1.
Compass
–
A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions, or points. Usually, a called a compass rose shows the directions north, south, east. When the compass is used, the rose can be aligned with the geographic directions, so, for example. Frequently, in addition to the rose or sometimes instead of it, North corresponds to zero degrees, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90 degrees, south is 180, and west is 270. These numbers allow the compass to show azimuths or bearings, which are stated in this notation. The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty, the first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around the early 13th century. The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type and it functions as a pointer to magnetic north, the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field. The needle is mounted on a pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing. When the compass is level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out. In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a parallel to true north. The location of the Earths magnetic poles slowly change with time, the effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to compensate for the magnetic declination. The first compasses in ancient Han dynasty China were made of lodestone, the compass was later used for navigation during the Song Dynasty of the 11th century. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone, dry compasses began to appear around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the magnetic compass. Modern compasses usually use a needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with a liquid
2.
Multi-tool
–
A multi-tool is any one of a range of portable, versatile hand tools that combines several individual functions in a single unit. The smallest are credit-card or key sized units designed for carrying in a wallet or on a keyring, the idea of incorporating several tools in one small portable unit is very old, dating back at least as far as Middle Roman times. Many of these were based around eating, among the earliest contemporary examples is the Swiss Army knife as supplied by makers Victorinox and Wenger. The actual version supplied to the Swiss army includes a blade, a reamer, a bottle-opener–screwdriver–wire stripper. Besides Victorinox and Wenger, many manufacturers now make similar knives. Other versions may include items like a file, tweezers, folding scissors, a tooth pick. There are also versions that have tools for specific sports or outdoor activities like golf. Versions intended for cyclists may have a selection of keys, a selection of wrenches, screwdrivers, a spoke key. Models like the Wenger SwissGrip, Wenger Pocketgrip, Al Mar 4x4, SOG ToolClip, Snap-on, in 1983 Tim Leatherman sold his first Pocket Survival Tool, larger and more robust than a pocket-knife-based tool, and incorporating a set of needle-nosed pliers in a balisong-style mechanism. Too large for most pockets, it came with a belt pouch, today, Leatherman Tool Group manufactures and markets a variety of multi-tool models. In recent years, a number of urban and outdoor multi-tools have sprouted offering non-traditional tools one would not expect to find in a single unit. Substituting a toolbox, these functions include a hammer, spirit level, camera tripod, LED light, lighter, tape measure. Multifunction tools may be specialized for use in certain activities, cyclists may carry a folding tool with multiple screwdriver bits or wrenches to allow adjustment of bicycle fasteners during a ride, or for repairing a broken chain. For sport fisherman, a specialized multitool may combine common functions such as cutting fishing line, crimping weights, a specialized multitool may be used for adjustment, cleaning or minor repair of a firearm in field use. The advantage of a mutlitool is saving weight and space over a set of tools to perform the same functions. Leatherman Gerber Legendary Blades Swiss Army knife Ballpoint pen knife SOG Specialty Knives
3.
Trowel
–
A trowel is typically a small hand tool used for digging, applying, smoothing, or moving small amounts of viscous or particulate material. Common varieties include the masonry trowel, garden trowel, and float trowel, a power trowel is a much larger gasoline or electrically powered walk-behind device with rotating paddles used to finish concrete floors. Numerous forms of trowel are used in masonry, concrete, and drywall construction, masonry trowels are traditionally made of forged carbon steel, but some newer versions are made of cast stainless steel, which has longer wear and is rust-free. These include, Bricklayers trowel has an elongated triangular-shaped flat metal blade, used by masons for leveling, spreading, and shaping cement, plaster, pointing trowel, a scaled-down version of a bricklayers trowel, for small jobs and repair work. Tuck pointing trowel is long and thin, designed for packing mortar between bricks, float trowel or finishing trowel is usually rectangular, used to smooth, level, or texture the top layer of hardening concrete. A flooring trowel has one end and one pointed end. A grout float is used for applying and working grout into gaps in floor, gauging trowel has a rounded tip, used to mix measured proportions of the different ingredients for quick set plaster. Pool trowel is a tool with rounded ends used to apply coatings to concrete. Margin trowel is a small rectangular bladed tool used to move, apply, notched trowel is a rectangular shaped tool with regularly spaced notches along one or more sides used to apply adhesive when adhering tile, or laying synthetic floor surfaces. Other forms of trowel include, Garden trowel, a tool with a pointed, scoop-shaped metal blade and wooden, metal, or plastic handle. It is used for breaking up earth, digging holes, especially for planting and weeding, mixing in fertilizer or other additives. Cathole trowel is used for burying personal waste in the backcountry and they are often made of lighter weight materials than gardening trowels to make them easier to carry. Also, they may have such as ruled sides to measure for proper cathole depth or jagged edges for cutting through roots or frozen soil. Some cathole trowels are also designed to fold-up or collapse into a size for easier storage. Others allow for such as toilet paper to be stored inside the handle. In the United States, there are several preferred brands of pointing trowels, including the Marshalltown trowel, while in the British Isles the WHS4 pointing trowel is the traditional tool
4.
Cathole
–
A cathole or cat hole or sometimes pighole is a pit for human feces. Catholes are frequently used for the purpose of disposing of bowel movements or waste water by hikers and others engaging in outdoor recreation. Catholes must be located at a distance from water sources, to avoid possible bacterial contamination of water via precipitation. It is recommended to avoid concentration of catholes around campsites, filled catholes must be covered with a reasonably thick layer of soil, to prevent access by animals, some of which are coprophagous. The hiking and camping community consider it essential for catholes to be dug a minimum of 30 metres away from sources of drinking water, pit toilet Trowel Hudo Sanitation - instructions from Olympic National Park
5.
Hiking
–
Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails, in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling, hillwalking, and fell walking. The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927, in New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is an activity with numerous hiking organizations worldwide. In the United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, a day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the walking is also used, as well as rambling. In Northern England, Including the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales, fellwalking describes hill or mountain walks, hiking sometimes involves bushwhacking and is sometimes referred to as such. This specifically refers to walking through dense forest, undergrowth, or bushes. In extreme cases of bushwhacking, where the vegetation is so dense that human passage is impeded, the Australian term bushwalking refers to both on and off-trail hiking. Common terms for hiking used by New Zealanders are tramping, walking or bushwalking, trekking is the preferred word used to describe multi-day hiking in the mountainous regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal, North America, South America, Iran and in the highlands of East Africa. Hiking a long-distance trail from end-to-end is also referred to as trekking, in North America, multi-day hikes, usually with camping, are referred to as backpacking. The idea of taking a walk in the countryside for pleasure developed in the 18th-century, in earlier times walking generally indicated poverty and was also associated with vagrancy. Thomas West, an English priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. To this end he included various stations or viewpoints around the lakes, published in 1778 the book was a major success. Another famous early exponent of walking for pleasure, was the English poet William Wordsworth, in 1790 he embarked on an extended tour of France, Switzerland, and Germany, a journey subsequently recorded in his long autobiographical poem The Prelude. His famous poem Tintern Abbey was inspired by a visit to the Wye Valley made during a tour of Wales in 1798 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth. Wordsworths friend Coleridge was another keen walker and in the autumn of 1799, he and Wordsworth undertook a three weeks tour of the Lake District. John Keats, who belonged to the generation of Romantic poets began, in June 1818, a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland
6.
Scouting
–
During the first half of the twentieth century, the movement grew to encompass three major age groups for boys and, in 1910, a new organization, Girl Guides, was created for girls. It is one of worldwide youth organizations. In 1906 and 1907 Robert Baden-Powell, a lieutenant general in the British Army, wrote a book for boys about reconnaissance, in the summer of 1907 Baden-Powell held a camp on Brownsea Island in England to test ideas for his book. This camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement. The movement employs the Scout method, a programme of education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking. Distinctive uniform insignia include the fleur-de-lis and the trefoil, as well as badges, the year 2007 marked the centenary of Scouting worldwide, and member organizations planned events to celebrate the occasion. Scouting virtually started itself, but the trigger that set it going was the 1908 publication of Scouting for Boys written by Robert Baden-Powell, at Charterhouse, one of Englands most famous public schools, Baden-Powell had an interest in the outdoors. Later, as an officer, Baden-Powell was stationed in British India in the 1880s where he took an interest in military scouting and in 1884 he published Reconnaissance. These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft, three years later, in South Africa during the Second Boer War, Baden-Powell was besieged in the small town of Mafeking by a much larger Boer army. The Mafeking Cadet Corps was a group of youths that supported the troops by carrying messages, the Cadet Corps performed well, helping in the defense of the town, and were one of the many factors that inspired Baden-Powell to form the Scouting movement. Each member received a badge that illustrated a combined compass point, the badges logo was similar to the fleur-de-lis shaped arrowhead that Scouting later adopted as its international symbol. In the United Kingdom, the public, through newspapers, followed Baden-Powells struggle to hold Mafeking, and he was urged to rewrite this book for boys, especially during an inspection of the Boys Brigade, a large youth movement drilled with military precision. Baden-Powell thought this would not be attractive and suggested that the Boys Brigade could grow much larger were Scouting to be used and he studied other schemes, parts of which he used for Scouting. In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Baden-Powell a copy of his 1902 book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians, Seton, a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States, met Baden-Powell in October 1906, and they shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols, in the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, in the autumn of 1907, Baden-Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher, Arthur Pearson, to promote his forthcoming book, Scouting for Boys. He had not simply rewritten his Aids to Scouting, he omitted the military aspects and transferred the techniques to non-military heroes, backwoodsmen and he also added innovative educational principles by which he extended the attractive game to a personal mental education. At the beginning of 1908, Baden-Powell published Scouting for Boys in six fortnightly parts, the reaction was phenomenal, and quite unexpected
7.
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
–
Mountaineering, The Freedom of the Hills is often considered the standard textbook for mountaineering and climbing in North America. The book was first published in 1960 by The Mountaineers of Seattle, the book was written by a team of over 40 experts in the field. The book grew out of the climbing course run since 1935 by the Mountaineers, for which the reading material was originally a combination of European works. These were assembled into the Climbers Notebook and published by the Mountaineers as the hardbound Mountaineers Handbook in 1948, by 1955 the rapid postwar evolution of climbing techniques and tools had made the Handbook out of date, and the effort was begun to produce Freedom of the Hills. Nearly 80 major contributors are credited in the first edition and were organized by a committee of 8 editors, the first four editions were only available in hardcover. Chapters The title of the book is a reference to the ancient medieval European tradition of Freedom of the City, the reference implies that with the knowledge in the book, a certain equivalent freedom of the wild mountains can be attained. Ten Essentials Alpine Club Guide Cascade Alpine Guide The Mountaineers Books
8.
Backpacking (wilderness)
–
Backpacking is the outdoor recreation of carrying gear on ones back, while hiking for more than a day. It is often but not always an extended journey, and may or may not involve camping outdoors, in North America tenting is common, where simple shelters and mountain huts found widely in Europe are rare. In New Zealand, tramping is an equivalent term though overnight huts are frequently used, hill walking is the equivalent in Britain, though backpackers make use of all kinds of accommodation, in addition to camping. Backpackers use simple huts in South Africa, similar terms used in other countries are trekking and bushwalking. Backpacking as a method of travel is a different activity, which mainly utilizes public transport during a journey which can last months, backpacking is an outdoor recreation where gear is carried in a backpack. This can include food, water, bedding, shelter, clothing, stove, backpacking trips consist of at least one night and can last for weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned resupply points or drops. A skilled backpacker minimizes their impact on the environment, including staying on established trails, not disturbing vegetation, the Leave No Trace movement ethos is direct, Leave nothing but footprints. Backpackers must always be prepared for difficulties, whether mishaps are experienced or not, the remoteness of backpacking locations can exacerbate any mishap. Survival gear and the skills to use it are paramount, backpacking camps are usually more spartan than campsites where gear is transported by car or boat. In areas with heavy traffic, a hike-in campsite might have a fire ring, an outhouse. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of free of underbrush. In remote wilderness areas hikers must choose their own site, established camps are rare and the ethos is to leave no trace when gone. In some regions, varying forms of accommodation exist, from simple log lean-tos to staffed facilities offering escalating degrees of service, beds, meals, and even drinks may be had at Alpine huts scattered among well-traveled European mountains. In the more parts of Great Britain, especially Scotland. On the French system of long distance trails, Grande Randonnées, backpackers can stay in gîtes detapes, there are some simple shelters and occasional mountain hut also provided in North America, including on the Appalachian trail. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in the Yosemite National Park, long distance backpacking trails with huts also exist in South Africa, including the 100 km plus Amatola Trail, in the Eastern Cape Province. Backpacking is also popular in the Himalayas, where porters and pack animals are often used, backpacking gear begins with a suitable backpack, proper both in size and fit. Next is clothing and footwear appropriate for expected conditions, third is an adequate amount and type of food
9.
Climbing
–
Climbing is the activity of using ones hands, feet, or any other part of the body to ascend a steep object. It is done recreationally, competitively, in trades that rely on it and it is done indoors and out, on natural and manmade structures. Climbing activities include, Bouldering, Ascending boulders or small outcrops, often with climbing shoes, canyoneering, Climbing along canyons for sport or recreation. Chalk climbing, Ascending chalk cliffs uses some of the techniques as ice climbing. Competition Climbing, A formal, competitive sport of recent origins, competition Climbing has three major disciplines, Lead, Bouldering and Speed. Ice climbing, Ascending ice or hard snow formations using special equipment, usually ice axes, techniques of protecting the climber are similar to those of rock climbing, with protective devices adapted to frozen conditions. Indoor climbing, Top roping, lead climbing, and bouldering artificial walls with bolted holds in a climbing gym, mountaineering, Ascending mountains for sport or recreation. It often involves rock and/or ice climbing, pole climbing, Climbing poles and masts without equipment. Lumberjack tree-trimming and competitive tree-trunk or pole climbing for speed using spikes, rock climbing, Ascending rock formations, often using climbing shoes and a chalk bag. Equipment such as ropes, bolts, nuts, hexes and camming devices are normally employed, rope access, Industrial climbing, usually abseiling, as an alternative to scaffolding for short works on exposed structures. Rope climbing, Climbing a short, thick rope for speed, not to be confused with roped climbing, as in rock or ice climbing. Scrambling which includes rock climbing, and is considered part of hillwalking. Sport climbing is a form of climbing that relies on permanent anchors fixed to the rock. Top roping, Ascending a rock climbing route protected by a rope anchored at the top and protected by a belayer below Traditional climbing is a form of climbing without fixed anchors and bolts. Climbers place removable protection such as camming devices, nuts, free solo climbing, Climbing without ropes or protection. Tree climbing, Recreationally ascending trees using ropes and other protective equipment, a tower climber is a professional who climbs broadcasting or telecommunication towers or masts for maintenance or repair. Rock, ice and tree climbing all usually use ropes for safety or aid, pole climbing and rope climbing were among the first exercises to be included in the origins of modern gymnastics in the late 18th century and early 19th century
10.
Map
–
A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes. Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word map comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth, thus, map became the shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world. Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface, in addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc. The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the compass directions in reality. The word orient is derived from Latin oriens, meaning East, in the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with East at the top. Today, the most common – but far from universal – cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map, several kinds of maps are often traditionally not oriented with North at the top, Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the top, labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head. Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centred on Jerusalem with East at the top, indeed, prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemys Geography to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West. Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe, Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe, polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole, the direction North would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian towards the bottom of the page, reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the North is up convention and have south at the top. Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earths sphere onto an icosahedron, the resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation. Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, compass decimal degrees can be converted to math degrees by subtracting them from 450, if the answer is greater than 360, subtract 360. The scale statement may be taken as exact when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, over larger regions where the curvature cannot be ignored we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. Thus for map projections we must introduce the concept of point scale, which is a function of position, although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for all but the most precise of measurements. Large scale maps, say 1,10,000, cover relatively small regions in detail and small scale maps, say 1,10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions, there is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100,000 might well be considered as a medium scale
11.
Global Positioning System
–
The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time
12.
Sunglasses
–
Sunglasses or sun glasses are a form of protective eyewear designed primarily to prevent bright sunlight and high-energy visible light from damaging or discomforting the eyes. They can sometimes function as a visual aid, as variously termed spectacles or glasses exist. In the early 20th century, they were known as sun cheaters. The American Optometric Association recommends sunglasses whenever a person is in the sun. to protect the eyes from ultraviolet radiation and blue light, Sunglasses have long been associated with celebrities and film actors primarily from a desire to mask their identity. Since the 1940s, sunglasses have been popular as a fashion accessory, in prehistoric and historic time, Inuit peoples wore flattened walrus ivory glasses, looking through narrow slits to block harmful reflected rays of the sun. It is said that the Roman emperor Nero liked to watch gladiator fights with emeralds and these, however, appear to have worked rather like mirrors. Sunglasses made from flat panes of smoky quartz, which offered no corrective powers, ancient documents describe the use of such crystal sunglasses by judges in ancient Chinese courts to conceal their facial expressions while questioning witnesses. James Ayscough began experimenting with tinted lenses in spectacles in the mid-18th century and these were not sunglasses as that term is now used, Ayscough believed that blue- or green-tinted glass could correct for specific vision impairments. Protection from the Suns rays was not a concern for him, in the early 1920s, the use of sunglasses started to become more widespread, especially among movie stars. The stereotype persisted long after improvements in quality and the introduction of ultraviolet filters had eliminated this problem. Inexpensive mass-produced sunglasses made from celluloid were first produced by Sam Foster in 1929, Foster found a ready market on the beaches of Atlantic City, New Jersey, where he began selling sunglasses under the name Foster Grant from a Woolworth on the Boardwalk. By 1938, Life magazine wrote of how sunglasses were a new fad for wear on city streets, a favorite affectation of thousands of women all over the U. S. It stated that 20 million sunglasses were sold in the United States in 1937, Polarized sunglasses first became available in 1936, when Edwin H. Land began experimenting with making lenses with his patented Polaroid filter, at present, Xiamen, China, is the worlds largest producer of sunglasses, with its port exporting 120 million pairs each year. Sunglasses can improve comfort and visual clarity by protecting the eye from glare. Various types of disposable sunglasses are dispensed to patients after receiving mydriatic eye drops during eye examinations, the lenses of polarized sunglasses reduce glare reflected at some angles off shiny non-metallic surfaces, such as water. They allow wearers to see into water when only surface glare would otherwise be seen, Sunglasses offer protection against excessive exposure to light, including its visible and invisible components. Sunglasses that meet this requirement are often labeled as UV400 and this is slightly more protection than the widely used standard of the European Union, which requires that 95% of the radiation up to only 380 nm must be reflected or filtered out
13.
Sunscreen
–
Sunscreen, also known as suncream or sunblock, is a lotion, spray, gel or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the suns ultraviolet radiation and thus helps protect against sunburn. Depending on the mode of action, sunscreens can be classified into physical sunscreens or chemical sunscreens, medical organizations such as the American Cancer Society recommend the use of sunscreen because it aids in the prevention of squamous cell carcinomas. Many sunscreens do not block UVA radiation, which does not primarily cause sunburn but can increase the rate of melanoma, the use of broad-spectrum sunscreens can address this concern. Diligent use of sunscreen can slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles. Sunscreens are commonly rated and labeled with a sun protection factor that measures the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin, for example, SPF15 means that 1/15th of the burning radiation reaches the skin through the recommended thickness of sunscreen. Other rating systems indicate the degree of protection from non-burning UVA radiation, Sunscreen use can help prevent melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma, two types of skin cancer. There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing basal cell carcinoma, a 2013 study concluded that the diligent, everyday application of sunscreen can slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles and sagging skin. The study involved 900 white people in Australia and required some of them to apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen every day for four and it found that people who did so had noticeably more resilient and smoother skin than those assigned to continue their usual practices. Minimizing UV damage is important for children and fair-skinned individuals. To date, the current weight of evidence suggests that TiO2, concerns have also been raised about potential vitamin D deficiency arising from prolonged use of sunscreen. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency, however, Sunscreen prevents ultraviolet light from reaching the skin, and even moderate protection can substantially reduce vitamin D synthesis. However, adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, the sun protection factor is a measure of the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, SPF15 means that 1/15th of the radiation will reach the skin. A user can determine the effectiveness of a sunscreen by multiplying the SPF factor by the length of time it takes for him or her to suffer a burn without sunscreen. It is important to note that sunscreens with higher SPF do not last or remain effective on the skin any longer than lower SPF and must be continually reapplied as directed, usually every two hours. The SPF is a measure of skin damage because invisible damage and skin aging are also caused by ultraviolet type A. Conventional sunscreen blocks very little UVA radiation relative to the nominal SPF, according to a 2004 study, UVA also causes DNA damage to cells deep within the skin, increasing the risk of malignant melanomas. Even some products labeled broad-spectrum UVA/UVB protection have not always provided good protection against UVA rays, owing to consumer confusion over the real degree and duration of protection offered, labeling restrictions are enforced in several countries
14.
Headlamp (outdoor)
–
Headlamps may also be used in adventure races. Headlamps are often used by workers in mining, search and rescue, surgeons. Headlamps are usually powered by three or four AA or AAA batteries, systems with heavy batteries are usually designed so that the light emitter is positioned near the front of the head, with the battery compartment at the rear of the head. The headlamp is strapped to the head or helmet with an elasticized strap and it is sometimes possible to completely disconnect a headlamps battery pack, for storage on a belt or in a pocket. Lighter headlamp systems are strapped to the head by a single band. White LEDs were quickly adopted for use in headlamps due to their size, lower power consumption. Power LEDs rated 1 watt or more have displaced incandescent bulbs in many models of headlamps, to avoid damage to electronic parts, a heatsink is usually required for headlamps that use LEDs that dissipate more than 1W. To regulate power fed to the LEDs, DC-DC converters are used in 1W+ lights. This allows the LED to provide brightness that is not affected by a drop in battery voltage, following the introduction of LEDs for headlamps, sometimes combinations of LED and halogen lamps were used, allowing the user to select between the types for various tasks. Carbide lamps were developed around 1900, and remained in use even as electric lamps appeared, the advent of high-efficiency LED lamps eventually displaced incandescent or combustion lamps. Thomas Edison developed electric cap lamps for miners starting in 1914, by 1915 and these included features such as spring-loaded contacts to automatically disconnect broken bulbs. These lamps consisted of a reflector and incandescent lamp and a separate belt-mounted wet-cell storage battery, the battery was sized to power the lamp for the entire working shift. After 12 hours a 1917-era miners lamp produced less than one candlepower and this pattern became popular for similar lamps. Head lamps approved for use in mines are designed not to allow an internal spark to ignite flammable gas surrounding the headlamp. Armytek Petzl Silva Black Diamond Equipment Princeton Tec Zebralight Tiga Magicshine Carbide lamp Flashlight Headlamp Safety lamp Wheat lamp
15.
Flashlight
–
A flashlight or a torch, is a portable hand-held electric light. The source of the light is usually an incandescent light bulb or light-emitting diode, a typical flashlight consists of a light bulb mounted in a reflector, a transparent cover to protect the light source and reflector, a battery, and a switch. These are supported and protected by a case, the invention of the dry cell and miniature incandescent electric light bulbs made the first battery-powered flashlights possible around 1899. Today flashlights use mostly incandescent lamps or light-emitting diodes and run on disposable or rechargeable batteries, some are powered by the user turning a crank or shaking the lamp, and some have solar panels to recharge a battery. In addition to the general-purpose hand-held flashlight, many forms have been adapted for special uses, head or helmet-mounted flashlights designed for miners and campers leave the hands free. Some flashlights can be used underwater or in flammable atmospheres, flashlights are used as a light source when in a place with no power. Early flashlights ran on batteries, which could not provide a steady electric current. Because these early flashlights also used energy-inefficient carbon-filament bulbs, resting occurred at short intervals, consequently, they could be used only in brief flashes, hence the common North American name flashlight. The first dry cell battery was invented in 1887, unlike previous batteries, it used a paste electrolyte instead of a liquid. This was the first battery suitable for electrical devices, as it did not spill or break easily. The first mass-produced dry cell batteries came in 1896, and the invention of electric lights soon followed. Portable hand-held electric lights offered advantages in convenience and safety over torches, candles, the electric lamp was odorless, smokeless, and emitted less heat than combustion-powered lighting. It could be turned on and off, and avoided fire risk. On January 10,1899, British inventor David Misell obtained U. S,617,592, assigned to American Electrical Novelty and Manufacturing Company. This electric device designed by Misell was powered by D batteries laid front to back in a tube with the light bulb. The company donated some of these devices to the New York City police, carbon-filament bulbs and fairly crude dry cells made early flashlights an expensive novelty with low sales and low manufacturer interest. Development of the tungsten-filament lamp in 1904, with three times the efficacy of carbon filament types, and improved batteries, made flashlights more useful and popular. The advantage of instant control, and the absence of flame, flashlights became very popular in China, by the end of the 1930s,60 companies made flashlights, some selling for as little as one-third the cost of equivalent imported models
16.
Fire making
–
Fire making, fire lighting or fire craft is the process of starting a fire artificially. It requires completing the fire triangle, usually by heating tinder above its autoignition temperature, Fire is an essential tool for survival and was important in early human cultural development. Today, its a key component of Scouting and bushcraft, fine tinder is a material that combusts first and in doing so heats other material until it burns. Fine tinder is characterized by its ability to combust from a spark, friction, autognition temperatures of common tinder, Tinder is preserved within a Tinderbox, which today is often a plastic bag. Tinder when formed into a tight bundle can also be used to preserve/carry an ember, often in the form of a cigar and made of compacted tinder materials held within a tinderbox, a smouldering ember could safely be saved inside. Fire occurs naturally as a result of activity, meteorites. Many animals are aware of fire and adapt their behavior to it, plants, too, have adapted to the natural occurrence of fire. Thus, humans encountered and were aware of fire, and later its beneficial uses, natural sources of animal fats and petrochemicals that burn could have been used to keep and maintain fires that started naturally. Fire can be created through friction by rapidly grinding pieces of solid combustable material against each other which are heated, successfully creating fire by friction involves skill, fitness, knowledge, and acceptable environmental conditions. Once hot enough, the ember is introduced to the tinder, more oxygen is added by blowing and this repeated spinning and downward pressure causes black dust to form in the notch of the fireboard, eventually creating a hot, glowing coal. The coal is then carefully placed among dense, fine tinder, the advantage of the hand drill technique is that it requires no rope. The bow drill uses the principle as the hand drill but the spindle is shorter, wider and driven by a bow. Additional downward pressure is generated by the handhold, a pump drill is a variant of the bow drill that uses a coiled rope around a cross-section of wooden stake spin the shaft by pumping up and down a cross-member. The fire plough or fireplow consists of a cut to a dull point. The stake is pressed down hard and rubbed quickly against the groove of the piece in a plowing motion. A split is made down the length of the grooved piece. A fire-saw is a method by which a piece of wood is sawed through a notch in a piece or pieces to generate friction. The tinder may be placed between two slats of wood with the piece or saw drawn over them above the tinder so as to catch a coal
17.
Match
–
A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically, modern matches are made of wooden sticks or stiff paper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by heat generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. Wooden matches are packaged in matchboxes, and paper matches are cut into rows. The coated end of a match, known as the head, consists of a bead of active ingredients and binder. There are two types of matches, safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface. Some match-like compositions, known as electric matches, are ignited electrically, historically, the term match referred to lengths of cord impregnated with chemicals, and allowed to burn continuously. These were used to fires and fire guns and cannons. Such matches were characterised by their burning speed i. e. quick match, depending on its formulation, a slow match burns at a rate of around 30 cm per hour and a quick match at 4 to 60 centimetres per minute. The modern equivalent of this sort of match is the simple fuse, the original meaning of the word still persists in some pyrotechnics terms, such as black match and Bengal match. But, when friction matches became commonplace, they became the object meant by the term. The word match derives from Old French mèche referring to the wick of a candle, but an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of pinewood with sulfur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire they burst into flame, one gets a little flame like an ear of corn. This marvellous thing was called a light-bringing slave, but afterwards when it became an article of commerce its name was changed to fire inch-stick. Another text, Wu Lin Chiu Shih, dated from 1270 AD, lists sulphur matches as something that was sold in the markets of Hangzhou, the matches were known as fa chu or tshui erh. Prior to the use of matches, fires were lit using a burning glass to focus the sun on tinder. Another, more common method was igniting tinder with sparks produced by striking flint and steel, early work had been done by alchemist Hennig Brandt, who discovered the flammable nature of phosphorus in 1669. Smoking tobacco was lit a number of different ways, another was to use a striker, a tool that looked like scissors, but with flint on one blade and steel on the other
18.
Knife
–
A knife is a tool with a cutting edge or blade, hand-held or otherwise, with most having a handle. Some types of knives are used as utensils, including knives used at the dining table, many types of knives are used as tools, such as the utility knife carried by soldiers, the pocket knife carried by hikers and the hunting knife used by hunters. Knives are also used as a traditional or religious implement, such as the kirpan, some types of knives are used as weapons, such as daggers or switchblades. Some types of knives are used as sports equipment, Knives are also used in agriculture, food harvesting etc. the sickle, the scythe and even the combine harvester are knives. Knife-like tools were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. Originally made of rock, bone, flint, and obsidian, knives have evolved in construction as technology has, with blades being made from bronze, copper, iron, steel, ceramics, many cultures have their unique version of the knife. Due to its role as humankinds first tool, certain cultures have attached spiritual, most modern-day knives follow either a fixed-blade or a folding construction style, with blade patterns and styles as varied as their makers and countries of origin. The word knife possibly descends from an old Norse word knifr for blade, single-edged knives may have a reverse edge or false edge occupying a section of the spine. These edges are serrated and are used to further enhance function. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include a tang, Knives are made with partial tangs or full tangs. The handle may include a bolster, a piece of heavy material situated at the front or rear of the handle, the bolster, as its name suggests, is used to mechanically strengthen the knife. Knife blades can be manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages, carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp. It holds its edge well, and remains easy to sharpen, stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel is steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes of carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, laminate blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between a layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, pattern-welding is similar to laminate construction
19.
Bivouac shelter
–
A bivouac sack is an extremely small, lightweight, waterproof shelter, and an alternative to traditional tent systems. It is used by climbers, mountaineers, hikers, ultralight backpackers, soldiers, the bivouac sack has a larger, similar counterpart, called a bivouac shelter. The main benefit of a bivouac shelter is speed of setup. A bivouac sack is a choice for hikers or climbers who have to camp in tight areas or in unknown areas. A drawback of a bivy sack is the humidity that condenses on the inner side leaving the occupant or the sleeping bag moist. A traditional bivy bag typically cinches all the way down to the users face, some modern fabrics are sufficiently gas-permeable that they can be safely zipped up around the users head in order to shut out the elements completely. A more recent development is the shelter or bivy shelter. Often employing hoops over the head and feet, a shelter is held sufficiently taut to keep the fabric off the occupant inside in order to prevent condensation from soaking into bedding. This style of shelter also provides some additional breathing room around the head, many campers gladly accept the increased carrying weight of a bivy shelter for the perceived increase in comfort it affords
20.
Space blanket
–
A space blanket is an especially low-weight, low-bulk blanket made of heat-reflective thin plastic sheeting. They are used on the surfaces of spacecraft for thermal control as well as by people. Their design reduces the loss in a persons body which would otherwise occur due to thermal radiation, water evaporation. Their compact size before unfurling and light makes them ideal when space is at a premium. They may be included in first aid kits and also in camping equipment, lost campers and hikers have an additional possible benefit, the metallic surface appearance flashes in the sun, allowing use as an improvised distress beacon for searchers. For use in space, polyimide substrate is usually employed due to its resistance to the space environment, large temperature range, low outgassing. Aluminized kapton, with thickness of 50 and 125 µm, was used e. g. on the Apollo Lunar Module. The polyimide gives the foils their distinctive amber-gold color, space blankets are made by vacuum depositing a very precise amount of pure aluminum vapor onto a very thin, durable film substrate. In their principal usage, space blankets are included in many emergency, first aid and that, along with their low weight and ability to pack into a small space, has made them popular among outdoor enthusiasts and emergency workers. Space blankets are given to marathoners and other endurance athletes at the end of races. The material may be used in conjunction with conductive insulation material, in first aid the blankets are used to prevent/counter hypothermia. This effect would exceed any benefit gained from heat reflection to the outside. g. for DIY solar projects—and other applications, in addition to the space blanket, the United States military also uses a similar blanket called the casualty blanket. It uses a reflective layer similar to the space blanket. It provides greater durability and warmth than a space blanket at the cost of greater bulk. It is also used as a liner inside the layers of bivouac sacks in very cold weather climates. Space blankets are used by the Taliban to hide their heat signature from NATO forces. Thin-film deposition Thermoregulation Emissivity Thermal insulation Radiant barrier Reflectivity R-value Survival bag
21.
Portable water purification
–
These personal devices and methods attempt to render water potable. Techniques include heat, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, distillation, often these are used in combination. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical additives are available for hiking, camping, untreated water may contain potentially pathogenic agents, including protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and some larvae of higher-order parasites such as liver flukes and roundworms. Chemical pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals and synthetic organics may be present, common metallic contaminants such as copper and lead can be treated by increasing the pH using soda ash or lime, which precipitates such metals. Careful decanting of the water after settlement or the use of filtration provides acceptably low levels of metals. Water contaminated by aluminium or zinc cannot be treated in this way using a strong alkali as higher pHs re-dissolve the metal salts, salt is difficult to remove except by reverse osmosis or distillation. Most portable treatment processes focus on mitigating human pathogens for safety and removing particulates matter, tastes, significant pathogens commonly present in the developed world include Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Shigella, hepatitis A virus, Escherichia coli, and enterovirus. In less developed countries there may be risks from Cholera and Dysentery organisms, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium spp. both of which cause diarrhea are common pathogens. In backcountry areas of the United States and Canada they are present in sufficient quantity that water treatment is justified for backpackers. In Hawaii and other areas, Leptospira spp. are another possible problem. Less commonly seen in developed countries are organisms such as Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera, pathogenic viruses may also be found in water. The larvae of flukes are particularly dangerous in area frequented by sheep, deer, if such microscopic larvae are ingested, they can form potentially life-threatening cysts in the brain or liver. This risk extends to plants grown in or near water including the commonly eaten watercress, in general, more human activity up stream the greater the potential for contamination from sewage effluent, surface runoff, or industrial pollutants. Groundwater pollution may occur from human activity or might be naturally occurring, Water collected as far upstream as possible above all known or anticipated risks of pollution poses the lowest risk of contamination and is best suited to portable treatment methods. Not all techniques by themselves will mitigate all hazards, although flocculation followed by filtration has been suggested as best practice this is rarely practicable without the ability to carefully control pH and settling conditions. Ill-advised used of alum as a flocculant can lead to levels of aluminium in the water so treated. If water is to be stored, halogens offer extended protection, heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water is not necessary to make water safe to drink, boiling does not remove most pollutants and has the potential to concentrate toxins if continued over an extended period
22.
Ice axe
–
An ice axe is a multi-purpose hiking and climbing tool used by mountaineers both in the ascent and descent of routes that involve frozen conditions with snow and/or ice. An ice axe can be held and employed in a number of different ways, in its simplest role, the ice axe is used like a walking stick in the uphill hand, the mountaineer holding the head in the center, with the pick pointing to the rear. It can also be buried pick down, the rope tied around the shaft to form a secure anchor on which to bring up a second climber, or buried vertically to form a stomp belay. The adze is used to cut footsteps, as well as seats in the hillside. The long-handled alpenstock was a predecessor to the ice axe. The ice axe bears similarity in design to a war hammer. An ice axe is not only used as an aid to climbing, most ice axes meet design and manufacturing standards of organizations such as the Union Internationale des Associations dAlpinisme or European Committee for Standardization. There are two classifications of ice axe, Basic and Technical, Basic ice axes are designed for use in snow conditions for general mountaineering, and are adequate for basic support and self-arrest. Technical ice axes, which may have curved shafts, are enough to be used for steep or vertical ice climbing and belaying. An ice axe consists of at least five components, Head – usually made of steel and featuring a pick, a hole in the center is provided for attaching a wrist leash or carabiner. Pick – the toothed pointed end of the head, typically slightly curved, adze – the flat, wide end of the head used for chopping steps in hard snow and ice. Hammer – the hammer is an alternative to the adze for those traveling in softer snow and it can be used as a more comfortable grip, or as a striking hammer. Shaft – straight or slightly angled, typically wider front-to-back than side-to-side, flat on the sides, traditional shafts were made of wood, but are now almost exclusively of lightweight metals or composites. Spike, or ferrule – a steel point at the base of the used for balance. Common ice axe accessories include, Leash – nylon webbing with a loop for securing the axe to hand. Often secured by a ring constrained to slide a limited distance on the shaft, Leash stop – a rubber keeper or metal stud preventing the leash from slipping off of the ice axe. Snow basket – similar to baskets on ski poles, temporarily mounted on the close to the spike to keep the shaft from sinking into soft snow. Pick and adze guard – a cover to protect sharp edges
23.
Whistle
–
An aerodynamic whistle is a simple aerophone, an instrument which produces sound from a stream of gas, most commonly air. It may be mouth-operated, or powered by air pressure, steam, whistles vary in size from a small slide whistle or nose flute type to a large multi-piped church organ. Whistles have been around since humans first carved out a gourd or branch. In prehistoric Egypt, small shells were used as whistles, many present day wind instruments are inheritors of these early whistles. With the rise of mechanical power, other forms of whistles have been developed. One characteristic of a whistle is that it creates a pure, or nearly pure, there are many ways to create pure tones, but we restrict the descriptions here to what are called aerodynamic whistles. Strictly speaking, they are fluid mechanical whistles since they occur in gases, such as air or steam, as well as in liquids, the only difference between them is the fluid density and the sound speed. The word aerodynamic whistle is used here since it is in common use, the conversion of flow energy to sound comes from an interaction between a solid material and a fluid stream. The forces in some whistles are sufficient to set the material in motion. Classic examples are Aeolian tones that result in galloping power lines, other examples are circular disks set into vibration. The whistles described in this article are in a subclass where only the fluid is in motion, joseph Hudson set up J Hudson & Co in Birmingham, UK in 1870. With his younger brother James, he designed the Acme City brass whistle and this became the first referee whistle used at association football matches during the 1878–79 Football Association Cup match between Nottingham Forest and Sheffield. Prior to the introduction of the whistle, handkerchiefs were used by the umpires to signal to the players, in 1883 he began experimenting with pea-whistle designs that could produce an intense sound that could grab attention from over a mile away. His invention was discovered by accident, when he dropped his violin. Observing how the discordant sound of the breaking strings travelled, Hudson had the idea to put a pea in the whistle, prior to this, whistles were much quieter, and were only thought of as musical instruments or toys for children. After observing the problems that local police were having with effectively communicating with rattles, Hudson demonstrated his whistle to Scotland Yard and was awarded his first contract in 1884. This police whistle monopoly gradually made Hudson the largest whistle manufacturer in the world, supplying police forces and his whistle is still used by many forces worldwide. His design, was improved as the Acme Thunderer, the first ever pea whistle, in 1987, Ron Foxcroft released the Fox 40 pealess whistle, designed to replace the pea whistle and be more reliable
24.
Mobile phone
–
A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies
25.
Radio
–
When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
26.
Satellite phone
–
A satellite telephone, satellite phone, or satphone is a type of mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites instead of terrestrial cell sites. They provide similar functionality to terrestrial mobile telephones, voice, short messaging service, depending on the architecture of a particular system, coverage may include the entire Earth or only specific regions. The mobile equipment, also known as a terminal, varies widely, early satellite phone handsets had a size and weight comparable to that of a late-1980s or early-1990s mobile phone, but usually with a large retractable antenna. More recent satellite phones are similar in size to a mobile phone while some prototype satellite phones have no distinguishable difference from an ordinary smartphone. Satphones are popular on expeditions into remote areas where terrestrial cellular service is unavailable, smaller installations using VoIP over a two-way satellite broadband service such as BGAN or VSAT bring the costs within the reach of leisure vessel owners. The phones have connectors for external antennas that can be installed in vehicles, the systems also allow for the use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems. Some satellite phones use satellites in orbit, which are meant to remain in a fixed position in the sky. These systems can maintain near-continuous global coverage with only three or four satellites, reducing the launch costs, the satellites used for these systems are very heavy and expensive to build and launch. The satellites sit at an altitude of 35,786 kilometres, geostationary satellites have a limitation of use in latitude, generally 70 degrees north of the equator to 70 degrees south of the equator. This is a result of look angles being so low on the increasing the chances of terrestrial. The user will need to find an area with line-of-sight before using the phone, ACeS, This small regional operator provides voice and data services in East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia using a single satellite. Inmarsat, The oldest satellite phone operator, founded in 1979 and it originally provided large fixed installations for ships, but has recently entered the market of hand-held phones in a joint venture with ACeS. Coverage is available on most of the Earth, except polar regions, Thuraya, Established in 1997, Thuraya’s satellites provide coverage across Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia. MSAT / SkyTerra, An American satellite phone company that uses equipment similar to Inmarsat, terrestar, Satellite phone system for North America ICO Global Communications, A satellite phone company which has launched a single geosynchronous satellite which is not yet active. LEO telephones utilize LEO satellite technology, the advantages include providing worldwide wireless coverage with no gaps. LEO satellites orbit the Earth in high speed, low altitude orbits with an time of 70–100 minutes, an altitude of 640 to 1120 kilometers. Since the satellites are not geostationary, they move with respect to the ground, at least one satellite must have line-of-sight to every coverage area at all times to guarantee coverage. Two such systems, both based in the United States, started in the late 1990s, but soon went into bankruptcy after failing to gain enough subscribers to fund launch costs
27.
Mirror
–
This is different from other light-reflecting objects that do not preserve much of the original wave signal other than color and diffuse reflected light. The most familiar type of mirror is the mirror, which has a flat screen surface. Curved mirrors are used, to produce magnified or diminished images or focus light or simply distort the reflected image. Mirrors are commonly used for personal grooming or admiring oneself, decoration, Mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers, cameras, and industrial machinery. Most mirrors are designed for light, however, mirrors designed for other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are also used. The first mirrors used by people were most likely pools of dark, still water, the requirements for making a good mirror are a surface with a very high degree of flatness, and a surface roughness smaller than the wavelength of the light. The earliest manufactured mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian, examples of obsidian mirrors found in Anatolia have been dated to around 6000 BC. Mirrors of polished copper were crafted in Mesopotamia from 4000 BC, polished stone mirrors from Central and South America date from around 2000 BC onwards. In China, bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC, some of the earliest bronze, Mirrors made of other metal mixtures such as copper and tin speculum metal may have also been produced in China and India. Mirrors of speculum metal or any precious metal were hard to produce and were owned by the wealthy. Stone mirrors often had poor reflectivity compared to metals, yet metals scratch or tarnish easily, depending upon the color, both often yielded reflections with poor color rendering. The poor image quality of ancient mirrors explains 1 Corinthians 13s reference to seeing as in a mirror, glass was a desirable material for mirrors. Because the surface of glass is smooth, it produces reflections with very little blur. In addition, glass is very hard and scratch resistant, however, glass by itself has little reflectivity, so people began coating it with metals to increase the reflectivity. According to Pliny, the people of Sidon developed a technique for creating crude mirrors by coating glass with molten lead. Glass mirrors backed with gold leaf are mentioned by Pliny in his Natural History and these circular mirrors were typically small, from only a fraction of an inch to as much as eight inches in diameter. These small mirrors produced distorted images, yet were prized objects of high value and these ancient glass mirrors were very thin, thus very fragile, because the glass needed to be extremely thin to prevent cracking when coated with a hot, molten metal. Due to the quality, high cost, and small size of these ancient glass mirrors
28.
Flare
–
A flare, also sometimes called a fusee, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a brilliant light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for signalling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian, flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, the earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signalling purposes was the signal bomb used by the Song Dynasty Chinese as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in mid-air, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance, another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600, the Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih or Illustrated Military Encyclopedia written in 1791 depicts a signal gun in an illustration. Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition, flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects, many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, for example, the US Environmental Protection Agency have studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use, US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. In the civilian world, flares are used as signals. Flares are commonly found in survival kits. Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are recognized as a maritime distress signal. RMS Titanic however used rocket-launched distress shells to attract assistance, emitting white stars to a great height, another type of flare is the fusee, which burns for 10–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night, in this usage they are called highway flares, road flares. They are commonly found in emergency kits. Fusees are also known as flares and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use
29.
Fanny pack
–
A fanny pack or bum bag is a small fabric pouch usually secured with a zipper and worn by use of a strap around the hips or waist. Bags attached to belts have been in use since antiquity in many cultures, one origin was the Native American buffalo pouch which was used instead of sewing pockets into clothing. Buffalo pouches may also be worn on the wrist or carried on the front of the chest via a strap or lanyard. The European medieval belt-pouch is another antecedent which was superseded as clothing came to have pockets, the Scottish sporran is a similar belted pouch that survived because of the impracticality of pockets in a kilt. The modern version made from synthetic materials came into use in the 1980s and they were especially in vogue in the 1990s and their use was satirised by the American humorist Weird Al Yankovic in his song White & Nerdy. In 2012, calling them belted satchels or hands-free bags, several designer labels sought to bring the back by offering stylish. Fanny packs designed for concealed carry of a weapon are available, in other cultures they are known as belly bags and banana bags
30.
Backpack
–
Lightweight types of backpacks are sometimes worn on only one shoulder strap. This improves the potential to carry loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders. In ancient times, the backpack was used as a means to carry the larger game and other types of prey. They were also easy to carry and made of cloths, the bag itself would be made up of animal hide and skin and sewn together by animal intestines, which would be woven together tightly to make a sturdy thread-like material. The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s, moneybag and packsack were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms. The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, in German, Rücken means back and Sack means bag. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish rygsæk, Norwegian ryggsekk, Dutch rugzak, Afrikaans rugsak, the word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. Alternative names include haversack, Kraxe, and bergen, in fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks Bergen rucksacks, maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen. Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories, frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips. Most of the weight is taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment. A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearers chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front, the majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearers natural posture, balance, the load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body. The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps, such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket and these packs are generally produced inexpensively. Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well. Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders
31.
Feces
–
Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
32.
Bow drill
–
The bow drill is a prehistoric form of drilling tool. It commonly was used to make fire, and in this function it also was called a fire drill. However, the principle also was used widely in drilling for purposes of woodworking. Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC and this bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper. Similar drills were found in parts of the Indus Valley Civilization. The bow drill consists of a block or handhold, a spindle or drill, a hearth or fireboard. Other early versions of mechanical drills include the drill and the hand drill. The drill offers an ancient method of starting fire without matches or a lighter, the heat eventually produces an ember in the burnt sawdust. The ember is tiny, smaller than the head of a cigarette, once the ember is formed it is carefully placed into a tinder bundle. Once the ember is in the tinder bundle it is then carefully nurtured and coaxed into flame, once the tinder bundle bursts into flame, it is placed into the fuel that has been assembled ready for ignition. The spindle, carved to reduce friction at one end and maximize it at the other, is held in a hole in the bottom of the bearing block, and at the other by the base board. The string of the bow is wrapped once around it, so that it is tight enough not to slip during operation. The usual position that a person assumes whilst operating the bow drill is as follows, the knee is placed on the ground. The heat of the friction between the hearth and the spindle both creates charred, fuzzy dust and causes it to ignite - forming a coal or ember, the handhold is lubricated and the spindle is carved to about thumb thickness, usually 6 to 8 inches long. Another option to practice is to make the handhold into a piece, so its held down by pressure from the chin/mouth. An indentation and a v notch into the center of the dent is made into the fireboard, the notch allows a place for the dust collect while it is being abraded off the spindle and the hearth. Eventually, the friction generates heat to ignite the dust, which can be used to light tinder, whilst a v is most common, other methods to create a cavity to contain the dust whilst it is being ignited can be used. For example, drilling part-way into a made by lashing two sticks together from one side, and then drilling from the other side to meet this hole
33.
Camping
–
Camping is an outdoor recreational activity involving overnight stays away from home in a shelter such as a tent, a caravan, or even a motorhome. Generally participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment, to be regarded as camping a minimum of one night is spent outdoors, distinguishing it from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities. Camping can be enjoyed through all four seasons, Camping as a recreational activity became popular among elites in the early 20th century. With time, it more democratic, and varied. Modern campers frequent publicly owned natural resources such as national and state parks, wilderness areas, Camping is a key part of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting, which use it to teach both self-reliance and teamwork. Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation, survivalist campers set off with as little as possible to get by, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing. There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping, fundamentally, it reflects a combination of intent and the nature of activities involved. A childrens summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have camp in its name but fails to reflect the spirit, likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be camping, it is just their way of life. The history of camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor. By the 1880s large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, the early camping equipment was very heavy, so it was convenient to transport it by boat or to use craft that converted into tents. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK and he experienced the activity in the wild from his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with friends across Ireland. He wrote The Campers Handbook in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the outdoors with the world. Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunningham’s camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, in 1906 the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members, in 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although WW1 was responsible for a hiatus in camping activity. The International Federation of Camping Clubs was founded in 1932 with national clubs from all over the world affiliating with it, by the 1960s camping had become an established family holiday standard and today camp sites are ubiqitous across Europe and North America
34.
Distilled water
–
Distilled water is water that has had many of its impurities removed through distillation. Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the steam into a clean container, drinking water has been distilled from sea water since at least about AD200, when the process was clearly described by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Its history predates this, as a passage in Aristotles Meteorologica refers to the distillation of water, captain Israel Williams of the Friendship improvised a way to distill water, which he described in his journal. In chemical and biological laboratories, as well as in industry, but if these alternatives are not pure enough, distilled water is used. If exceptionally high purity water is required, double distilled water is used, distilled water is also commonly used to top off lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks. The presence of other commonly found in tap water will drastically reduce an automobile batterys lifespan. Distilled water is preferable to tap water for use in cooling systems. Distilled water is preferable to tap water for use in model steam engine boilers. Mineral build-up resulting from the use of tap water in model boilers can severely reduce the efficiency of the boilers if run for long periods and this build-up is known as boiler scale. Some people use distilled water for aquariums because it lacks the chemicals found in tap water. It is important to supplement distilled water when using it for fishkeeping, distilled water is also essential for use in cigar humidors. Mineral build-up resulting from the use of tap water will reduce the effectiveness of the humidor, in contrast, some home brewers who want to brew a traditional European Pilsner will dilute their hard water with distilled water so as to mimic the soft waters of Pilsen. Another application was to increase the density of the air to assist early airplane jet engines during takeoff in hot and high atmospheric conditions, distilled water is also used in Constant Positive Airway Pressure machines to humidify the air entering the users nasal cavity, mouth, and throat. Distilled water will not leave any contaminants behind when the humidifier in the CPAP machine evaporates the water, although possibly once the recommended procedure, using distilled water in steam irons for pressing clothes, is no longer necessary. Now most manufacturers say that water is unnecessary in their irons. It has been suggested that this water in an iron will flash boil when disturbed, and cause the iron to spit, leak. Until World War II, distilling sea water to fresh water was time-consuming. The saying was, It takes one gallon of fuel to one gallon of fresh water
35.
Drinking water
–
Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in 2015, 91% of people had access to suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2 billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps,1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among others, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health issues. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60% of weight in men and 55% of weight in women, infants are about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are around 45%. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation and its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. Bottled water is sold for consumption in most parts of the world. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 litres per day may be required. Some health authorities have suggested that at least eight glasses of eight fl oz each are required by an adult per day, the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. However, various reviews of the evidence performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any scientific evidence recommending eight glasses of water per day. An individuals thirst provides a guide for how much water they require rather than a specific
36.
Hiking equipment
–
Hiking equipment is the equipment taken on outdoor walking trips. Hiking is usually divided into day-hikes and multiple-day hikes, called backpacking, trekking, the equipment selected varies according to the duration, distance, planned activities, and the environment. Additional factors include weight and preparedness for unplanned events, the level of preparedness can relate to remoteness and potential hazards, for example, a short day hike across farmland or trekking in the Himalayas. The length and duration of a walk can influence the amount of weight carried, the nature of a hike is both by the natural environment and the applicable government regulations and hikers plan accordingly when considering equipment. To minimize the impact on the environment, many hikers follow the principles of Leave No Trace. According to Tom Brown, the plan for survival is in the order of shelter, water, fire. Cody Lundin writes about the Rule of 3s, this relates to human survival without basics,3 minutes without air,3 hours without shelter,3 days without water, or 3 weeks without food. Hikers may take with them equipment ranging from a knife to ultralight backpacking. Checklists help to minimize the chance of forgetting something important, a small belt pouch that can attach to a belt A bodypack or tactical vest is a load-bearing vest, and may be as simple as a fishing vest. A single-shoulder pack uses one shoulder strap, such as a haversack, messenger bag, a waistpack can range in size from a belt pouch to a haversack, in the larger sizes, shoulder straps maybe provided. Waistpacks may be carried over a shoulder, day packs are small to mid-sized backpacks that have two shoulder straps, smaller ones may not include a waist belt. A harness system may include a backpack, a waistpack, a vest. Larger cargo backpacks that have substantial, well-padded shoulder straps and a waist belt, some hikers divide their backpack into sections associated with specific needs, i. e. kitchen, bedroom, bathroom, etc. or by clothes, shelter, water, fire, and food. Military surplus outlets are optional sources for backpacking equipment, construction quality may be determined by design, manufacturer reputation, advertised purpose, and field testing. Customer reviews are posted online. Heavy pack fabrics are made from 800-1000 denier nylon material, a large, heavy pack of 100 liters weighs 100 pounds, and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram. The best-made packs may carry up to twice their weight in water, the British army bergen backpack, which has a capacity of 120 liters carrying up to 90 kilograms is made from 1000 denier nylon. Backpacks carrying more than 30 pounds usually have waist-belts to help with posture by transferring the weight to the hips, some experts recommend keeping the equipments total weight to less than 25% of the hikers weight
37.
Mini survival kit
–
A mini survival kit is a small survival kit which consists of the most essential outdoor survival tools and supplies which are the hardest to improvise, craft on the spot, or replace. It is intended to be carried on ones person at all times, be appropriate to all environments, two philosophies surround the preparation of mini survival kits. Some people like to carry a few, relatively large items such as a knife, matches, whistle, emergency food, water bottle, etc. Others prefer a collection of smaller but more comprehensive items such as bands, paper clips, fishing equipment, lashing material, razor blades. The decision of which technique to subscribe to depends on physical condition, survival skills, wilderness knowledge. The survival tools and supplies found in a survival kit are generally kept in a container that is small enough to fit in a pocket. The popular Altoids-type tins measure approximately 9.3 centimetres x 5.8 centimetres x 2.1 centimetres, some kinds of containers benefit from waterproofing, which may be done with adhesive tape or dipping the closed container in paraffin wax. An alternative approach is to carry mini-survival kit items in no container at all, additionally, it may also be included into the belt itself. Because each kit depends on the situation and environment the person is carrying it in, instead, the person creating the kit chooses items that they will need. Some of the historically most important items to have are,1, food procurement In addition to the items marked above, the following items are also frequently found in many mini-survival kits. In some kits, certain items marked above can also have been replaced by certain items below. Items and many of their uses are listed along with alternative uses and/or alternative items to perform the role in the kit, candle kit component, effectively replaced with ready-made tinder i. e. tinder quick tabs, to save on space. e. With the inner threads removed and used individually, waxed dental floss Waterproof paper, note taking or used as tinder Micro LED flashlight, signaling, work light, or fishing aid to attract fish. Additional water scavenging items in large kits include, Medium plastic bags 10x20in used in Transpiration water traps, butane lighter or butane torch as a more capable flame to ignite damp tinder Electrical tape or teflon tape to waterproof the container. Duct tape, hasty repairs, waterproofing, one of the most versatile kit components, remove with salt, veggie oil, natural alcohol, acetone, nail-polish remover, paint thinner, or it wears off. Ziploc type bag, container to collect, treat, store, make a Survival Kit out of an Altoids Tin. How to build the Ultimate Altoids Survival Kit
38.
Navigation
–
Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four categories, land navigation, marine navigation, aeronautic navigation. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks, all navigational techniques involve locating the navigators position compared to known locations or patterns. Navigation, in a sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and direction. In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation, for information about different navigation strategies that people use, visit human navigation. In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts, early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another. Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the mariners astrolabe first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages, the perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in the Age of Discovery. Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the compass started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, the Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the sponsorship of Prince Henry. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route, in 1492 the Spanish monarchs funded Christopher Columbuss expedition to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the Discovery of America. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later. The fleet of seven ships sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Southern Spain in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the Pacific making a number of discoveries including Guam and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from the original seven, the Victoria led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The Trinidad sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a path back to the Americas. He arrived in Acapulco on October 8,1565, the term stems from 1530s, from Latin navigationem, from navigatus, pp. of navigare to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship, from navis ship and the root of agere to drive. Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator, latitude is usually expressed in degrees ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude is usually expressed in degrees ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west, sydney, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of 74° west, for most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude
39.
Pioneering (Scouting)
–
In the Scout Movement, pioneering is the art of using ropes and wooden spars joined by lashings and knots to create a structure. Pioneering can be used for constructing small items such as camp gadgets up to larger structures such as bridges and these may be recreational, decorative, or functional. Pioneering is used to teach practical skills, teamwork and problem solving and it is widely used in Scouting and Girl Guiding. Many Scout and Guide groups train their members in pioneering skills and construct projects, in camp, Scouts may construct functional items like tables, camp dressers and gadgets, as well as decorative camp gateways. Pioneering is a merit badge in many countries, and was required for the Eagle Scout rank in the 1920s and 1930s. The name comes from the 18th and 19th century military engineers who went ahead of an army to pioneer a route, which could involve building bridges and towers with rope and timber. Pioneering skills include knot tying, lashing, whipping, splicing, both of this lashing need more line and objects to be complited. Running Square Lashing is option for these two lashing, for the first time Rajesh Gaiju used this RS Lashing at 2nd Scout Bhaktapur Adventure Trail 2015. RS Lashing start with Clove hitch on base object an 1 run in another object, then 1 wrap and 1frap and again 1run and these basic structures are the building blocks for a number of pioneering projects, A-Frame, The basis of many tower structures. The horizontal member of the A-frame also makes a convenient springing point for a such as a table-top. Trestle, Used as an element for building bridges and towers. Also used as a chariot for inter-Patrol chariot races, often referred to as X-Trestle or H-Trestle Tripod, As end supports for swingbridges, dining tables, etc. and as the basis for the hourglass tower. A tripod is not considered secure unless its legs connected with cross braces, or are staked or otherwise attached to the ground. com—photos, diagrams, illustrations and procedures PioneeringProjects
40.
Solar still
–
A solar still distills water, using the heat of the Sun to evaporate, cool then collect the water. There are many types of still, including large scale concentrated solar stills. In a solar still, impure water is contained outside the collector, the pure water vapor condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down, where it is collected and removed. Distillation replicates the way nature makes rain, the suns energy heats water to the point of evaporation. As the water evaporates, water rises, condensing into water again as it cools. This process leaves behind impurities, such as salts and heavy metals, the end result is pure distilled water. Condensation traps have been in use since the pre-Incan peoples inhabited the Andes, solar stills are used in cases where rain, piped, or well water is impractical, such as in remote homes or during power outages. In subtropical hurricane target areas that can power for days. Several methods of trapping condensation exist, This method was first used by the peoples of the Andes, a pit is dug into the earth, at the bottom of which is placed the receptacle that will be used to catch the condensed water. Small branches are placed one of their ends end inside the receptacle and their other ends up over the edge of the pit. A lid is then built over this funnel, using more small branches, leaves, grasses, the completed trap is left overnight, and moisture can be collected from the receptacle in the morning. This method relies on the formation of dew or frost on the receptacle, funnel, forming dew collects on and runs down the outside of the funnel and into the receptacle. This water would evaporate with the morning sun and thus vanish. The shade produced by the lid also reduces the temperature within the trap, today, with the advent of plastic sheeting, the moisture trap has become more efficient. The method is similar to that described above, but a single sheet of plastic is used instead of branches and leaves. The greater efficiency of this type of trap arises from the nature of the plastic. Weighting the centre of the plastic sheet down with a stone forms the funnel via which the water will run into the receptacle. Water can be obtained by placing clear plastic bags over the branch of a non-poisonous tree
41.
Survival kit
–
A survival kit is a package of basic tools and supplies prepared in advance as an aid to survival in an emergency. Civil and military aircraft, lifeboats, and spacecraft are equipped with survival kits, Supplies in a survival kit normally contain a knife, matches, tinder, first aid kit, bandana, fish hooks, sewing kit, and a flashlight. Civilians such as workers, surveyors, or bush pilots. Disaster supplies are kept on hand by those who live in areas prone to earthquakes or other natural disasters. For the average citizen to practice disaster preparedness, some towns will have stores to keep survival supplies in stock. The American Red Cross recommends an emergency preparedness kit that is easy to carry, the general contents of an emergency survival kit depend on the location. Basic components in a survival kit address the needs of first aid, food, water, shelter, navigation, a variety of materials are recommended for emergency shelters, and vary between geographic regions. Water in sealed containers for dry areas, or water purification tablets or household bleach in areas where water is available, must have another receptacle to collect condensate. Key elements for rescue include, Distress radiobeacon Whistle Signal mirror High power LED light, white lens, strobe versions are available for some lights. Use lithium cells only, due to superior shelf life, flare, three fires in a triangle is the international distress signal Laser pointer with lithium batteries, for superior signaling range. Laser pointers have resulted in at least one rescue, during the night in August 2010 two men and a boy were rescued from marshland after their red laser pen was spotted by rescue teams. Surveyors tape - orange or chartreuse for marking location for rescuers Pen/pencil, tools recommended for many types of survival kit include, Fixed-blade knife, or multitool such as a Swiss Army knife. These kits provide basic tools and supplies to enable passengers to survive until they are rescued. In addition to relying on lifeboat survival kits, many mariners will assemble a ditch bag or abandon ship bag containing additional survival supplies, the US Army uses several basic survival kits, mainly for aviators, some of which are stored in carrying bags. Aviators in planes with ejection seats have survival kits in a vest and the seat pan, astronauts are provided with survival kits due to the difficulty of predicting where a spacecraft will land on its return to earth, especially in the case of an equipment failure. A survival kit was provided for the Apollo program which was. designed to provide a 48-hour postlanding survival capability for three crewmen between 40 degrees North and South latitudes. It contained a radio, a survival light assembly, desalter kits, a machete, sunglasses, water cans, sun lotion, a blanket. The kits provided for Soviet and Russian Cosmonauts are optimised for survival in the temperate and sub-arctic mountains, forests, soyuz spacecraft kits include food rations, water bottles, warm clothing, rope for making a shelter using the capsule’s parachute, fish hooks and miscellaneous other survival gear