1.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
2.
Nathaniel Currier
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Nathaniel Currier was an American lithographer, who headed the company Currier & Ives with James Ives. Currier was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, to Nathaniel and Hannah Currier and he attended public school until age fifteen, when he was apprenticed to the Boston printing firm of William and John Pendleton. The Pendletons were the first successful lithographers in the United States, lithography having only recently invented in Europe. He subsequently went to work for M. E. D. Brown in Philadelphia, the following year, Currier moved to New York City, where he was to start a new business with John Pendleton. Pendleton backed out, and the new firm became Currier & Stodart, in addition to being a lithographer, he was also a New York City volunteer fireman in the 1850s. Nathaniel Currier is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, in 1835, Currier started his own lithographic business as an eponymous sole proprietorship. He initially engaged in standard lithographic business of printing sheet music, letterheads, handbills, however, he soon took his work in a new direction, creating pictures of current events. In late 1835, he issued a print illustrating a recent fire in New York, in 1840, Currier began to move away from job printing and into independent print publishing. In 1850, James Ives came to work for Curriers firm as bookkeeper, Ives skills as a businessman and marketer contributed significantly to the growth of the company, in 1857 he was made a full partner, and the company became known as Currier & Ives. Over the decades, the firm created roughly 7,500 different images, Nathaniel Currier was a Unitarian who first married Eliza West Farnsworth. The couple had one child, Edward West Currier, in 1847, after Elizas death, he married Lura Ormsbee. Currier was a friend of P. T. Barnum of Barnum, Currier was fond of fast horses, and several were kept at his Massachusetts residence in a barn he purchased, ordered dismantled, and had delivered by horse to his estate. Currier retired from his firm in 1880, and turned the business over to his son Edward and he died eight years later on November 20,1888, at his beloved home on Lions Mouth Road in Amesbury, Massachusetts. The Currier & Ives Foundation Green-Wood Cemetery Burial Search Linda S. Chase
3.
Social movement
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Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change, modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. However, others point out many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U. S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement, the systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements, there is no single consensus definition of a social movement. For Tilly, social movements are a vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and he specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social movement, -it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, the Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon
4.
Temperance (virtue)
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Temperance is defined as moderation or voluntary self-restraint. It is typically described in terms of what an individual voluntarily refrains from doing, Temperance has been described as a virtue by religious thinkers, philosophers, and more recently, psychologists, particularly in the positive psychology movement. In classical iconography, the virtue is depicted as a woman holding two vessels transferring water from one to another. It was one of the virtues in western thought found in Greek philosophy and Christianity. Temperance is one of the six virtues in the positive psychology classification, included with wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, themes of temperance can be seen across cultures and time, as illustrated here. Temperance is an part of the Eightfold Path. The third and fifth of the five precepts reflect values of temperance, misconduct concerning sense pleasures, the concept of dama in Hinduism is equivalent to temperance. It is sometimes written as damah, the word dama, and Sanskrit derivative words based on it, connote the concepts of self-control and self-restraint. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in verse 5.2.3, states that three characteristics of a good, developed person are self-restraint, compassion and love for all sentinent life, in Hinduism literature dedicated to yoga, self-restraint is expounded with the concept of yamas. According to ṣaṭsampad, self-restraint is one of the six cardinal virtues, the list of virtues that constitute a moral life evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added, some replaced, for example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life, Dhriti, Kshama, Dama, Asteya, Saucha, Indriyani-graha, dhi, vidya, satyam, akrodha. In later verses this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, the shorter list of virtues became, Ahimsa, Dama, Asteya, Saucha, Satyam. This trend of evolving concepts continue in classical Sanskrit literature, Dama with Ahimsa, the scope of self-restraint includes ones action, the words one speaks or writes, and in ones thoughts. The necessity for temperance is explained as preventing bad karma which sooner or later haunts, the theological need for self-restraint is also explained as reigning in the damaging effect of ones action on others, as hurting another is hurting oneself because all life is one. The Greek definition of temperance translates to “moderation in action, thought, or feeling, Temperance is a major Athenian virtue, as advocated by Plato, self-restraint is one of his four core virtues of the ideal city, and echoed by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, “temperance is a mean with regard to pleasures”, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, temperance is prolific. The Old Testament emphasizes temperance as a virtue, as evidenced in both Solomons Book of Proverbs and in the Ten Commandments, with its admonitions against adultery. The New Testament does so as well, with forgiveness being central to theology, with regard to Christian theology, the word temperance is used by the King James Version in Galatians 5,23 for the Greek word ἐγκρατεία, which means self-control or discipline
5.
Teetotalism
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Teetotalism is the practice or promotion of complete personal abstinence from alcoholic beverages. A person who practices teetotalism is called a teetotaler or is said to be teetotal. The teetotalism movement was first started in Preston, England, in the early 19th century, there is some dispute over the origin of the word teetotaler. One anecdote attributes the origin of the word to a meeting of the Preston Temperance Society in 1833, the story attributes the word to Richard Turner, a member of the society, who in a speech said Ill be reet down out-and-out t-t-total for ever and ever. A variation on the account is found on the pages of The Charleston Observer, Teetotalers. --The origin of this convenient word, is, we imagine, known. Hence total abstainers have been called teetotalers, an alternative explanation is that teetotal is simply a reduplication of the first T in total. It is said that as early as 1827 in some Temperance Societies signing a T after ones name signified ones pledge for total abstinence, according to historian Daniel Walker Howe the term was derived from the practice of American preacher and temperance advocate Lyman Beecher. He would take names at his meetings of people who pledged alcoholic temperance, such persons became known as Teetotallers. Some common reasons for choosing teetotalism are psychological, religious, health, medical, familial, philosophical and social, alcoholism, or sometimes it is simply a matter of taste or preference. When at drinking establishments, teetotalers either abstain from drinking completely, or consume non-alcoholic beverages such as water, juice, tea, coffee, most teetotaler organizations also demand from their members that they do not promote or produce alcoholic intoxicants. Methodists also historically abstained from alcohol, though many Methodist denominations no longer teach this, members are also required to refrain from selling such products. A translation of the New Testament, the Purified Translation of the Bible, abstention from alcohol is a tenet of a number of religious faiths, including those of the Sikhs, Baháís, Hare Krishnas, Hindus, Jains, and Meivazhi-ites, Pillays. Khamr is the term for all intoxicants which are prohibited in Islam, a number of Christian denominations also forbid the consumption of alcohol, including the Amish, Seventh-day Adventists, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren members, and Christian Scientists. Many Christian groups, such as Methodists, Mormons, and Quakers, are associated with teetotalism due to their traditionally strong support for temperance movements. However, tenets forbidding the consumption of alcohol are variably practiced, in many Christian denominations, abstinence is not a religious requirement, but the tradition is strong enough to make ritual and recreational alcohol consumption a controversial issue among members. Members of the Salvation Army make a promise on joining the movement to observe lifelong abstinence from alcohol, several authors have conducted research looking at the social and subjective experiences of young people who do not drink alcohol in varied social settings. A2015 study by the Office for National Statistics showed that young Britons were more likely to be teetotallers than their parents
6.
Alcohol law
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Alcohol laws are laws in relation to the manufacture, use, influence and sale of ethanol or alcoholic beverages that contains ethanol. Australia Germany Hong Kong India United Kingdom Some countries forbid alcoholic beverages, people trying to get around prohibition turn to smuggling of alcohol – known as bootlegging or rum-running – or make moonshine, a distilled beverage in an unlicensed still. Canada imposed prohibition at the beginning of the 20th century, in India, manufacture, sale and/or consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar, Gujarat, Manipur and Nagaland, as well as the union territory of Lakshadweep. Prohibition has become controversial in Gujarat, following a July 2009 episode in which widespread poisoning resulted from alcohol that had been sold illegally, all Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region. Dry Days are specific days when the sale of alcohol is banned, dry days are also observed on voting days. Dry Days are fixed by the state government. National holidays such as Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanthi are usually dry days throughout India, two Nordic countries had a period of alcohol prohibition in the early 20th century. In Sweden, prohibition was heavily discussed, but never introduced, replaced by strict rationing and later by more lax regulation, following the end of prohibition, government alcohol monopolies were established with detailed restrictions and high taxes. Some of these restrictions have since been lifted, for example, supermarkets in Finland are allowed to sell only fermented beverages with an alcohol content up to 4. 7% ABV, but Alko, the government monopoly, is allowed to sell wine and spirits. This is also the case with the Norwegian Vinmonopolet and the Swedish Systembolaget, in the United States, there was an attempt from 1919 to 1933 to eliminate the drinking of alcoholic beverages by means of a national prohibition of their manufacture and sale. This period became known as the Prohibition era, during this time, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States made the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages illegal throughout the United States. Prohibition led to the consequence of causing widespread disrespect for the law. In this way, a business was created for illegal producers and sellers of alcohol. As a result, Prohibition became extremely unpopular, which led to the repeal of the 18th Amendment in 1933 via the adoption of the 21st Amendment to the Constitution. Prior to national Prohibition, beginning in the late 19th century, after the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some localities continued to ban the sale of alcohol. Some majority-Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Sudan, and Libya prohibit the production, sale, most countries have drunk driving laws which limit how much alcohol a person can consume before driving a car on a road. The permitted blood alcohol content threshold ranges from 0. 0% to 0. 08%, punishments for violation include fines, temporary or permanent loss of drivers license, and imprisonment. Some jurisdictions have similar prohibitions for drunk sailing, drunk bicycling, in many places in the United States, it is also illegal to have an open container of an alcoholic beverage in the passenger compartment of a vehicle
7.
Prohibition
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The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
8.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
9.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
10.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
11.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
12.
Sabbath in Christianity
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Sabbath in Christianity is the inclusion or adoption in Christianity of a Sabbath day. The first of these provisions was associated in Judaism with the assembly of the people to worship in the Temple in Jerusalem or in synagogues, Early Christians observed the seventh day with prayer and rest, but they also gathered on the first day. By the 4th century, Christians were officially observing the first day, Sunday, as their day of rest, a sabbatarian movement within Oriental Orthodoxy began in the 12th century in Ethiopia and gained movement in the 13th, eventually establishing itself as the norm in that region. The modern Orthodox Tewahedo churches observe a two-day Sabbath, including both Saturday and Sunday, the Hebrew Sabbath, the seventh day of the week, is often spoken of loosely as Saturday. In the Hebrew calendar, however, the new day begins at sunset, the Sabbath therefore coincides with what the Gregorian calendar identifies as Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. Similarly, the first day of the week coincides with Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset, the Sabbath remained on the seventh day in the early Christian church. To this day, the Sabbath continues to coincide with the Hebrew Sabbath timing in the calendars in Eastern Orthodoxy. The current canons of the Roman Catholic Church define a day as beginning at midnight, Early Christians continued to pray and rest on the seventh day. By the second century some Christians also observed Sunday, the day of the week on which Jesus had risen from the dead, Paul and the Christians of Troas, for example, gathered on Sunday to break bread, Soon Christians were observing only Sunday and not the Sabbath. Patristic writings attest that by the century, it had become commonplace to celebrate the Eucharist in a corporate day of worship on the first day. A Church Father, Eusebius, stated that for Christians, the sabbath had been transferred to Sunday. In many places and times as late as the 4th century, they did continue to gather weekly on the Sabbath, often in addition to the Lords Day, no disapproval of Sabbath observance of the Christian festival was expressed at the early church councils that dealt with Judaizing. The Council of Laodicea, for example, mandated only that Sabbath Eucharists must be observed in the manner as those on the first day. Neander has suggested that Sabbath Eucharists in many places were kept as a feast in commemoration of the Creation, the issues about Hebrew practices that continued into the 2nd century tended to relate mostly to the Sabbath. He rejected the need to keep literal seventh-day Sabbath, arguing instead that the new law requires you to keep the sabbath constantly. With Christian corporate worship so clearly aligned with the Eucharist and allowed on the seventh day, a common theme in criticism of Hebrew Sabbath rest was idleness, found not to be in the Christian spirit of rest. This early metaphorical interpretation of Sabbath applied it to the entire Christian life, and after the observance of the Sabbath, let every friend of Christ keep the Lords as a festival, the resurrection-day, the queen and chief of all the days. The 2nd and 3rd centuries solidified the early churchs emphasis upon Sunday worship and its rejection of a Jewish observation of the Sabbath, Christian practice of following Sabbath after the manner of the Hebrews declined, prompting Tertullian to note to Sabbaths are strange and unobserved
13.
Belfast Telegraph
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The Belfast Telegraph is a daily newspaper published in Belfast, Northern Ireland, by Independent News & Media. It was first published as the Belfast Evening Telegraph on 1 September 1870 by brothers William and its first edition cost half a penny and ran to four pages covering the Franco-Prussian war and local news. The evening edition of the newspaper was called the Sixth Late. Its competitors are The News Letter and The Irish News but the editions of the London-based red tops are also competitors. The Belfast Telegraph was entirely broadsheet until 19 February 2005, when the Saturday morning edition was introduced, the weekday morning Compact Edition, launched on 22 March 2005, struggled to replicate the evening newspapers success. Its editorial content has been much more tabloid, with a greater entertainment story count than the evening paper, much prominence is given to English-based sport, and some general features and columns are shared with The Independent and Irish Independent. The paper now publishes two editions daily, Belfast Telegraph final edition and the North West Telegraph which is distributed in Derry, circulation was 109,571 for the period July to December 2002. Circulation was 68,024 for the period January to June 2009, circulation was 49,228 for the period January to June 2013. Circulation was 41,912 for the period January to June 2016, circulation was 40,042 for the period July to December 2016. The Belfast Telegraph is the title of Independent News & Media Ltd. It carries many supplements including, nijobfinder - appears in the paper every Tuesday and Friday, the nijobfinder brand launched its website in December 2008, www. nijobfinder. co. uk, which quickly rose to prominence to provide be the number one Job Site in Northern Ireland. An ad in nijobfinder is read by 466,000 people making it the no 1 resource for finding employment in Northern Ireland, nicarfinder - is the Wednesday supplement, every ad published with nicarfinder is seen by 130,000 people. Nicarfinder launched a new version of their website, www. nicarfinder. co. uk, in May 2012, it has one of the most powerful search engines offering users unique functionality in car search. HomeFinder - the property supplement, focusing on the home - from interior decor, to house prices, propertynews. com is the topmost property website in Northern Ireland, showing thousands of houses currently on the market and content from the Home Finder. Weekend Supplement OutThere Guide - the OutThere guide is printed monthly and is a resource for those socialising around Northern Ireland, family Life - won supplement of the year in the 2016 CIPR NI Media Awards They ceased to print the Irelands Saturday Night sports evening newspaper in July 2008. A sister paper is Sunday Life, also associated is Ads for Free. And the paper holds the contract for The Daily Mirror, The Sun, The Independent, The Daily Telegraph, The Irish Daily Star, The Daily Star. The Belfast Telegraph was named as Best UK Regional Newspaper of the Year 2012 by the Society of Editors Regional Press Awards
14.
Temperance movement in Australia
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The Temperance movement in Australia was a movement that aimed to curb the drinking of alcohol. It had some success in the twentieth century although from the Second World War its influence declined. In Australia, the movement began in the mid-1830s, promoting moderation rather than abstinence. In the 1880s, a significant number of hotels around the country were built as or converted to coffee palaces, with the waning of the influence of the temperance movement, most of these hotels either applied for liquor licenses or were demolished. In the mid-1880s the US-based Womans Christian Temperance Union, a more successful abstinence-oriented movement, the inaugural President of the federated Australasian Womans Christian Temperance Union was Jessie Ackermann, who visited the country in 1889,1891 and 1894. However, the movement failed to bring about prohibition, as happened in the United States, the first state to introduce early closing was South Australia in 1916 as a war austerity measure. New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania followed in the same year, western Australia adopted a 9pm closing time, but Queensland retained the old closing times until it introduced eight oclock closing in 1923. Alcohol was originally banned in Canberra but was made legal again following a plebiscite in 1928, early hotel closing times began being wound back from the 1930s, with the last Australian state, South Australia, doing so in 1967. A legacy of the movement are Melbournes “dry areas” where residents must vote to approve liquor licences in the area. In the 1920s, local opinion polls were taken and residents of these areas voted for the creation of a dry area
15.
Abstinence
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Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food, the practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs, for example, one can abstain from smoking. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, in the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be an act, freely chosen to enhance life. The latter is a state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the life of desire, to a chosen ideal. Hindus observe fast once in a fightnight on the day of Ekadashi. This is done to please Lord Sri Krishna by keeping themselves busy in religious activities on this day, for Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the month of Ramadan. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet, in both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for a prior to taking Holy Communion. Many Traditionalist Catholics abstain from eating meat all Fridays in the year, Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence, the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat. Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol, mormons absstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for spiritual and charitable reasons. The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking. In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Hindus abstain from eating meat, total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism
16.
Preston, Lancashire
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Preston /ˈprɛstən/ is a city and the administrative centre of Lancashire, England. The district obtained city status in 2002, becoming Englands 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth IIs reign, Preston has a population of 114,300, the City of Preston district 132,000 and the Preston Built-up Area 313,322. The Preston Travel To Work Area, in 2011, had a population of 420,661 compared to 354,000 in the previous census. Preston and its area have provided evidence of ancient Roman activity. The Angles established Preston, its name is derived from the Old English meaning priests settlement, in the Middle Ages, Preston was a parish and township in the hundred of Amounderness and was granted a Guild Merchant charter in 1179, giving it the status of a market town. Textiles have been produced since the century when locally produced wool was woven in peoples houses. Flemish weavers who settled in the area in the 14th century helped develop the industry, in the early-18th century, Edmund Calamy described Preston as a pretty town with an abundance of gentry in it, commonly called Proud Preston. Sir Richard Arkwright, inventor of the frame, was born in the town. The most rapid period of growth and development coincided with the industrialisation and expansion of textile manufacturing, Preston was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, becoming a densely populated engineering centre, with large industrial plants. Preston is recorded in the Domesday Book as Prestune in 1086, various other spellings occur in early documents, Prestonam, Prestone, Prestona, Presteton, and Prestun. The modern spelling occurs in 1094,1176,1196,1212 and 1332, the towns name is derived from Old English Presta and Tun, the Tun of the Presta. During the Roman period, Roman roads passed close to what is now the centre of Preston. For example, the road from Luguvalium to Mamucium crossed the River Ribble at Walton-le-Dale, 3⁄4 mile southeast of the centre of Preston, at Withy Trees,1 1⁄2 miles north of Preston, the road crossed another Roman road from Bremetennacum to the coast. An explanation of the origin of the name is that the Priests Town refers to a set up by St Wilfrid near the Ribbles lowest ford. This idea is supported by the similarity of the Paschal lamb on Prestons crest with that on St Wilfrids, when first mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book, Preston was already the most important town in Amounderness. When assessed for tax purposes in 1218 –19 it was the wealthiest town in the whole county and it is the only Guild still celebrated in the UK. Before 1328 a celebration had been held on an irregular basis, after this, there were breaks in the pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series were held from 1542 to 1922. A full 400 year sequence was frustrated by the cancellation of the 1942 Guild due to World War II, the expression every Preston Guild, meaning very infrequently, has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire
17.
Theobald Mathew (temperance reformer)
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Theobald Mathew, was an Irish Catholic teetotalist reformer, popularly known as Father Mathew. He was born at Thomastown, near Golden, County Tipperary and he received his schooling in Kilkenny, then moved for a short time to Maynooth. From 1808 to 1814 he studied in Dublin, where in the year he was ordained to the priesthood. Having entered the Capuchin order, after a period of service at Kilkenny. Statues of Mathew stand on St. Patricks Street, Cork by JH Foley, Mathew Bridge in Limerick City which was named after the temperance reformer when it was rebuilt in 1844–1846. The movement with which his name is associated began on 10 April 1838 with the establishment of the Cork Total Abstinence Society, which in less than nine months enrolled no fewer than 150,000 names. At its height, just before the Great Famine of 1845–49, his movement enrolled some 3 million people, in 1844 he visited Liverpool, Manchester and London with almost equal success. His work had a impact on the condition of the people in Ireland, The number of homicides. There were 91 cases of ‘firing at the person’ reported in 1837, the ‘assaults on police’ were 91 in 1837, and but 58 in 1841. Incendiary fires, which were as many as 459 in 1838, were 390 in 1841, robberies, thus specially reported, diminished from 725 in 1837, to 257 in 1841. The decrease in cases of ‘robbery of arms’ was most significant, from being 246 in 1837, the offence of ‘appearing in arms’ showed a favourable diminution, falling from 110 in 1837, to 66 in 1841. The effect of sobriety on ‘faction fights’ was equally remarkable, there were 20 of such cases in 1839, and 8 in 1841. The dangerous offence of ‘rescuing prisoners, ’ which was represented by 34 in 1837, had no return in 1841, the number committed to jail fell from 12,049 in 1839 to 9,875 by 1845. Sentences of death fell from 66 in 1839 to 14 in 1846, Mathew visited the United States in 1849, returning in 1851. While there, he found himself at the center of the Abolitionist debate, many of his hosts were pro-slavery, and wanted assurances that their influential guest would not stray outside his remit of battling alcohol consumption. But Mathew had signed a petition encouraging the Irish in the U. S. to not partake in slavery in 1841 during Charles Lenox Remonds tour of Ireland. Now however, in order to avoid upsetting his friends in the U. S. he snubbed an invitation to publicly condemn chattel slavery. He defended his position by pointing out there was nothing in the scripture that prohibited slavery
18.
Knights of Father Mathew
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The Knights of Father Mathew was a Catholic temperance society that originated in Ireland and promoted complete abstinence from intoxicating liquors. It was founded in Cork in 1838 by Theobald Mathew, a Capuchin friar – generally known as Father Mathew, under his influence, branches the organization spread throughout Ireland, though it was badly disrupted by the Great Irish Famine of 1846 to 1849. Father Mathew also travelled in England and Scotland and in the United States to preach temperance and it is estimated that 7,000,000 took the pledge of abstinence under his influence. Father Mathew began his work in the U. S. in 1849, at time he was entertained by the President and granted a seat within the bar of the Senate. Only one foreigner, General Lafayette, had previously been given that honor and he was also lauded on the occasion by famous statesman Henry Clay. The Knights of Father Mathew organization in the U. S. was established in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1881, it added life insurance as a benefit available to members. Chapters or “councils” were permitted to organize branches of Catholic women that were called Ladies Auxiliaries of the Knights of Father Mathew, the Ladies Auxiliaries were especially active in promoting temperance among children. Both the Knights of Father Mathew and the Ladies Auxiliaries of the Knights of Father Mathew became affiliated with the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America in 1895. Some members were buried with KFM or K. of F. M. - Knights of Father Mathew - or LAKFM - Ladies Auxiliary of the Knights of Father Mathew on their tombstones
19.
Universal suffrage
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The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during
20.
Chartism
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Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1857. Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839,1842, and 1848, the strategy employed was to use the scale of support which these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings demonstrated to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage. Chartism thus relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims, though there were some who became involved in activities, notably in south Wales. The Peoples Charter called for six reforms to make the system more democratic, A vote for every man twenty-one years of age, of sound mind. The secret ballot to protect the elector in the exercise of his vote, no property qualification for Members of Parliament in order to allow the constituencies to return the man of their choice. Payment of Members, enabling tradesmen, working men, or other persons of modest means to leave or interrupt their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation. Equal constituencies, securing the same amount of representation for the number of electors. This sense that the class had been betrayed by the middle class was strengthened by the actions of the Whig governments of the 1830s. Notably, the hated new Poor Law Amendment was passed in 1834, depriving working people of outdoor relief and driving the poor into workhouses, where families were separated. It was the wave of opposition to this measure in the north of England in the late 1830s that gave Chartism the numbers that made it a mass movement. In 1836 the London Working Mens Association was founded by William Lovett and Henry Hetherington, the origins of Chartism in Wales can be traced to the foundation in the autumn of 1836 of Carmarthen Working Mens Association. Both nationally and locally a Chartist press thrived in the form of periodicals, the Poor Mans Guardian in the 1830s, edited by Henry Hetherington, dealt with questions of class solidarity, manhood suffrage, property, and temperance, and condemned the Reform Act of 1832. The paper explored the rhetoric of violence versus non-violence, or what its writers referred to as moral versus physical force and it was succeeded as the voice of radicalism by an even more famous paper, the Northern Star and Leeds General Advertiser. The Star was published between 1837 and 1852, and in 1839 was the provincial newspaper in Britain, with a circulation of 50,000 copies. Like other Chartist papers it was read aloud in coffee houses, workplaces. Other Chartist periodicals included the Northern Liberator, English Chartist Circular, the papers gave justifications for the demands of the Peoples Charter, accounts of local meetings, commentaries on education and temperance and a great deal of poetry. The papers also advertised upcoming meetings, typically organised by local grass roots branches, held either in public houses, readers also found denunciations of imperialism—the First Opium War was condemned—and of the arguments of free traders about the civilizing and pacifying influences of free trade. In 1837, six Members of Parliament and six working men, including William Lovett formed a committee and this set out the six main aims of the movement
21.
Hope UK
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Hope UK is a United Kingdom Christian charity based in London, England which educates children and young people about drug and alcohol abuse. It was founded in 1855 as the Band of Hope, the Band of Hope was first proposed by Rev. Jabez Tunnicliff, who was a Baptist Minister in Leeds, following the death in June 1847 of a young man whose life was cut short by alcohol. While working in Leeds, Tunnicliff had become an advocate for total abstinence from alcohol, in the autumn of 1847, with the help of other temperance workers, the Band of Hope was founded. Its objective was to children the importance and principles of sobriety. In 1855, an organisation was formed amidst an explosion of Band of Hope work. Meetings were held in churches throughout the UK and included Christian teaching, christians and Temperance Societies saw this as a way of providing activities for children that encouraged them to avoid alcohol problems. Signing the pledge was one of the innovative features, the pledge was a promise not to drink alcohol and millions of people signed up. Guy Aldred, the boy preacher was an active propagandist for the Band of Hope, in 1887 the movement had about 1½ million members out of 8 million young people in Britain of Band of Hope age. By 1891 it had 2 million members and in 1897, Queen Victorias Jubilee year, by the early 1950s, however, the temperance movement had all but succumbed to a changing society and cultural habits. Lack of support for the Band of Hope eventually brought about their transformation into Hope UK, Hope UK remains concerned with childrens welfare, giving priority to the development of resources and training for parents and childrens workers of many kinds. Hope UK is a member of The National Council for Voluntary Youth Services, the charity provides training courses across the UK, ranging from short workshops to two-day Open College Network accredited courses. Hope UK’s Drug Educators undergo a 120-hour OCN accredited course to them for leading drug awareness sessions. This course is available for those who want to provide drug education as part of their own work. The charity provides a two-day OCN-accredited Young People, Drugs and the Role of the Youth Worker course for people that work with children and young people. It also provides Drug Prevention for Family Workers, a course for those working in family centres, with parents. Sessions for Church Workers include the application of principles to drug issues, Church drug policies and practice. Hope UK’s Church Leaders’ Pack is also available as a paper resource, Hope UK, registered charity no.1044475. Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator
22.
Constantine, Cornwall
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Constantine is a village and civil parish in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated five miles west-southwest of Falmouth. The electoral ward also bears the name but includes Budock Water. Constantine is named after Saint Constantine, a 6th-century Cornish saint possibly identified with a minor British king Constantine, in pre-historic times, a fogou was constructed near Trewardreva, no-one knows its purpose. The ancient name of Constantine, Langostentyn, implies that the settlement was monastic, little remains of the Norman church, which was rebuilt between 1420 and 1480, the tower has been called impressive. There is a brass of 1574 to Richard Gerveys and family, the chancel was rebuilt in 1862 and there was other restoration work between 1859 and 1901. One restoration commenced in 1874, with the ceremony held on 22 January 1879 by Edward Benson the Bishop of Truro. Andrew Langdon lists twelve stone crosses, or parts of crosses located in the parish, one of these was carved and erected in 1991. Several have been transferred from other sites, the stone cross at the cross-roads in High Cross was found in 1992 and re-erected nearby. Arthur Langdon recorded six Cornish crosses in the parish, in the churchyard, at Bosvathick, at Merthen, at Nanjarrow, at Trevease and at Trewardreva. The land holdings in the parish were the manors of Polwheveral, Trewardreva, Merthen, Tucoys, Treworval and Treviades, the barton of Bonallack, Trewardreva Manor House was built circa 1600 and remodelled in 1719–49, the west wing was demolished in 1860. It is now Grade II* listed, the settlement called Constantine Churchtown grew up around the church. Mineral extraction led to a increase in population and the village expanded down what is now called Fore Street. However, one property, The Bow Window, is thought to be a 300-year-old farmhouse, the villageparish had three main industries, agriculture, mining for tin and copper, and iron, and quarrying granite. The largest mine was Wheal Vyvyan, which was worked from 1827 to 1864, the production figures for copper 1845–1864 and for tin ore, 1855–1864, are given in Cornish Mines. The value of copper raised peaked in 1845,1850 and 1855, the peaks of value in tin ore production were in 1856 and 1863. In 1864, the value of tin raised was only a quarter of the previous years value, in 1921, Alice Hext of Trebah gave the playing field and sports pavilion to the village, in memory of her husband, Charles Hawkins Hext, who died in 1917. She supported the development of the Sport and Social Club until her death in 1939, in 1933, overhead cables, providing electricity to homes were installed in the village
23.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
24.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
25.
Leeds
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Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
26.
Jabez Tunnicliff
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Rev. Jabez Tunnicliff was a minister of the General Baptist Church in England. He was the founder of the Band of Hope temperance movement, Jabez Tunnicliff was born on 7 February 1809, the second surviving son of John Tunnicliff. Of 22 children, only Jabez, his older brother William and his father was a boot and shoe maker in Wolverhampton. He was apprenticed at age 13 to learn japanning, and used this skill to support himself as a painter, while still apprenticed, he secretly married Mary Ann, a young lady in the church he attended. Theirs was a marriage, but their youth made it financially difficult. Jabez Tunnicliff died at 2,45 p. m. on Thursday,15 June 1865 and his funeral was the following Sunday at Burmantofts Cemetery, with an estimated 15,000 people present. The Leeds Express for 25 June 1865 reports that about 1,100 temperance supporters walked through the following the coffin. In 1832, Jabez Tunnicliff was invited to become the minister of Cradley Baptist Church, however, in February 1833 he began to question the Calvinistic teaching, and left in November 1833. In December 1833 he and about 30 others began meeting and formed Cradley Heath Baptist Church, while fundraising for the new building at Cradley Heath, he was asked to become the minister of Longford Baptist Church, where he had a successful ministry until 1842. He resigned that pastorate with a view to working in America, during his time at Leeds, Jabez Tunnicliff became an advocate for temperance, and spoke out for this alongside his regular church work. In 1847, in discussion with other temperance supporters, he proposed the name Band of Hope for a new organisation to promote temperance amongst younger people. This arose from the death in June 1847 of a young man through intemperance. The Life and Labours of Jabez Tunnicliff, a History of the Four Ways Baptist Church, Cradley Heath, Staffs
27.
Pub
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as the heart of England, Pubs can be traced back to Roman taverns, through the Anglo-Saxon alehouse to the development of the tied house system in the 19th century. In 1393, King Richard II of England introduced legislation that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold, most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals, the owner, tenant or manager is known as the pub landlord or publican. The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s and these alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for the folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. Herein lies the origin of the public house, or Pub as it is colloquially called in England. They rapidly spread across the Kingdom, becoming so commonplace that in 965 King Edgar decreed that there should be no more than one alehouse per village. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, the Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses,1,631 inns, Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, the latter tend to provide alcohol, but less commonly accommodation. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard, there is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. In North America, the aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, traditional English ale was made solely from fermented malt. The practice of adding hops to produce beer was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century, alehouses would each brew their own distinctive ale, but independent breweries began to appear in the late 17th century. By the end of the century almost all beer was brewed by commercial breweries, the 18th century saw a huge growth in the number of drinking establishments, primarily due to the introduction of gin
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Brewing
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Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a brewer, at home by a homebrewer. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies. The basic ingredients of beer are water and a starch source such as malted barley. Most beer is fermented with a brewers yeast and flavoured with hops, less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava. Secondary sources, such as maize, rice, or sugar, may also be used, sometimes to reduce cost, or to add a feature, the proportion of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Steps in the process include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering. There are three main methods, warm, cool and spontaneous. Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel, there are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and Yorkshire Square. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform from ancient Mesopotamia. Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that brewing alcohol was primary an activity engaged in by women, chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Ale produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion litres are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006
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Ale
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Ale is a type of beer brewed using a warm fermentation method, resulting in a sweet, full-bodied and fruity taste. Historically, the referred to a drink brewed without hops. As with most beers, ale typically has an agent to balance the sweetness of the malt. Ale was originally bittered with gruit, a mixture of herbs or spices boiled in the wort before fermentation, later, hops replaced gruit as the bittering agent. Small beer would have been consumed daily by almost everyone, including children, in the medieval world, the lower cost for proprietors combined with the lower taxes levied on small beer led to the selling of beer labeled strong beer that had actually been diluted with small beer. In medieval times, ale may have been safer to drink than most water, however, the alcohol, hops, and some ingredients in gruit used to preserve some ales may have contributed to their lower load of pathogens, when compared to water. However, ale was largely due to the hours of boiling required in production. Brewing ale in the Middle Ages was a local industry primarily pursued by women, brewsters, or alewives, would brew in the home for both domestic consumption and small scale commercial sale. Brewsters provided a supplemental income for families, however, only in select few cases. The word ale is related to the Old English alu or ealu and it is believed to stem from Proto-Indo-European root *alu-, through Proto-Germanic *aluth-. Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C. Brown ales tend to be lightly hopped, and fairly mildly flavoured, often with a nutty taste. In the south of England they are brown, around 3-3. 5% alcohol and quite sweet, in the north they are red-brown,4. 5-5%. English brown ales first appeared in the early 1900s, with Manns Brown Ale and Newcastle Brown Ale as the best-known examples. The style became popular with homebrewers in North America in the early 1980s, Petes Wicked Ale is an example, similar to the English original, Pale ale was a term used for beers made from malt dried with coke. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, by 1784 advertisements were appearing in the Calcutta Gazette for light and excellent pale ale. By 1830 onward the expressions bitter and pale ale were synonymous, breweries would tend to designate beers as pale ale, though customers would commonly refer to the same beers as bitter. It is thought that customers used the term bitter to differentiate these pale ales from other less noticeably hopped beers such as porter and these beers would normally spoil during transportation. To avoid the spoilage, hops were added extra as a natural preservative and this beer was the first of a style of export ale that became known as India Pale Ale or IPA
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Porter (beer)
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Porter is a dark style of beer developed in London from well-hopped beers made from brown malt. The name was first recorded in the 18th century, and is thought to come from its popularity with street, the history and development of stout and porter are intertwined. The name stout as used for a beer is believed to have come about because strong porters were marketed under such names as Extra Porter, Double Porter. The term Stout Porter would later be shortened to just Stout, for example, Guinness Extra Stout was originally called Extra Superior Porter and was only given the name Extra Stout in 1840. In 1802 John Feltham wrote a version of the history of porter that has used as the basis for most writings on the topic. Very little of Felthams story is backed up by contemporary evidence, Feltham badly misinterpreted parts of the text, mainly due to his unfamiliarity with 18th-century brewing terminology. Feltham claimed that in 18th-century London a popular beverage called three threads was made consisting of a third of a pint each of ale, beer and twopenny. About 1730, Feltham said, a brewer called Harwood made a beer called Entire or Entire butt. Porter is mentioned as early as 1721, but no writer before Feltham says it was made to replicate three threads, instead, it seems to be a more-aged development of the brown beers already being made in London. Before 1700, London brewers sent out their very young. Porter was the first beer to be aged at the brewery and it was the first beer that could be made on any large scale, and the London porter brewers, such as Whitbread, Truman, Parsons and Thrale, achieved great success financially. Early London porters were strong beers by modern standards, early trials with the hydrometer in the 1770s recorded porter as having an OG of 1.071 and 6. 6% ABV. Increased taxation during the Napoleonic Wars pushed its gravity down to around 1.055, the popularity of the style prompted brewers to produce porters in a wide variety of strengths. These started with Single Stout Porter at around 1.066, Double Stout Porter at 1.072, Triple Stout Porter at 1.078 and Imperial Stout Porter at 1.095, as the 19th century progressed the porter suffix was gradually dropped. The large London porter breweries pioneered many advances, such as the use of the thermometer. The use of the latter transformed the nature of porter, the first porters were brewed from 100% brown malt. Now brewers were able to measure the yield of the malt they used. When the malt tax was increased to pay for the Napoleonic War
31.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
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Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
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Maine law
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The Maine Law, passed in 1851 in Maine, was one of the first statutory implementations of the developing temperance movement in the United States. Temperance activist and mayor of Portland, Maine, Neal Dow helped craft the Maine liquor law, known as dry states, these states were the opposite of wet states, where no prohibition laws existed. The act was unpopular with many working people and immigrants. Opposition to the law turned violent in Portland, Maine on June 2,1855 during an incident known as the Portland Rum Riot, opponents of the Maine Law stormed Portland City Hall because they thought Mayor Dow was keeping liquor in the basement. Newspapers reported that Dow ordered rioters to be fired upon, killing one, the riot was a contributing factor to the law being repealed in 1856. However, despite repeal, prohibition was re-enacted in various forms, the Maine Law gained recognition internationally and was the inspiration for United Kingdom Alliance in Manchester, England. That organization grew and during the late 19th Century a street in Manchester, originally known as Dog Kennel Lane, the street was renamed due to the influence of the Temperance Movement. In February 1855, a second prohibitory liquor law passed by the state legislature, the Massachusetts legislature passed a Maine Law in 1852 which was struck down a year later by that states Supreme Court. Two years later, in 1855, the legislature passed a prohibitory liquor law to avoid the constitutional flaws of the first law. The Rhode Island General Assembly passed its own Maine Law in 1852, Liquor was banned again in 1874 and 1886. When statewide prohibition ended in 1889, the decision was left to the individual cities. Vermonts legislature also passed a prohibitory liquor law in 1852 which was ratified by the people of the state the year after, connecticuts legislature passed a prohibitory liquor law in 1853 but was vetoed by the governor. The next year, with a new governor, the once again passed a Maine Law with a majority in both houses. In 1853, Indiana passed a Maine Law which was invalidated by the supreme court. But in 1855, a new prohibitory liquor law was passed, also in 1853, Michigan passed a prohibitory liquor law which was ratified by 2/3 of the electorate. However, in 1854, the law was declared unconstitutional, the next year the state legislature passed a revised liquor law. In 1854, the people of Texas voted to prohibit the sale of liquor in quantities less than one quart, in 1854, Ohio passed a law forbidding the sale of intoxicating liquor, which was ruled unconstitutional by state appellate courts. However, in 1855, the Ohio State Supreme Court overturned the court rulings
34.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
35.
Anti-Saloon League
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The Anti-Saloon League was the leading organization lobbying for prohibition in the United States in the early 20th century. It concentrated on legislation, and cared about how legislators voted, founded as a state society in Oberlin, Ohio, in 1893, its influence spread rapidly. Its triumph was nationwide prohibition locked into the Constitution with passage of the 18th Amendment in 1920 and it was decisively defeated when Prohibition was repealed in 1933. It continued however, and is known as the American Council on Alcohol Problems. The League was the first modern pressure group organized around one issue, unlike earlier popular movements, it utilized bureaucratic methods learned from business to build a strong organization. The Leagues founder and first leader, Howard Hyde Russell, believed that the best leadership was selected, Russell built from the bottom up, shaping local leagues and raising the most promising young men to leadership at the local and state levels. This organizational strategy reinvigorated the temperance movement, the Leagues most prominent leader was Wayne Wheeler, although both Ernest Cherrington and William E. Johnson, were also highly influential and powerful. The League used pressure politics in legislative politics, which it is credited with developing, when it came to fighting wet candidates, especially as Al Smith in the presidential election of 1928, the League was less effective because its audience was already Republican. The League also used based on patriotism, efficiency and anti-German sentiment in World War I. The activists saw themselves as fulfilling their religious duty of eliminating liquor in America. Lamme explores the public relations approach used by the League as it tried to mobilize public opinion in favor of a dry and it invented many of the modern techniques of public relations. The League lobbied at all levels of government for legislation to prohibit the manufacture or import of spirits, beer, ministers had launched several efforts to close Arizona saloons after the 1906 creation of League chapters in Yuma, Tucson, and Phoenix. A League organizer from New York arrived in 1909, but the Phoenix chapter was stymied by local-option elections, League members pressured local police to take licenses from establishments that violated closing hours or served women and minors, and they provided witnesses to testify about these violations. One witness was Frank Shindelbower, a juvenile from a poor family, however owners discovered that Shindelbower had perjured himself, and he was imprisoned. After the Arizona Gazette and other newspapers pictured Shindelbower as the innocent tool of the Anti-Saloon League, at the state level, the League had mixed results, usually doing best in rural and southern states. It made little headway in larger cities, or among liturgical church members such as Catholics, Jews, Episcopalians, pegram explains its success in Illinois under William Hamilton Anderson. From 1900 and 1905 the League worked to obtain a local option referendum law, local Option was passed in 1907 and by 191040 of Illinois 102 counties and 1,059 of the states townships and precincts had become dry, including some Protestant areas around Chicago. Pegram uses its failure in Maryland to explore the relationship between Southern Progressivism and national progressivism, the Maryland leader 1907-14 was William H. Anderson, but he was unable to adapt to local conditions, such as the large German element
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Dry county
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A dry county is a county in the United States whose government forbids the sale of any kind of alcoholic beverages. Some prohibit off-premises sale, some prohibit on-premises sale, and some prohibit both, hundreds of dry counties exist across the United States, a majority of them in the South. A number of smaller jurisdictions also exist, such as cities, towns, and townships and these are known as dry cities, dry towns, or dry townships. Although the 21st Amendment repeals nationwide prohibition in the United States, many dry communities do not prohibit the consumption of alcohol, which could potentially cause a loss of profits and taxes from the sale of alcohol to their residents in wet areas. While state law does not allow for dry counties, laws designed to restrict the sale, consumption of alcohol is discouraged by the LDS Church. However, one states ban on alcohol may not impede interstate commerce between states that permit it, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Granholm v. Heald that states do not have the power to regulate interstate shipments of alcoholic beverages. Even prior to Amtrak, when the Santa Fe Railways Super Chief passed through Kansas, the bar closed for the duration of the transit, but the alcohol stayed on board. A2004 survey by the National Alcohol Beverage Control Association found that more than 500 municipalities in the United States are dry, thirty-six of the 82 counties in Mississippi are dry or partially dry. In Florida, three of its 67 counties are dry, all of which are located in the part of the state. A study of Arkansas noted that wet and dry counties are often adjacent, other researchers have pointed to the same phenomenon. Winn and Giacopassi observed that residents of wet counties most likely have shorter distances between home and drinking establishments.8 per 10,000 people, conversely, wet counties had 1.9 per 10,000 people. Another issue a dry city or county may face is the loss of tax revenue because drinkers are willing to drive across city, county or even state lines to obtain alcohol. Counties in Texas have experienced this problem, which led to some of its residents to vote towards going wet to see their towns come back to life commercially. Although the idea of bringing more revenue and possibly new jobs to a town may be appealing from an economic standpoint, one study finds that the shift from bans on alcohol to legalization causes an increase in crime. The study finds that a 10% increase in drinking establishments is associated with a 3 to 5% increase in violent crime, the estimated relationship between drinking establishments and property crime is also positive, although smaller in magnitude. During the eight-year run of The Andy Griffith Show and the subsequent three-year run of Mayberry R. F. D, the fictional Mayberry County, North Carolina, where Mayberry was located, was established to have been a dry county. A running gag on the show portrayed the Otis Campbell character as constantly ending up in due to his drunkenness. Otis was drunk so often, he would let himself into his jail cell using a key stored within reach of the jails two comfortable cells and sleep off the effects of alcohol
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Hill End, New South Wales
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Hill End is a former gold mining town in New South Wales, Australia. The town is located in the Bathurst Regional Council local Government area, what is now Hill End was originally a part of the Tambaroora area, Tambaroora town was a few kilometres to the north of present-day Hill End. In the 1850s the Hill End area was known as Bald Hills, in 1860 a village was proclaimed, first as Forbes, then in 1862 it was altered to Hill End. In the early 1870s Hill End took over Tambaroora as the town in the area. The towns decline when the gold out was dramatic, by 1945 the population was 700. At the 2006 census, Hill End had a population of 166 people, the photographer Beaufoy Merlin recorded daily life in the town at its peak, his photographs can be found in the town museum/visitor information centre. The glass plate negatives are held in the State Library of New South Wales, prior to this event communications took 12 hours by the mail stagecoach to Bathurst. In 1923 a telephone exchange was installed at the Hill End Post Office, other artists who worked there included Jean Bellette. Today, the Hill End artist-in-residence program aims to ensure the continuity of this connection, the Hill End & Tambaroora Gathering Group has been in existence since the 1930s. Their goal is to provide information on the life, the families and events of a bygone era and their website contains transcriptions of many primary records, listing names of the early miners and pioneers, that may not appear in the more mainstream family history resources. The NPWS runs a museum just off the road which contains many original photos. A more extensive museum, the privately owned History Hill, is located a few kilometers from the town on the Bathurst Road, NPWS has installed signs around the town to give visitors an idea of what was once in place on the now empty lots of land. Currently only a handful of buildings remain in their original form, however most of those buildings still serve the purpose they did back during the gold rush. Access to the towns lookouts is via gravel roads, a walking track in the town leads to a mine and other ruins. Metal detectors or gold panning are not allowed within the site, however there is a fossicking area just past the cemetery. The Royal Hotel and the local Bed and Breakfasts offer accommodation, the Bridle Track runs from Duramana directly to the town centre of Hill End. Generally the track can be classified as an easy 4WD track, the Bridle Track begins as a narrow tar-covered road, however it later changes to dirt. Much of the last 20 kilometres is single-lane, part of the Bridle Track is currently closed, after a rockfall has rendered it impassible at Monaghans Bluff
38.
Temperance fountain
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A temperance fountain was a fountain that was set up, usually by a private benefactor, to encourage people not to drink beer by the provision of safe and free water. Beer was the alternative to water, and generally safer. The temperance societies had no real alternative as tea and coffee were too expensive, the National Womans Christian Temperance Union s organizing convention of 1874 strongly encouraged its attendees to erect the fountains in the places that they had come from. The NWCTU advocated public temperance fountains as a means to people from entering drinking establishment for refreshment. Cast-stone statues of Hebe were marketed for use in temperance fountains, in Washington DC the Temperance Fountain was donated to the city in 1882 by Temperance crusader Henry D. Cogswell. This fountain was one of a series of fountains he designed and commissioned in a belief that easy access to drinking water would keep people from consuming alcohol. Under its stone canopy the words Faith, Hope, Charity, atop this canopy is a life-sized heron, and the centerpiece is a pair of entwined heraldic scaly dolphins. Other Cogswell fountains include one still standing in New York Citys Tompkins Square Park and these grandiose statues were not all well received by the communities where they were placed. Washington, DCs Temperance Fountain has been called the citys ugliest statue, although the D. C. statue survived mostly unscathed, the California and Market Street, San Francisco Statue of Henry D. One in Rockville, Connecticut, was thrown into Shenipsic Lake, in Dubuque, Iowa, a statue of Cogswell that sat in Washington Park was pulled down by a group of vandals in 1900 and buried under the ground of a planned sidewalk. The next day the sidewalk was poured and the object was entombed, however, when new sidewalks were recently laid, the statue was not found. Simon Benson, an Oregon lumberman, was a tee-totaler who wanted to discourage his workers from drinking alcohol in the middle of the day, in 1912, Benson gave the City of Portland USD $10,000 for the installation of twenty bronze drinking fountains. As of March 2014, these fountains, known as Benson Bubblers, many of its fountains were sited opposite public houses. The evangelical movement was encouraged to build fountains in churchyards to encourage the poor to see churches as supporting them, many fountains have inscriptions such as Jesus said whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again but whosoever drinketh of the water I shall give him shall never thirst. By 1877, the association was accepted and Queen Victoria donated money for a fountain in Esher. Many fountains, within London and outside, were called temperance fountains or would have a representation of the Greek mythical figure Temperance
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Tompkins Square Park
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Tompkins Square Park is a 10. 5-acre public park in the Alphabet City portion of East Village, Manhattan, New York City. The square-shaped park, bounded on the north by East 10th Street, on the east by Avenue B, on the south by East 7th Street, and on the west by Avenue A, is abutted by St. Tompkins Square Park is named for Daniel D. Tompkins, Vice President of the United States under President James Monroe and he had overseen some early drainage in the locality in connection with minor fortifications in the War of 1812. The park was opened in 1850, in 1857, immigrants protesting unemployment and food shortages were attacked by police. In 1863 the deadly Draft Riots occurred in the park, on January 13,1874, the Tompkins Square Riot occurred in the park when police crushed a demonstration involving thousands of workers. The riot marked an era of labor conflict and violence. The riot occurred in the midst of the Panic of 1873, workers movements throughout the United States had been making demands of the government to help ease the strain of the depression. Organizations rejected offers of charity and instead had asked for public programs that would provide jobs for the masses of unemployed. In 18775,000 people fought with the National Guard when they amassed to hear Communist revolutionary speeches, on April 7,1897, a rabbi was arrested for not obtaining a permit for the performance of Birkat Hachama, a Jewish ritual done once every 28 years. In the middle 19th century the Square included a parade ground for drilling the New York National Guard. The modern layout of the park by Robert Moses in 1936 is said to be intended to divide and that tradition was rekindled as the park became the nursery of demonstrations against the Vietnam War in the 1960s. By the 1980s Tompkins Square Park had become for many New Yorkers synonymous with the increased social problems. The park at that time was a area that contained encampments of homeless people. In August 1988, a riot erupted in the park when police attempted to clear the park of homeless people,38 people were injured. Much of the violence was videotaped and clips were shown on local TV news reports, a punk rock festival has been held in the park in the years since, in commemoration of the event. The park had become a symbol of the problems in the city, against that backdrop, Daniel Rakowitz shocked the neighborhood in 1989 when he murdered Monika Beerle, dismembered her, made a soup out of her body and served it to the homeless in the park. Rakowitz, nicknamed The Butcher of Tompkins Square, was not guilty by reason of insanity. From June 3,1991 to July 25,1992, the park was closed to the public for restoration, but also to keep out the homeless and in attempt to calm tensions
40.
Friendly society
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A friendly society is a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking. It is an organization or benefit society composed of a body of people who join together for a common financial or social purpose. Before modern insurance, and the state, friendly societies provided financial and social services to individuals, often according to their religious, political. These societies are still widespread in parts of the developing world. Before the development of government and employer health insurance and other financial services. Many of these still exist. The current position of the mutual benefit society in Europe is well described in a report from 2012, healthcare mutuals worldwide are coming together in Association Internationale de la Mutualité, a Brussels-based association of healthcare mutuals. In other countries friendly societies have no legal status, which makes that they have to comply to the same rules. In some cases, especially in America, members paid a regular membership fee. If members became sick, they would receive an allowance to help meet their financial obligations. The society might have a doctor whom the member could consult for free, members of the lodge would visit to provide emotional and other support. When members died, their funeral would be paid for and the members of their lodge might attend in ceremonial dress—often, Friendly societies might also organize social functions such as dances, and some had sports teams for members. They occasionally became involved in issues that were of interest to their members. Others were purely financial, with little or no social side, the first mutual savings bank, founded in Scotland in 1810, was called the Savings and Friendly Society. Credit unions and other types of organization are modern equivalents, Friendly Society Brasses were the emblems of village friendly societies or clubs common in the west of England between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The use of brasses as emblems was particularly prevalent in Somerset, Female friendly societies were a common form of friendly society in England during the 19th century e. g. the York Female Friendly Society, founded in 1788. The societies were more common in areas of the country where larger proportions of the population were in employment. In Ireland, friendly societies are registered with the Registrar of Friendly Societies under the Friendly Societies Acts 1896–2014
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Theobald Mathew". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "