breaking story or headline. The display format of 24 rows by 40 columns of characters was adopted for the Prestel system. The technology became the standard European teletext system and replaced other standards, in 1983, Ceefax started to broadcast computer programs, known as telesoftware, for the BBC Micro. The telesoftware broadcasts stopped in 1989, a similar idea was the French C Plus Direct satellite channel which used different, higher speed technology to broadcast PC software. For example, early receivers cannot process the FasText coloured-button hyperlinking data, until 2012, the BBCs Ceefax service was still providing information on topics covering News, Sport, Weather, TV Listings and Businesses. The pages were kept up to date until the UK digital switchover was completed on Tuesday 23 October 2012
23.
Independent Television Authority
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The Authority began its operations on 4 August 1954, a mere four days after the Television Act received Royal Assent, under the Chairmanship of Sir Kenneth Clark. The Authoritys first Director General, Sir Robert Fraser was appointed by Clark a month later on 14 September. The physics of VHF broadcasting meant that a small number of transmitters could cover the majority of the population of Britain. The ITA determined that the first three areas would cover the London area, the English Midlands, and the North of England. Franchises were awarded initially between 1954 and 1961, with the new television stations usually beginning their broadcasting 1-2 years later. In January 1955 the ITA authorised the creation of ITN, an owned and operated by the ITV companies collectively. On 22 September 1955 the ITV service opened in the London area, the first commercial on British television was for Gibbs SR toothpaste. The Central Scotland franchise was awarded to Scottish Television, from three applications, the South Wales and West of England franchise was awarded to Television Wales and the West, TWW, from ten applications. The South of England franchise was awarded to Southern Television, from thirteen applications, the North East England franchise was awarded to Tyne Tees Television, from eleven applications. The East of England franchise was awarded to Anglia Television, from eight applications, the Northern Ireland franchise was awarded to Ulster Television, from four applications. The South West England franchise was awarded to Westward Television, from fifteen applications, the franchise for the English-Scottish Border and the Isle of Man was awarded to Border Television, from two applications. The franchise for North East Scotland was awarded to Grampian Television, the franchise for West and North Wales was awarded to the Wales Television Association, Teledu Cymru, transmitting as WWN, Wales Television. When WWN went on the air on 14 September 1962, the ITV Network was completed, the 1967 franchise review involved substantial changes, All weekday/weekend split franchises were ended except in London. The North of England franchise was split between North West England, awarded to Granada Television, and the three Ridings of Yorkshire to create Yorkshire Television, the new 7-day franchise in the Midlands was awarded to Associated TeleVision. The ITA asked ABC and Associated-Rediffusion to merge, forming Thames Television which was awarded the London Weekday franchise, LWT was awarded the London Weekend franchise. Most controversially, TWW lost its franchise for Wales and the West of England to Harlech Television, the 1967 franchises were subsequently extended in stages to expire in 1976, then 1979, and finally to expire on 31 December 1981. See the entry for the IBA for details of the 1981, history of ITV Sendall, Bernard Independent Television in Britain, Volume 1 - Origin and Foundation 1946-62 London, The Macmillan Press Ltd 1982 ISBN 0-333-30941-3
24.
ORACLE (teletext)
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It was developed and launched by a consortium backed by the Independent Broadcasting Authority at about the same time as the BBCs Ceefax service. Due to the lack of receivers, exact launch dates have been left obscure. ORACLE moved away from being an engineering department and more towards being a content provider. Under the original plans for the ITV franchise renewal, they were to have been scrapped at the end of 1992 and the few scan lines they used given to the highest bidder. At various times of the day, ORACLE pages were broadcast in vision, albeit mostly on Channel 4, from 1983 to the start of breakfast television in April 1989, the 4-Tel magazine ran for 15 minutes and was repeated several times each day. However following the start of breakfast television, 4-Tel On View was shown in a block before the start of programmes. Between 1983 and 1989 Channel 4 broadcast pages from the ORACLE service on air, shown in 15 minute bursts, and alternating with 4-Tel On View and showings of the ETP-1 testcard, the pages were seen during the day when Channel 4 was not broadcasting actual programmes. Initially the pages shown were one aspect of the ORACLE service with the subject matter changing every so often. In September 1987 Oracle on View became a service, adopting this format at the same time that Channel 4 expanded its broadcast hours to accommodate the transfer of ITV Schools to Channel 4. Oracle On View ended when Channel 4 started broadcasting breakfast television, central was the first company to do this, beginning in April 1986, with Yorkshire following suit at the start of 1987. By late 1988 all of ITV was broadcasting a 24-hour service and many ITV companies introduced a Jobfinder service at this point, however by the mid 1990s all of the Jobfinder services had ended. For a short period, prior to the start of 24-hour broadcasting and these pages mostly consisted of news and information about TV-am. ORACLE began to disappear at 23,31,09 on 31 December 1992 and this process continued until 23,55,55 when it read ORACLE Gone 1978-1992. It was then replaced by the service from Teletext Ltd, ORACLE did not carry television listings beyond its midnight closing time on New Years Eve 1992. It merely stated 00.00 The End of Oracle, Now the Nightmare Begins, park Avenue, a teletext based soap which appeared on ORACLE for several years written by Robbie Burns and Steve Regan. Information and screenshots of Oracle from mb21 Debbies Diary, a bit like Belle de Jour but without the sauce A full capture of Oracle from the last day of service
25.
Prestel
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Prestel, the brand name for the UK Post Offices Viewdata technology, was an interactive videotex system developed during the late 1970s and commercially launched in 1979. It achieved a maximum of 90,000 subscribers in the UK and was sold by BT in 1994. The technology was a forerunner of on-line services today, instead of a computer, a television set hooked to a dedicated terminal was used to receive information from a remote database via a telephone line. The service offered thousands of pages ranging from information to financial data. Prestel was created based on the work of Samuel Fedida at the then Post Office Research Station in Martlesham, in 1978, under the management of David Wood the software was developed by a team of programmers recruited from within the Post Office Data Processing Executive. As part of the privatisation of British Telecom, the team were moved into a Prestel Division of BT, Prestel databases is commonly referred to as the ‘tree structure’. The structure is shown pictorially as a tree with the data considered as ‘leaves’ of the tree. There exists quite a lot of jargon regarding such structures but in order to appreciate the concept it is necessary to mention just the node, page and frame. Nodes are the pages in the tree at which a number of choices can be made leading to other nodes or to the information itself. Pages are the levels in the tree and contain the actual data-these may be divided into frames which are really screenfuls of information. Of these, the top line was reserved for the name of the Information Provider, the price and the number. Thus there remained 22 lines in which the IP could present information to the end user, a page should be considered as a logical unit of data within the database and the frame a physical unit. Unfortunately the terms node, page and frame are used synonymously which may lead to some confusion. To the user of course a node is the same as a page, to access a particular item of information, a simple progression down through the nodes to the page is all that is required, and then the frames of that page can be stepped through. This is facilitated by each node displaying up to ten choices, a choice of 9 at node 17 moves the user to page 179. Thus creating page 7471 required pages 747,74 and 7 to exist, pages starting with a 9 were for system management functions, and were limited to three digits in length. E. g. page 92 showed details of the users Prestel bill, available characters consisted of upper and lower case alphanumeric characters as well as punctuation and simple arithmetic symbols, using a variant of ISO646 and CCITT standard. This layout was later formalised in the 1981 CEPT videotex standard as the CEPT3 profile, by embedding cursor-control characters within the page data, it was also possible to encode simple animations by re-writing parts of the screen already displayed
26.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
27.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
28.
Digital Video Broadcasting
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Digital Video Broadcasting is a set of internationally open standards for digital television. The interaction of the DVB sub-standards is described in the DVB Cookbook, many aspects of DVB are patented, including elements of the MPEG video coding and audio coding. Devices interact with the physical layer via a parallel interface, synchronous serial interface. All data is transmitted in MPEG transport streams with additional constraints. A standard for temporally-compressed distribution to mobile devices was published in November 2004 and these distribution systems differ mainly in the modulation schemes used and error correcting codes used, due to the different technical constraints. DVB-S uses QPSK, 8-PSK or 16-QAM, DVB-S2 uses QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-APSK or 32-APSK, at the broadcasters decision. QPSK and 8-PSK are the only regularly used. DVB-C uses QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM or 256-QAM, lastly, DVB-T uses 16-QAM or 64-QAM in combination with OFDM and can support hierarchical modulation. The DVB-T2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in June 2008, ETSI adopted the standard on 9 September 2009. DVB has established a 3D TV group to identify what kind of 3D-TV solution does the market want and need, the CM-3DTV group held a DVB 3D-TV Kick-off Workshop in Geneva on 25 January 2010, followed by the first CM-3DTV meeting the next day. DVB now defines a new standard for 3D video broadcast, DVB 3D-TV, older technologies such as teletext and vertical blanking interval data are also supported by the standards to ease conversion. However, for many more advanced alternatives like DVB-SUB for subtitling are available. The conditional access system defines a Common Scrambling Algorithm and a physical Common Interface for accessing scrambled content, dVB-CA providers develop their wholly proprietary conditional access systems with reference to these specifications. Multiple simultaneous CA systems can be assigned to a scrambled DVB program stream providing operational and commercial flexibility for the service provider, dVB-CPCM has been the source of much controversy in the popular press and It is said that CPCM is the DVBs answer to the failed American Broadcast Flag. By comparison, the rival DigiCipher 2 based ATSC system will not have this issue until 2048 due in part to 32 bits being used, recently, DVB has adopted a profile of the metadata defined by the TV-Anytime Forum. This is an XML Schema based technology and the DVB profile is tailored for enhanced Personal Digital Recorders, DVB lately also started an activity to develop a service for IPTV which also includes metadata definitions for a broadband content guide. The DVB Multimedia Home Platform defines a Java-based platform for the development of consumer video system applications, in addition to providing abstractions for many DVB and MPEG-2 concepts, it provides interfaces for other features like network card control, application download, and layered graphics. DVB has standardised a number of channels that work together with DVB to create bi-directional communication
29.
RSS
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RSS uses a family of standard web feed formats to publish frequently updated information, blog entries, news headlines, audio, video. An RSS document includes full or summarized text, and metadata, like publishing date, RSS feeds enable publishers to syndicate data automatically. A standard XML file format ensures compatibility with many different machines/programs, RSS feeds also benefit users who want to receive timely updates from favourite websites or to aggregate data from many sites. Subscribing to a website RSS removes the need for the user to check the website for new content. Instead, their browser constantly monitors the site and informs the user of any updates, the browser can also be commanded to automatically download the new data for the user. Software termed RSS reader, aggregator, or feed reader, which can be web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based, users subscribe to feeds either by entering a feeds URI into the reader or by clicking on the browsers feed icon. The RSS reader checks the users feeds regularly for new information and can download it. The reader also provides a user interface, the RSS formats were preceded by several attempts at web syndication that did not achieve widespread popularity. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was created by Dan Libby and it was released in March 1999 for use on the My. Netscape. Com portal. This version became known as RSS0.9, in July 1999, Dan Libby of Netscape produced a new version, RSS0.91, which simplified the format by removing RDF elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winers news syndication format. Libby also renamed the format from RDF to RSS Rich Site Summary and this would be Netscapes last participation in RSS development for eight years. Winer published a version of the RSS0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his companys products. A few months later, UserLand filed a U. S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiners request and the request was rejected in December 2001. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of OReilly Media and Moreover and he also released drafts of RSS0.93 and RSS0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn. In September 2002, Winer released a new version of the format, RSS2.0. RSS2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS0.94 draft, to preserve backward compatibility with RSS0.92, namespace support applies only to other content included within an RSS2.0 feed, not the RSS2.0 elements themselves. Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscapes involvement and this has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One product of that debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom
30.
Raspberry Pi
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The original model became far more popular than anticipated, selling outside of its target market for uses such as robotics. Peripherals are not included with the Raspberry Pi, some accessories however have been included in several official and unofficial bundles. According to the Raspberry Pi Foundation, over 5 million Raspberry Pis have been sold before February 2015, by 9 September 2016 they had sold 10 million. Several generations of Raspberry Pis have been released, the first generation was released in February 2012. It was followed by a simpler and inexpensive model Model A, in 2014, the foundation released a board with an improved design in Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+. These boards are approximately credit-card sized and represent the standard mainline form-factor, improved A+ and B+ models were released a year later. The Raspberry Pi 2 which added more RAM was released in February 2015, Raspberry Pi 3 Model B released in February 2016 is bundled with on-board WiFi, Bluetooth and USB Boot capabilities. As of January 2017, Raspberry Pi 3 Model B is the newest mainline Raspberry Pi, Raspberry Pi boards are priced between US$5–35. As of 28 February 2017, the Raspberry PI Zero W was launched, which is identical to the Raspberry PI Zero, all models feature a Broadcom system on a chip, which includes an ARM compatible central processing unit and an on-chip graphics processing unit. CPU speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz for the Pi 3, secure Digital cards are used to store the operating system and program memory in either the SDHC or MicroSDHC sizes. Most boards have between one and four USB slots, HDMI and composite video output, and a 3.5 mm phone jack for audio, lower level output is provided by a number of GPIO pins which support common protocols like I²C. The B-models have an 8P8C Ethernet port and the Pi 3 and Pi Zero W have on board Wi-Fi 802. 11n and Bluetooth. The Foundation provides Raspbian, a Debian-based Linux distribution for download, as well as third party Ubuntu, Windows 10 IOT Core, RISC OS and it promotes Python and Scratch as the main programming language, with support for many other languages. The default firmware is closed source, while an open source is available. The Raspberry Pi hardware has evolved through several versions that feature variations in memory capacity and this block diagram depicts Models A, B, A+, and B+. Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero lack the Ethernet and USB hub components. The Ethernet adapter is connected to an additional USB port. In Model A, A+, and the PI Zero, the USB port is connected directly to the system on a chip. On the Pi 1 Model B+ and later models the USB/Ethernet chip contains a five-point USB hub, on the Pi Zero, the USB port is also connected directly to the SoC, but it uses a micro USB port
31.
Set-top box
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They are used in cable television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well as other uses. The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a dish, a coaxial cable. Content, in context, could mean any or all of video, audio, Internet web pages, interactive video games. Satellite and microwave-based services also require specific external receiver hardware, so the use of boxes of various formats has never completely disappeared. Set-top boxes can also enhance source signal quality, however, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most systems. These frequencies corresponded to non-television services over-the-air and were not on standard TV receivers. The box allowed an analog television set to receive analog encrypted cable channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices. Newer televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard converter built-in for selling premium television, several years later and slowly marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these devices. Set-top boxes were made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America. Some have also produced to mute the audio when profanity is detected in the captioning. Some also include a V-chip that allows programs of some television content ratings. A function that limits childrens time watching TV or playing games may also be built in. The transition to terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing television receivers unable to tune. Professional set-top boxes are referred to as IRDs or integrated receiver/decoders in the professional broadcast audio/video industry and they are designed for more robust field handling and rack mounting environments. IRDs are capable of outputting uncompressed serial digital interface signals, unlike consumer STBs which usually dont, advanced Digital Broadcast launched its first hybrid DTT/IPTV set-top box in 2005, which provided Telefónica with the digital TV platform for its Movistar TV service by the end of that year. UK based Inview Technology has over 8M STBs deployed in the UK for Teletext, in IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on an IP network and decoding the video streaming media. In the US and Europe, telephone companies use IPTV as a means to compete with local cable television monopolies. This type of service is distinct from Internet television, which involves third-party content over the public Internet not controlled by the system operator
32.
ASCII
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ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices, most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII was developed from telegraph code and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6,1960, the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists, and added features for other than teleprinters. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, for example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters,33 are non-printing control characters that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, of these, the IANA encourages use of the name US-ASCII for Internet uses of ASCII. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute, there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting, the X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters, renaming some control characters and moving or removing others. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3. 4-1967, then USAS X3. 4-1968, ANSI X3. 4-1977 and they proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems, like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols. This allows digital devices to communicate each other and to process, store. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters,10 numerical digits, ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a function, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is reliable for data transmission. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code, the committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal
33.
Electronics World
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Electronics World is a technical magazine in electronics and RF engineering aimed at professional design engineers. It is produced monthly in print and digital formats and it encompasses a range of issues in the electronics and RF industry, from design through to product implementation. The features are contributed by engineers and academics in the electronics industry, the Marconi Company published the first issue of the journal The Marconigraph in April 1911. This monthly magazine was the first significant journal dedicated to wireless communication, in April 1913, after two years and 24 issues, The Marconigraph was superseded by The Wireless World. An Illustrated Monthly Magazine for all interested in Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony as its first issue was sold on news-stands, with the same issue, publication frequency of Wireless World became weekly. A similar series was published after 1945 utilising the then ubiquitous EF50 RF pentode amplifier valve, with the outbreak of World War II and the expected shortages of paper and other resources, the publication reverted to being monthly, a frequency that it still retains to this day. The title was changed in September 1984 to Electronics and Wireless World, a sister publication was Wireless Engineer which was more of a learned journal than a popular magazine, featuring high quality, technical articles. In October 1945 Wireless World published what became a famous article by Arthur C. Clarke which foresaw the coming of communications satellites in synchronous orbit around the Earth. In his Wireless World article Clarke suggested that three satellites placed in the equatorial orbit at an altitude of 36,000 km, spaced 120 degrees apart. In 1962 NASA launched Telstar 1, the first communications satellite, Telstar 1 lasted only six months, but this paved the way for modern-day communications-there are nearly 900 active satellites in orbit today of which some two-thirds are communications satellites. Clarkes article, Extra-Terrestrial Relays, was Electronic World readers most asked for article to re-print in the centenary edition. The article was featured in the BBCs The Genius of Invention programme broadcast on 7 February 2013. For decades, Wireless World was a place where pioneers in audio, in 1952 it made the first public announcement of the Baxandall tone control circuit, a design now employed in millions of hi-fi systems including amplifiers and effects for musical instruments. In 1955 it published the design of the popular Mullard 5-10 audio amplifier using two EL84 power pentodes in ultra-linear push-pull configuration, in 1975/6 Wireless World published the design of a decoder of broadcast TV Teletext information before the first commercial decoder became available. Later it published regular columns of brief Circuit Ideas, in the August to December 1967 editions a series, Wireless World Digital Computer by Brian Crank, was published. It described how to build a simple binary computer at home. It was constructed entirely from reject transistors, and was intended for teaching the principles of computer operation. In 1977 a series of articles was published based on the design of the NASCOM1 computer, in 1979 they published a design by John Adams for a dual-processor desktop computer which included a novel high-level programming language
34.
Videotex
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Videotex was one of the earliest implementations of an end-user information system. From the late 1970s to early 2010s, it was used to deliver information to a user in computer-like format, typically to be displayed on a television or a dumb terminal. In a strict definition, videotex is any system that provides content and displays it on a video monitor such as a television. A close relative is teletext, which sends data in one only, typically encoded in a television signal. All such systems are referred to as viewdata. Unlike the modern Internet, traditional videotex services were highly centralized and this usage is no longer common. With the exception of Minitel in France, videotex elsewhere never managed to attract any more than a small percentage of the universal mass market once envisaged. By the end of the 1980s its use was limited to a few niche applications. The first attempts at a general-purpose videotex service were created in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, in about 1970 the BBC had a brainstorming session in which it was decided to start researching ways to send closed captioning information to audience. As the Teledata research continued the BBC became interested in using the system for delivering any sort of information, in 1972, the concept was first made public under the new name Ceefax. Meanwhile, the General Post Office had been researching a similar concept since the late 1960s, unlike Ceefax which was a one-way service carried in the existing TV signal, Viewdata was a two-way system using telephones. Since the Post Office owned the telephones, this was considered to be an excellent way to more customers to use the phones. Not to be outdone by the BBC, they announced their service. ITV soon joined the fray with a Ceefax-clone known as ORACLE, in 1974 all the services agreed a standard for displaying the information. The display would be a simple 40×24 grid of text, with some characters for constructing simple graphics. The standard did not define the system, so both Viewdata-like and Teledata-like services could at least share the TV-side hardware. The standard also introduced a new term that all such services. Ceefax first started operation in 1977 with a limited 30 pages, followed quickly by ORACLE, General Telephone and Electronics acquired an exclusive agency for the system for North America
35.
Video capture
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Video capture is the process of converting an analog video signal—such as that produced by a video camera or DVD player—to digital video. The resulting digital data are computer files referred to as a video stream, or more often. This is in contrast with screencasting, in which previously digitized video is captured while displayed on a digital monitor, TV tuner cards have a television tuner with the capabilities to capture broadcast television. The video capture process involves several processing steps, first the analog signal is digitized by an analog-to-digital converter to produce a raw, digital data stream. In the case of video, the luminance and chrominance are then separated. Next, the chrominance is demodulated to produce color difference video data, at this point, the data may be modified so as to adjust brightness, contrast, saturation and hue. Finally, the data is transformed by a color space converter to generate data in conformance with any of several color space standards, such as RGB, together, these steps constituted video encoding, because they encode an analog video format such as NTSC or PAL. Special electronic circuitry is required to capture video from video sources. At the system level this function is performed by a dedicated video capture card. Such cards often utilize video decoder integrated circuits to implement the video decoding process, in the 1990s, and especially with the rise of increased data storage capabilities, videogames began to incorporate video. This could either be using pre-existing full motion video, or otherwise specially acted and recorded bluescreen work, uncompressed video, Practical configuration and recording Convergence Culture. Where Old and New Media Collide, Buying Into American Idol, Henry Jenkins,2006 New York University Press
36.
Telidon
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Telidon was a videotex/teletext service developed by the Canadian Communications Research Centre during the late 1970s and supported by commercial enterprises led by Infomart in the early 1980s. Initially in multiple tests, Telidon failed to demonstrate compelling functionality, Telidon saw limited use after that, in niches like informational displays in airports and similar environments. NAPLPS did appear in other products, notably the Prodigy online service. Telidon had a lasting legacy on the hardware side, its NABTS communications system found re-use years later in WebTV for Windows. Herb Bown is widely considered to be the father of Telidon, Bown had been working in the computer graphics field since the late 1960s, originally using plotters but later moving to video systems. Starting in 1970, Bown and a team at the CRC started working on a Picture Description Instruction format to encode vector graphics information, an interpreter, the Interactive Graphics Programming Language, read the PDI codes and rasterized them for display. By this time the team consisted of Bown, Doug OBrien, Bill Sawchuck, J. R. Storey, a major advantage to this approach is that the data can be sent over common communications channels instead of relying on an 8-bit clean link to the host computer. In 1975 the CRC contracted Norpak to develop an interactive color display terminal based on the new alpha-numeric PDI, the CRC had patented several of the technologies by the end of 1977, a touch-sensitive input mechanism, the basic graphics system, and the interactive graphics programming language. By the mid-1970s several European countries were in the process of introducing videotex, there was considerable interest within the industry, and in the media, suggesting that online services would be the next big thing. The CRC was able to interest the Department of Communications, their superiors within the federal government, in 1979 the DoC formed the Canadian Videotex Consultative Committee to advise the Minister on ways to commercialize the CRCs work, and develop videotext services within Canada. During the same period, the Task Force on Service to the Public was given the job of using Telidon as a way to public access to government information. By late 1979 Norpak had developed a version of the Telidon decoder that was housed in a box about the size of a digital cable set top box. A menu selection keyset, about the size and shape of a contemporary calculator, with the hardware in place, the CRC started working with telecommunications providers to test the system in production settings. Many of the major Canadian carriers expressed strong interest, and a number of test systems were ready to roll out by the early 1980s, the release of Norpacs Telidon terminal led to announcements by broadcasters and news organizations who would be rolling out test systems starting late that year. However, a variety of delays pushed back most of these programs into 1980, services included Telidon, cable telephony, pay TV service using outdoor converters, and low-bandwidth backchannel data services for gas and electrical billing and alarm services. The Telidon services that formed part of Project Ida were created by Infomart and it was hosted on two computers set up in Winnipeg and run by MTS, providing a 4800 baud channel to the in-home terminals. Originally scheduled for January 1980, delays pushed back to mid-year. Ida was followed by several Canadian companies starting similar projects, in early 1980, TVOntario, the educational television channel run by the Ontario government, set up 45 terminals in the Toronto area
37.
CBS
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CBS is an American commercial broadcast television network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major facilities and operations in New York City. CBS is sometimes referred to as the Eye Network, in reference to the iconic logo. It has also called the Tiffany Network, alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of William S. Paley. It can also refer to some of CBSs first demonstrations of color television, the network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc. a collection of 16 radio stations that was purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under Paleys guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, in 1974, CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971, CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated and affiliated stations throughout the United States. The origins of CBS date back to January 27,1927, Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18,1927, with a presentation by the Howard Barlow Orchestra from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates. Operational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, in early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the networks Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchenheim. With the record out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to Columbia Broadcasting System. He believed in the power of advertising since his familys La Palina cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio. By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchenheim share of CBS, during Louchenheims brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A. H. Grebes Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC, which would become the networks flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the relocated to 860 kHz. The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, by the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates. Paley moved right away to put his network on a financial footing. In the fall of 1928, he entered talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures. The deal came to fruition in September 1929, Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time
38.
ExtraVision
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ExtraVision was a short-lived teletext service created and operated by the American television network CBS in the early to mid-1980s. It was carried in the blanking interval of the video from local affiliate stations of the CBS network. It featured CBS program information, news, sports, weather, ExtraVision could also have its pages customized by the local affiliate station carrying it, for such things as program schedules, local community announcements, and station promotions. ExtraVision was discontinued by CBS towards the end of the ’80s, due to the using the NABTS protocol. CBS had begun tests in 1979 using the French Antiope system, the full ExtraVision service began in 1983 on CBS affiliate WBTV in Charlotte, NC, and went nationwide in 1984. It was cancelled in 1986, a year after teletext had also abandoned by NBC. Print advertisement for Extravision Ed Ellers, Teletext in the United States of America
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