1.
Peter Paul Rubens
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Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish/Netherlandish draughtsman and painter. He is widely considered as the most notable artist of Flemish Baroque art school, the catalogue of his works by Michael Jaffé lists 1,403 pieces, excluding numerous copies made in his workshop. His commissioned works were mostly history paintings, which included religious and mythological subjects and he painted portraits, especially of friends, and self-portraits, and in later life painted several landscapes. Rubens designed tapestries and prints, as well as his own house and he also oversaw the ephemeral decorations of the royal entry into Antwerp by the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand in 1635. His drawings are mostly extremely forceful but not overly detailed and he also made great use of oil sketches as preparatory studies. For altarpieces he painted on slate to reduce reflection problems. Rubens was born in the city of Siegen to Jan Rubens and he was named in honour of Saint-Peter and Paul, because he was born on their solemnety. His father, a Calvinist, and mother fled Antwerp for Cologne in 1568, after increased religious turmoil and persecution of Protestants during the rule of the Spanish Netherlands by the Duke of Alba. Jan Rubens became the adviser of Anna of Saxony, the second wife of William I of Orange. Following Jan Rubens imprisonment for the affair, Peter Paul Rubens was born in 1577, the family returned to Cologne the next year. In 1589, two years after his fathers death, Rubens moved with his mother Maria Pypelincks to Antwerp, religion figured prominently in much of his work and Rubens later became one of the leading voices of the Catholic Counter-Reformation style of painting. In Antwerp, Rubens received a Renaissance humanist education, studying Latin, by fourteen he began his artistic apprenticeship with Tobias Verhaeght. Subsequently, he studied under two of the leading painters of the time, the late Mannerist artists Adam van Noort. Much of his earliest training involved copying earlier works, such as woodcuts by Hans Holbein the Younger. Rubens completed his education in 1598, at time he entered the Guild of St. Luke as an independent master. In 1600 Rubens travelled to Italy and he stopped first in Venice, where he saw paintings by Titian, Veronese, and Tintoretto, before settling in Mantua at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. The colouring and compositions of Veronese and Tintoretto had an effect on Rubenss painting. With financial support from the Duke, Rubens travelled to Rome by way of Florence in 1601, there, he studied classical Greek and Roman art and copied works of the Italian masters
2.
Crown of Castile
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The title of King of Castile remained in use by the Habsburg rulers during the 16th and 17th centuries. Charles I was King of Aragon, Majorca, Valencia, and Sicily, in the early 18th century, Philip of Bourbon won the War of the Spanish Succession and imposed unification policies over the Crown of Aragon, supporters of their enemies. This unified the Crown of Aragon and the Crown of Castile into the kingdom of Spain, even though the Nueva Planta decrees did not formally abolish the Crown of Castile, the country of was called Spain by both contemporaries and historians. King of Castile also remains part of the title of Felipe VI of Spain. The Kingdom of León arose out of the Kingdom of Asturias, the Kingdom of Castile appeared initially as a county of the Kingdom of León. From the second half of the 10th century to the first half of the 11th century it changed hands between León and the Kingdom of Navarre, in the 11th century it became a kingdom in its own right. The two kingdoms had been united twice previously, From 1037 until 1065 under Ferdinand I of León, upon his death his kingdoms passed to his sons, León to Alfonso VI, Castile to Sancho II, and Galicia to García. From 1072 until 1157 under Alfonso VI, Urraca, and Alfonso VII, from 1111 until 1126 Galicia was separate from the union under Alfonso VII. In 1157 the kingdoms were divided between Alfonsos sons, with Ferdinand II receiving León and Sancho III Castile, from then on the two kingdoms were united under the name of the Kingdom of León and Castile, or simply as the Crown of Castile. Ferdinand III later conquered the Guadalquivir Valley, while his son Alfonso X conquered the Kingdom of Murcia from Al-Andalus, the heir to the throne has been titled Prince of Asturias since the 14th century. Almost immediately after the union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III, the parliaments of Castile and León were united. It was divided into three estates, which corresponded with the nobility, the church and the cities, and included representation from Castile, León, Galicia, Toledo, Navarre, under Alfonso X, most sessions of the Cortes of both kingdoms were held jointly. The Cortes of 1258 in Valladolid comprised representatives of Castile, Extremadura and León, subsequent Cortes were celebrated separately, for example in 1301 that of Castile in Burgos and that of León in Zamora, but the representatives demanded that the parliaments be reunited from then on. These laws continued to be in force until 1889, when a new Spanish civil code, in the 13th century there were many languages spoken in the Kingdoms of León and Castile among them Castilian, Leonese, Basque and Galician-Portuguese. But, as the century progressed, Castilian gained increasing prominence as the language of culture, henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations of Arabic legal and government documents were made into Castilian instead of Latin. In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija was published, Castilian was eventually carried to the Americas in the 16th century by the conquistadors. Because of Castilians importance in the land ruled by the Spanish Crown, on the death of Alfonso XI a dynastic conflict started between his sons, the Infantes Peter and Henry, Count of Trastámara, which became entangled in the Hundred Years War. Alfonso XI had married Maria of Portugal with whom he had his heir, however, the King also had many illegitimate children with Eleanor of Guzman, among them the above-mentioned Henry, who disputed Peters right to the throne once the latter became king
3.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
4.
Alba de Tormes
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Alba de Tormes is a municipality in the province of Salamanca, western Spain, part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. The town is on the River Tormes upstream from the city of Salamanca, Alba gave its name to one of Spains most important dukedoms. St Teresa of Ávila died at a convent she founded in the town and is buried there, from the 12th to the 19th century, the monastery of San Leonardo was located outside the walls of Alba
5.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
6.
Anglican Communion
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The Anglican Communion is an international association of autonomous churches consisting of the Church of England and national and regional Anglican churches in full communion with it. Full participation in the life of each church is available to all communicant Anglicans. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England, has a place of honour among the bishops of the Anglican churches and he is recognised as primus inter pares. The archbishop does not exercise authority in the provinces outside England, the churches of the Anglican Communion considers themselves to be part of the nicos one, holy, catholic and apostolic church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, Anglicanism represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as Luther, Knox, Calvin, for others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. The communion encompasses a spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal. With a membership estimated at around 85 million members, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, such as the Anglican Church of Canada, some, for example the Church of Ireland, the Scottish and American Episcopal churches, and some other associated churches have a separate name. The Anglican Communion has no legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies. Early in its development, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine. Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and this had the effect of inculcating the principle of Lex orandi, lex credendi as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the rubrics of the successive prayer books. With the expansion of the British Empire, and hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the first major expression of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communions bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles Longley in 1869. One of the influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Apostles Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol, and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christs Words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him. The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the needs of the nations
7.
Beatification
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Beatification is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a dead persons entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in his or her name. Local bishops had the power of beatifying until 1634, when Pope Urban VIII, in the apostolic constitution Cœlestis Jerusalem of 6 July, reserved the power of beatifying to the Apostolic See. The requirement of a miracle is not relevant to the canonization of those who died in martyrdom, the feast day for a Blessed person is not universal, but is celebrated only in regions where the person receives particular veneration. For instance, Saint Kateri Tekakwitha was especially honored in the United States, the person may also be honored in a particular religious order, diocese, or organization, such as John Duns Scotus among the Franciscans, the Archdiocese of Cologne and other places. Pope John Paul II markedly changed previous Catholic practice of beatification, by October 2004, he had beatified 1,340 people, more than the sum of all of his predecessors since Pope Sixtus V, who established a beatification procedure similar to that used today. The Pope himself still can preside, as happened on 19 September 2010, cultus confirmation is a somewhat different procedure, wherein the church recognizes a local cult of a person, asserting that veneration of that person is acceptable. Such a confirmation is more an official sanctioning of folk Catholicism than a step in a canonization procedure. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Juris Canonici et Juris Canonico-Civilis Compendium Nova Editio, Tomus Tertius, Pars Secunda List of all Blesseds in the Catholic Church by GCatholic. org
8.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
9.
Pope Paul V
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Pope Paul V, born Camillo Borghese, was Pope from 16 May 1605 to his death in 1621. He is best remembered today as the Pope who persecuted Galileo Galilei, Camillo Borghese was born on 17 September 1550 into the noble Borghese family of Siena which had recently fled to Rome, thus the reason as to why ROMANUS appears in most of his inscriptions. He began his career as an educated at Perugia and then in Padua. In June 1596 he was made the Cardinal-Priest of SantEusebio and the Cardinal Vicar of Rome by Pope Clement VIII, during this time, he opted for other titular churches like San Crisogono and Santi Giovanni e Paolo. Clement VIII also bestowed upon him episcopal consecration in 1597 after his appointment as Bishop of Jesi, in character he was very stern and unyielding, a lawyer rather than diplomat, who defended the privileges of the Church to his utmost. His first act was to send home to their sees the bishops who were sojourning in Rome, Paul met with Galileo Galilei in 1616 after Cardinal Bellarmine had, on his orders, warned Galileo not to hold or defend the heliocentric ideas of Copernicus. Whether there was also an not to teach those ideas in any way has been a matter for controversy. Paul V canonised Charles Borromeo on 1 November 1610 and Frances of Rome on 29 May 1608 and he also canonized Pompejanus in 1615 and canonized Cardinal Albert de Louvain on 9 August 1621. He also beatified a number of individuals which included Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri, Theresa of Avila, and Francis Xavier. Venice passed two laws obnoxious to Paul, one forbidding the alienation of real estate in favour of the clergy, two priests charged by the Venetian state with cruelty, wholesale poisoning, murder and licentiousness, were arrested by the Senate and put in dungeons for trial. Having been found guilty, they were committed to prison, Paul V insisted that they be released to the Church. He demanded the release of the priests as not being amenable to the secular law, when this was refused, the Pope threatened an interdict on account of the property laws and the imprisonment of ecclesiastics, which threat was presented to the Senate on Christmas 1605. The Venetian position was defended by a canon lawyer, Paolo Sarpi. In April 1606 the Pope excommunicated the entire government of Venice, Father Sarpi strongly advised the Venetian government to refuse to receive the Popes interdict, and to reason with him while opposing force by force. The rest of the Catholic clergy sided with the city, with the exception of the Jesuits, the Theatines, the dissenting clergy were forthwith expelled from Venetian territories. Masses continued to be said in Venice, and the feast of Corpus Christi was celebrated with displays of pomp and magnificence. Within a year the disagreement was mediated by France and Spain, the Most Serene Republic refused to retract the laws, but asserted that Venice would conduct herself with her accustomed piety. The Jesuits, which Venice considered subversive Papal agents, remained banned, in September 1607, after unsuccessfully attempting to lure Father Sarpi to Rome, the Pope responded by putting out a contract on his life
10.
Canonization
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Originally, persons were recognized as saints without any formal process. Later, different processes were developed, such as used today in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The first persons honored as saints were the martyrs, pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ. The Roman Rites Canon of the Mass contains only the names of martyrs, along with that of the Blessed Virgin Mary and, since 1962, that of St. Joseph her spouse. By the fourth century, however, confessors—people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word, examples of such people are Saint Hilarion and Saint Ephrem the Syrian in the East, and Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Hilary of Poitiers in the West. Their names were inserted in the diptychs, the lists of saints venerated in the liturgy. Since the witness of their lives was not as unequivocal as that of the martyrs and this process is often referred to as local canonization. This approval was required even for veneration of a reputed martyr, and Saint Cyprian recommended that the utmost diligence be observed in investigating the claims of those who were said to have died for the faith. Evidence was sought from the records of the trials or from people who had been present at the trials. Saint Augustine of Hippo tells of the procedure which was followed in his day for the recognition of a martyr, the bishop of the diocese in which the martyrdom took place set up a canonical process for conducting the inquiry with the utmost severity. Other churches still use the older practice, in the Catholic Church, canonization is a decree that allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite. For permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed, only acceptance of the cultus by the Pope made the cultus universal, because he alone can rule the universal Catholic Church. In the Medieval West, the Apostolic See was asked to intervene in the question of canonizations so as to more authoritative decisions. Swibert by Pope Leo III in 804, thereafter, recourse to the judgment of the Pope was had more frequently. Pope Urban II, Pope Calixtus II, and Pope Eugene III conformed to this discipline, a decree of Pope Alexander III1170 gave the prerogative to the ope thenceforth, so far as the Western Church was concerned. However, the procedure initiated by the decretal of Pope Alexander III was confirmed by a bull of Pope Innocent III issued on the occasion of the canonization of St. Cunegunda in 1200. The bull of Pope Innocent III resulted in increasingly elaborate inquiries to the Apostolic See concerning canonizations and he further regulated both of these acts by issuing his Decreta servanda in beatificatione et canonizatione Sanctorum on 12 March 1642. His work published from 1734-8 governed the proceedings until 1917, the article Beatification and canonization process in 1914 describes the procedures followed until the promulgation of the Codex of 1917
11.
Pope Gregory XV
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Pope Gregory XV, born Alessandro Ludovisi, was Pope from 9 February 1621 to his death in 1623. Alessandro Ludovisi was born in Bologna in 1554 to Pompeo Ludovisi and he was one of seven children and was born as the third child. He was educated at the Roman College run by the Society of Jesus in Rome and he went to the University of Bologna to get degrees in canon. His early career was as a papal jurist in Rome, and he returned to Rome in 1575 and he served as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura from 1593 to 1596 and was appointed as the Vicegerent of Rome in 1597, a position he maintained until 1598. He also served as the Auditor of the Sacred Roman Rota from 1599 to 1612, on 19 September 1616, Pope Paul V elevated him to the rank of cardinal and appointed him as a Cardinal Priest with the titular church of Santa Maria in Traspontina. He was crowned on 14 February 1621 by the protodeacon, Cardinal Andrea Baroni Peretti Montalto, on the same day, his youngest brother Orazio was appointed Captain General of the Church at the head of the papal army. The future revealed that Gregory XV was not disappointed in his nephew, a second nephew, Niccolò, was made reigning Prince of Piombino and Lord of the Isola dElba in 1634, having married the heiress,30 March 1632. His Declaration against Magicians and Witches was the last papal ordinance against witchcraft, former punishments were lessened, and the death penalty was limited to those who were proved to have entered into a compact with the devil, and to have committed homicide with his assistance. He was a theologian and manifested a reforming spirit. On 6 January 1622, he established the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith and his pontificate was marked by the canonizations of Teresa of Avila, Francis Xavier, Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri and Isidore the Farmer. He also beatified Peter of Alcantara and he was influential in bringing the Bolognese artist Guercino to Rome, a landmark in the development of the High Baroque style. He sat for his busts, one of which was by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and by Alessandro Algardi. On 12 March 1622, the pope canonized several saints, Francis Xavier, Ignatius of Loyola, Isidore the Laborer, Philip Neri and Teresa of Ávila. Gregory XV also beatified five individuals throughout his pontificate, Ambrose Sansedoni of Siena, Albert the Great, Aloysius Gonzaga, Francis Borgia, Gregory XV died in the Quirinal Palace on 8 July 1623 and was buried in the Church of SantIgnazio. He was succeeded by Pope Urban VIII, cardinals created by Gregory XV Ludovisi Alessandro Ludovisi. Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, attribution, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Baynes, T. S. Smith, W. R. eds. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Ott. Päpstliches Zeremoniell in der Frühen Neuzeit – Das Diarium des Zeremonienmeisters Paolo Alaleone de Branca während des Pontifikats Gregors XV
12.
Shrine
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A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, a shrine may become a focus of a cult image. Many shrines are located buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, in such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may be synonymous with the cella, historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion. Small household shrines are common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine, Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head, Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many gardens, following various religions, including historically. Shrines are found in most, though not all, religions, Shrines therefore attract the practice of pilgrimage. Shrines are found in many, though not all, forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of Christianity, has many shrines, as do Orthodox Christianity and Anglicanism. For a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is necessary, for it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is required. Another use of the shrine in colloquial Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most – especially larger – churches used by parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars or bye-altars, Shrines were always centered on some image of Christ or a saint – for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may have had a reredos behind them. However, Mass would not be celebrated at them, they were used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side altars, where Mass could actually be celebrated, were used in a way to shrines by parishioners
13.
Calendar of saints
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The word feast in this context does not mean a large meal, typically a celebratory one, but instead an annual religious celebration, a day dedicated to a particular saint. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a calendar of saints is called a Menologion, Menologion may also mean a set of icons on which saints are depicted in the order of the dates of their feasts, often made in two panels. As the number of recognized saints increased during Late Antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages, eventually every day of the year had at least one saint who was commemorated on that date. To deal with this increase, some saints were moved to days in some traditions or completely removed. For example, St. Perpetua and Felicity died on 7 March, when the 1969 reform of the Catholic calendar moved him to 28 January, they were moved back to 7 March. Both days can thus be said to be their feast day, the Roman Catholic calendars of saints in their various forms, which list those saints celebrated in the entire church, contains only a selection of the saints for each of its days. A fuller list is found in the Roman Martyrology, and some of the saints there may be celebrated locally, Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title confessor was used for saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, a broader range of titles was used later, such as, Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church. Pope Pius XII added a common formula for Popes, the 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII omitted the common of Apostles, assigning a proper Mass to every feast day of an Apostle. The present Roman Missal has common formulas for the Dedication of Churches, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Martyrs, Pastors, Doctors of the Church, Virgins, some Christians continue the tradition of dating by saints days, their works may appear dated as The Feast of Saint Martin. Poets such as John Keats commemorate the importance of The Eve of Saint Agnes, as different Christian jurisdictions parted ways theologically, differing lists of saints began to develop. In the present ordinary form of the Roman Rite, feast days are ranked as solemnities and those who use even earlier forms of the Roman Rite rank feast days as Doubles, Semidoubles, and Simples. See Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite, in the Eastern Orthodox Church the ranking of feasts varies from church to church. In the Russian Orthodox Church they are, Great Feasts, middle, each portion of such feasts may also be called feasts as follows, All-Night Vigils, Polyeleos, Great Doxology, Sextuple. There are also distinctions between Simple feasts and Double, in Double Feasts the order of hymns and readings for each feast are rigidly instructed in Typikon, the liturgy book. In the Church of England, there are Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, and Commemorations. com
14.
Saint symbolism
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Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life, symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, the study of these forms part of iconography in art history. They were particularly used so that the illiterate could recognize a scene and they are often carried in the hand by the Saint. Attributes often vary with time or geography, especially between Eastern Christianity and the West. Orthodox images more often contained inscriptions with the names of saints, many of the most prominent saints, like Saint Peter and Saint John the Evangelist can also be recognised by a distinctive facial type – as can Christ. Some attributes are general, such as the palm frond carried by martyrs, the use of a symbol in a work of art depicting a Saint reminds people who is being shown and of their story. The following is a list of some of these attributes, a New Dictionary of Saints, East and West. Catholic Forum Patron Saints Index Saints Badges or Shields On the Canonizations of John Paul II
15.
Discalced Carmelites
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The Discalced Carmelites or Barefoot Carmelites is a Catholic mendicant order with roots in the eremitic tradition of the Desert Fathers and Mothers. The order was established in 1593, pursuant to the reform of the Carmelite Order of the Ancient Observance by two Spanish saints, Saint Teresa of Ávila and Saint John of the Cross, the Discalced Carmelite order is now known by the initials O. C. D. The older branch of the order, Carmelites of the Ancient Observance, has the initials O. Carm, the secular branch of the order, has the initials O. C. D. S. The Discalced Carmelites are men and women, in religious consecration and lay people, the Carmelite nuns live in cloistered monasteries and follow a completely contemplative life. The Carmelite friars while following a contemplative life also engage in the promotion of spirituality through their centres, parishes and churches. Lay people, known as the Secular Order, follow their contemplative call in their everyday activities, devotion to the Virgin Mary is a characteristic of Carmelites and is symbolised by wearing the brown scapular. Carmelites trace their roots and their name to Mount Carmel in the Holy Land, there, in the 13th century, a band of European men gathered together to live a simple life of prayer. Their first chapel was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary and they called themselves the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel. The first Carmelites came as pilgrims to Mount Carmel to live a solitary life-style and these early hermits were mostly laity, who lived an unofficial religious life of poverty, penance and prayer. Between 1206 and 1214, St. Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, brought the hermits on Mount Carmel together, at their request, into community. He wrote them a formula for living, which expressed their own intention and reflected the spirit of the pilgrimage to the Holy Land and they were also inspired by the prophet Elijah who had been associated with Mount Carmel. That influence can be seen by the words of Elijah, I have been zealous for the Lord. Within fifty years of receiving their rule the Carmelite hermits were forced to leave Mount Carmel, although Carmel itself contributed a number of gifted and respected humanists, the trend which started out as a good thing occasioned a general decline in religious fervor. This factor, coupled with the decimation of the population and severe economic hardships, had a demoralizing effect, many Carmelites and even whole communities succumbed to contemporary attitudes and conditions diametrically opposed to their original vocation. To meet this situation the Rule was mitigated several times, consequently, the Carmelites bore less and less resemblance to the first hermits of Mount Carmel. St. Teresa of Avila considered the surest way to prayer to be a return to the Primitive Rule embodying Carmels authentic vocation, on 24 August 1562, the new Convent of St. Joseph was founded. In addition to this, St. Teresa envisioned a fully dedicated to poverty. Working in close collaboration with St. Teresa was St. John of the Cross, the Discalced Carmelites were established as a separate province of the Carmelite Order by the decree Pia consideratione of Pope Gregory XIII on 22 June 1580
16.
Patron saint
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Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism
17.
Chess
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Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a chessboard, a checkered gameboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight-by-eight grid. Chess is played by millions of people worldwide, both amateurs and professionals, each player begins the game with 16 pieces, one king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, and eight pawns. Each of the six piece types moves differently, with the most powerful being the queen, the objective is to checkmate the opponents king by placing it under an inescapable threat of capture. To this end, a players pieces are used to attack and capture the opponents pieces, in addition to checkmate, the game can be won by voluntary resignation by the opponent, which typically occurs when too much material is lost, or if checkmate appears unavoidable. A game may result in a draw in several ways. Chess is believed to have originated in India, some time before the 7th century, chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games xiangqi, janggi and shogi. The pieces took on their current powers in Spain in the late 15th century, the first generally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886. Since 1948, the World Championship has been controlled by FIDE, the international governing body. There is also a Correspondence Chess World Championship and a World Computer Chess Championship, online chess has opened amateur and professional competition to a wide and varied group of players. There are also many variants, with different rules, different pieces. FIDE awards titles to skilled players, the highest of which is grandmaster, many national chess organizations also have a title system. However, these are not recognised by FIDE, the term master may refer to a formal title or may be used more loosely for any skilled player. Until recently, chess was a sport of the International Olympic Committee. Chess was included in the 2006 and 2010 Asian Games, since the 1990s, computer analysis has contributed significantly to chess theory, particularly in the endgame. The computer IBM Deep Blue was the first machine to overcome a reigning World Chess Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997, the rise of strong computer programs that can be run on hand-held devices has led to increasing concerns about cheating during tournaments. The official rules of chess are maintained by FIDE, chesss international governing body, along with information on official chess tournaments, the rules are described in the FIDE Handbook, Laws of Chess section. Chess is played on a board of eight rows and eight columns. The colors of the 64 squares alternate and are referred to as light, the chessboard is placed with a light square at the right-hand end of the rank nearest to each player
18.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
19.
Talisay, Cebu
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Talisay, officially the City of Talisay and often referred to as Talisay City, is a 3rd city income class component city in the province of Cebu, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 227,645, in the 2016 electoral roll, it had 120,240 registered voters. Primarily a residential and trading center, Talisay lies within the Metro Cebu area, the name of Talisay is taken from the magtalisay tree which is abundant in the city. Talisay was founded in 1648 as an estate owned by the Augustinians, in 1849 it was converted into a municipality. During both the American colonial period and World War II, Talisay served as a haven of colonial military forces, the municipality served as the center of guerrilla intelligence operations for the Philippine resistance movement in Cebu during World War II. That day is now a holiday in the province of Cebu. In 2000 the municipality of Talisay was converted into a city, the municipality is now linked to Cebu City via the South Coastal Highway from Lawaan, opened in 2004. This brought some recent inward investment in the form of subdivisions, conflict occurred between the residents of the mountain barangay of Maghaway and those of Crown Asias Azienda Milan and Venezia subdivisions. According to the National Statistics Office in its 2000 report, some 70% of the population of Talisay belongs to the urban poor. Talisay City comprises 22 barangays, In the 2016 electoral roll, it had 120,240 registered voters, meaning that 53% of the population are aged 18, cebuano is the predominant language of the inhabitants of the city. Talisay City has 90% Roman Catholic population with 9% other Christian denomination, Talisay remains an important center for the production of blasting caps used in dynamite. Much of the commerce in Talisay takes place in the Tabunok area, the biggest mall is Gaisano Grand Fiesta Mall Tabunok, which has a supermarket, department store and formerly, a cinema. However, much of the population depend on the public markets. Talisay City and the Tabunok area also serve as the area for municipalities south of the city. In 2016 Talisay City Council expressed support for the proposed Light Rail Transit project in Cebu, teresa de Avila Halad Kang Santa Teresa– an offering of thanksgiving in the form of dance by local Talisaynons and pilgrims to pay homage to Sta. Teresa de Avila, the citys patroness, people from all walks of life flock to the city to dance, offer and join the merriment. Inasal Festival – lechon inasal is served in every residents banquet, the festival is a showcase of lechons in various costumes and decorations
20.
Cebu
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Cebu is a 1st provincial income class island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consisting of the main island itself and 167 surrounding islands and islets. Its capital is Cebu City, the oldest city and first capital of the Philippines, Cebu City forms part of the Cebu Metropolitan Area together with four neighboring cities and eight other local government units. Mactan-Cebu International Airport, located in Mactan Island, is the second busiest airport in the Philippines, Cebu is one of the most developed provinces in the Philippines, with Cebu City as the main center of commerce, trade, education and industry in the Visayas. In a decade it has transformed into a hub for shipping, furniture-making, tourism, business processing services. The name Cebu came from the old Cebuano word sibu or sibo and it was originally applied to the harbors of the town of Sugbu, the ancient name for Cebu City. Alternate renditions of the name by traders between the 13th to 16th centuries include Sebu, Sibuy, Zubu, or Zebu, among others, Sugbu, in turn, was derived from the Old Cebuano term for scorched earth or great fire. The Rajahnate of Cebu was a native kingdom which existed in Cebu prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya and he was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms, but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 established a period of Spanish exploration and colonization, losing favor for his plan of reaching the Spice Islands from king Manuel I of Portugal, by sailing west from Europe, Magellan offered his services to king Charles I of Spain. On 20 September 1519, Magellan led five ships with a crew of 250 people from the Spanish fort of Sanlúcar de Barrameda en route to southeast Asia via the Americas and they reached the Philippines on 16 March 1521. Rajah Kolambu the king of Mazaua told them to sail for Cebu, arriving in Cebu City, Magellan, with Enrique of Malacca as translator, befriended Rajah Humabon the Rajah or King of Cebu and persuaded the natives of allegiance to Charles I of Spain. Humabon and his wife were given Christian names and baptized as Carlos, the Santo Niño was presented to the native queen of Cebu, as a symbol of peace and friendship between the Spaniards and the Cebuanos. On 14 April Magellan erected a wooden cross on the shores of Cebu. Afterwards, about 700 islanders were baptized, Magellan soon heard of datu Lapu-Lapu, a native king in nearby Mactan Island, a rival of the Rajahs of Cebu. It was thought that Humabon and Lapu–Lapu had been fighting for control of the trade in the area. On 27 April the Battle of Mactan occurred where the Spaniards were defeated, according to Italian historian and chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, Magellans body was never recovered despite efforts to trade for it with spice and jewels. Magellans second-in-command, Juan Sebastián Elcano took his place as captain of the expedition and sailed their fleet back to Spain, survivors of the Magellan expedition brought tales of a savage island in the East Indies with them when they returned to Spain. Consequently, several Spanish expeditions were sent to the islands but all ended in failure, in 1564, Spanish explorers led by Miguel López de Legazpi, sailing from Mexico, arrived in 1565, and established a colony
21.
Christian mysticism
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Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often connected to mystical theology, especially in the Roman Catholic. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and they range from ecstatic visions of the souls mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture. Mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning to conceal, in the Hellenistic world, a mystikos was an initiate of a mystery religion. Mystical referred to religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. In early Christianity the term referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to hidden or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures, the liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God, William James popularized the use of the term religious experience in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as an experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. Other critics point out that the stress on experience is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, transformation has particular importance in the theology of Origen. Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is shaped by cultural issues. Thus, the nature of experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology, in Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, Daat became gnosis, and poverty became an important component of monasticism. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen and Clement of Alexandria, given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within Gods love, which is seen as a form of truth. Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore some of the same ideas, images. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew Scriptures provides access to the meanings of the texts
22.
Mystical theology
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Mystical Theology is the branch of theology that explains mystical practices and states, as induced by contemplative practices such as contemplative prayer. According to Origen and the Alexandrian theology, theoria is the knowledge of God in creation and of sensible things and this knowledge and contemplation leads to communion with God akin to Divine Providence. In the theological tradition of St. Macarius of Egypt, theoria is the point of interaction between God and the human in the heart of the person, manifesting spiritual gifts to the human heart. The highest form of contemplation originates in the heart, a form of contemplation than that of the intellect. The concept that theoria is allotted to each individual by their capacity to comprehend God is consistent. This is also the tradition of theoria, as taught by St. Symeon the New Theologian and this experience cultivates humility, meekness and the love of the human race that the Triune God has created. This invisible fire in the heart for humanity is manifest in absolute kindness and love for ones neighbor akin to selfless humility, agape or love, growing from mortification, kenosis and this agape, or holy fire, is the essence of Orthodoxy. In the Cappadocian school of thought, theoria is the experience of the highest or absolute truth and it is entering the Cloud of Unknowing, which is beyond rational understanding, and can be embraced only in love of God. The Cappadocian fathers went beyond the intellectual contemplation of the Alexandrian fathers and this was to begin with the seminal work Philokalia, which, through hesychasm, leads to Phronema and finally theosis, which is validated by theoria. One must move beyond gnosis to faith, through ignorance, one moves beyond knowledge and being, this contemplation being theoria. In this tradition, theoria means understanding that the Uncreated cannot be grasped by the logical or rational mind, but only by the whole person, at this point, one can commune with God just as Moses did. Gregory of Nyssa presented as the culmination of the Christian religion the contemplation of the divine Being, pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, himself influenced by the Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus, had a strong impact on Christian thought and practice, both east and west. Theoria is the theme of Dionysius’ work called The Mystical Theology. In chapter 1, Dionysius says that God dwells in divine darkness i. e, God is unknowable through sense and reason. Therefore, a person must leave behind the activity of sense and reason, through spiritual union with God, the mystic is granted theoria and through this vision is ultimately given knowledge of God. In the tradition of Dionysus the Areopagite, theoria is the lifting up of the out of time, space and created being, while the Triune God reaches down, or descends. This process is known as ekstasis. While theoria is possible through prayer, it is attained in a way through the Eucharist
23.
Neoplatonism and Christianity
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Neoplatonism was a major influence on Christian theology throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages in the West. Certain central tenets of Neoplatonism served as an interim for the Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo on his journey from dualistic Manichaeism to Christianity. As a Manichee, Augustine had held that evil has substantial being and that God is made of matter, as a Neoplatonist, and later a Christian, Augustine believed that evil is a privation of good and that God is not material. Perhaps more importantly, the emphasis on mystical contemplation as a means to directly encounter God or the One, found in the writings of Plotinus and Porphyry and he reports at least two mystical experiences in his Confessions which clearly follow the Neoplatonic model. Many other Christians were influenced by Neoplatonism, especially in their identifying the Neoplatonic One, or God, the most influential of these would be Origen, who potentially took classes from Ammonius Saccas, and the late 5th century author known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Neoplatonism also had links with Gnosticism, which Plotinus rebuked in his ninth tractate of the second Enneads, Against Those That Affirm The Creator of The Kosmos and The Kosmos Itself to Be Evil. Due to their belief being grounded in Platonic thought, the Neoplatonists rejected Gnosticisms vilification of Platos demiurge, Plotinus believed the followers of gnosticism had corrupted the original teachings of Plato. Despite the influence this philosophy had on Christianity, Justinian I would hurt later Neoplatonism by ordering the closure of the refounded Academy of Athens in 529, Pseudo-Dionysius proved significant for both the Byzantine and Roman branches of Christianity. His works were translated into Latin by John Scotus Eriugena in the 9th century, from the days of the Early Church until the present, the Orthodox Church has made positive selective use of ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics. For example, the term originated with Heraclitus and meant reason or thought. In the Christian context, Logos takes on a deeper meaning, the writer and theologian Gregory Palamas gives four distinct meanings for the term ‘logos’. The most important principle to keep in mind is that early Christianity developed in a Greek milieu, however, the meanings of words sometimes evolved along different lines. In other cases, philosophical ideas and concepts were adapted and changed by Christian writers. Any exegetical endeavor trying to unravel the influence of Neo-Platonic thought on Christian theology needs to keep these principles in mind, One should also note that philosophy was used quite differently in the Eastern and Western theological traditions. The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite are among the most enigmatic works of late antiquity, Byzantine scholars such as Gregory Palamas cited Dionysius especially in matters of Mystical Theology such as theoria, the divine energies and the unknowability of God. At present, modern theologians and philosophers are still debating whether Dionysius was a Neo-Platonist with Christian influences or a Christian writer with Neo-Platonic influences, among Orthodox scholars, the later view seems to be shared by such writers as Andrew Louth and Vladimir Lossky. However, other Orthodox scholars such as John Meyendorff believe that the Neo-Platonism of Dionysius exerted both positive and negative influences on Orthodox theology, Meyendorff maintains that Dionysius has led to some confusion in the areas of liturgical and ecclesiological formulations. Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plotinus, Proclus, as well as Platos complete works into Latin, was the figure of a major Neoplatonist revival in the Renaissance
24.
Henosis
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Henosis is the classical Greek word for mystical oneness, union, or unity. In Platonism, and especially Neoplatonism, the goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality, the One, the Neoplatonic concept has precedents in the Greek mystery religions as well as parallels in Eastern philosophy. It is further developed in the Corpus Hermeticum, in Christian theology, soteriology, the term is relatively common in classical texts, and has the meaning of union or unity. Henosis, orprimordial unity, is rational and deterministic, emanating from indeterminism an uncaused cause, each individual as a microcosm reflects the gradual ordering of the universe referred to as the macrocosm. In mimicking the demiurge, one unites with The One or Monad, thus the process of unification, of The Being, and The One, is called Henosis. The culmination of Henosis is deification, Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation toward no thought and no division within the individual. As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on Henology, one can reach a tabula rasa and this absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Within the Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge, the Monad or dunamis is of one singular expression all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all. All division is reconciled in the one, the stage before reaching singularity, called duality, is completely reconciled in the Monad. As the one, source or substance of all things the Monad is all encompassing, as infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus and it is the demiurge or nous that perceives and therefore causes the force to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being, being and perception manifest what is called soul, Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus works have a character in that they reject matter as an illusion. Matter was strictly treated as immanent, with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia and this approach is called philosophical Idealism. Within the works of Iamblichus of Chalcis, The One and reconciliation of division can be obtained through the process of theurgy, by mimicking the demiurge, the individual is returned to the cosmos to implement the will of the divine mind. One goes through a series of theurgy or rituals that unites the initiate to the Monad and these rituals mimic the ordering of the chaos of the Universe into the material world or cosmos. Thus one without conflict internal or external is united and is The One, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, but also in western mysticism, henosis can be acquired by theoria, hesychasm and contemplative prayer. Yet, the concept of theosis, or deification, differs from henosis, since created beings cannot become God in His transcendent essence, nondualism Absolute Apotheosis Fana Form of the Good Moksha Monolatrism The All Theosis http, //www. goddess-athena. org/Encyclopedia/Friends/Iamblichus/index. htm
25.
Christian monasticism
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Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It has come to be regulated by rules and, in modern times. Those living the life are known by the generic terms monks. In modern English, they are known by the gender-neutral term monastics. The word monk originated from the Greek monachos monk, itself from monos meaning alone, monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together, quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, By creating a social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions. Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community, the basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the religious orders such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, the latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc. which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it. Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians, Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types the eremitical or secluded, the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first, the monastic life is based on Jesuss amen to be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia and their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels, poverty, chastity and obedience. Monks and friars are two distinct roles, in the thirteenth century … new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, because monasteries had declined. First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism, the Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah. From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesuss 40 days in the desert and they have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century, eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society
26.
Asceticism
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Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
27.
Christian meditation
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Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to become aware of and reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditārī, which has a range of meanings including to reflect on, to study, Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. Christian meditation aims to heighten the relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. Teachings in both the Eastern and Western Christian churches have emphasized the use of Christian meditation as an element in increasing knowledge of Christ. Christian meditation involves looking back on Jesus life, thanksgiving and adoration of God for his action in sending Jesus for human salvation. In her book The Interior Castle Saint Teresa of Avila defined Christian meditation as follows, By meditation I mean prolonged reasoning with the understanding, in this way. We begin by thinking of the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son, building on that theme, E. P. Clowney explained that three dimensions of Christian meditation are crucial, not merely for showing its distinctiveness, but for guiding its practice. The first is that Christian meditation is grounded in the Bible, the second distinctive mark of Christian meditation is that it responds to the love of God, as in I John, We love, for he first loved us. The personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion is thus heightened in Christian meditation, the third dimension is that the revelations of the Bible and the love of God lead to the worship of God, making Christian meditation an exercise in praise. While Protestants view salvation in terms of faith and grace alone both Western and Eastern Christians see a role for meditation on the path to salvation and redemption, apostle Paul stated in Epistle to the Romans 9,16 that salvation only comes from God that hath mercy. The path to salvation in Christian meditation is not one of give and take, the Word of God directs meditations to show the two aspects of love that please God, obedience and adoration. The initiative in Christian salvation is with God, and one does not meditate or love God to gain his favor. In Western Christian teachings, meditation is believed to involve the inherent action of the Holy Spirit to help the meditating Christian understand the deeper meanings of the Word of God. In the 20th century, Hans Urs von Balthasar paraphrased this teaching as follows, how could we understand what is within God and is disclosed to us except through the Spirit of God who is communicated to us. As a biblical basis for teaching, von Balthasar referred to 1 Corinthians 2, 9-10. The Spirit searches all things, even the things of God. Christian meditation is different from the style of meditations performed in Eastern religions or in the context of the New Age, while other types of meditation may suggest approaches to disengage the mind, Christian meditation aims to fill the mind with thoughts related to Biblical passages or Christian devotions. Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations are intended to stimulate thought, Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion
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Lectio Divina
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In Christianity, Lectio Divina is a traditional Benedictine practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of Gods Word. It does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, traditionally, Lectio Divina has four separate steps, read, meditate, pray, contemplate. First a passage of Scripture is read, then its meaning is reflected upon and this is followed by prayer and contemplation on the Word of God. The focus of Lectio Divina is not an analysis of biblical passages. In Lectio Divina, however, the practitioner enters and shares the peace of Christ rather than dissecting it, in some Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ. The roots of Scriptural reflection and interpretation go back to Origen in the 3rd century, before the emergence of the Western monastic communities, a key contribution to the foundation of Lectio Divina came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of Scripture as a sacrament. In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote, hen you devote yourself to the divine reading, seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people. Origen believed that The Word was incarnate in Scripture and could touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that the reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts, in Origens approach the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ. In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God, in this view, using Christ as the interpretive key unlocks the message in Scriptural texts. The primordial role of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI, in the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of constant prayer in a monastic setting. After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, according to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is Romans 10, 8–10 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of Gods word in the mouth or heart. It was the recitation of the text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina. With the motto Ora et labora, daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements, liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina, a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation and this spiritual practice is called divine reading or spiritual reading – i. e. lectio divina
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Christian contemplation
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Christian contemplation, from contemplatio, refers to several Christian practices which aim at looking at, gazing at, being aware of God or the Divine. It includes several practices and theological concepts, Christianity took up the use of both the Greek and Latin terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God. Eastern and Western traditions of Christianity grew apart as they incorporated the notion of theoria into their respective teachings. It expressed the state of being a spectator, both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana, including Ian Rutherford, Binod Kumar Agarwala, Gregory Grieve, insight into being and becoming through the intuitive truth called faith, in God, leads to truth through our contemplative faculties. This theory, or speculation, as action in faith and love for God, is then expressed famously as Beauty shall Save the World and this expression comes from a mystical or gnosiological perspective, rather than a scientific, philosophical or cultural one. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. Aristotle, on the hand, separated the spectating of theoria from practical purposes, and saw it as an end in itself. Thomas Louis Schubeck says that, in Aristotles view, the knowledge that guides ethical political activity does not belong to theoria, leading a contemplative life can be considered Aristotles answer to the question what life humans ought to live. … The more humans engage in contemplation, the closer they are to their gods, Aristotles view that the best life would be a purely contemplative one was disputed by the Stoics and others, such as the Epicureans, who saw speculation as inferior to practical ethics. Contemplation is, then, knowledge, knowledge of reality itself, as opposed to knowing how, Augustine expressed this distinction by using scientia for the kind of knowledge attained by ratio, and sapientia, wisdom, for the kind of knowledge received by intellectus. Human intelligence operates at two levels, a basic level concerned with doing things, and another level concerned with simply beholding, contemplating, knowing reality, in the Enneads of Plotinus, a founder of Neoplatonism, everything is contemplation and everything is derived from contemplation. Knowledge of The One is achieved through experience of its power, Plotinus agreed with Aristotles systematic distinction between contemplation and practice, dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstension from practical, active life. Plotinus explained, The point of action is contemplation, some Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. Some make a distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. Saint John Cassian recommended use of the phrase O God, make speed to save me, O Lord, another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus. Or the Jesus Prayer, which has called the mantra of the Orthodox Church. The author of The Cloud of Unknowing recommended use of a monosyllabic word, Theoria refers to a stage of illumination on the path to theosis
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Hesychasm
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Hesychasm is a mystical tradition of contemplative prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Gregory Palamas, on which see Palamism, the origin of the term hesychasmos, and of the related terms hesychastes, hesychia and hesychazo, is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampes A Patristic Greek Lexicon, the basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear as early as the 4th century in such fathers as St John Chrysostom and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the period in Evagrius Pontikos, who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians. In Egypt, the more often used are anchoretism. The term Hesychast was used in the 6th century in Palestine in the Lives of Cyril of Scythopolis, here, it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia. The laws of the Emperor Justinian I treat Hesychast and anchorite as synonyms and it is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation. Hesychasm itself is not recorded in Lampes Lexicon, which indicates that it is a later usage, and the term Jesus Prayer is not found in any of the Fathers of the Church. Saint John Cassian presents as the used in Egypt for repetitive prayer, not the Jesus Prayer. Most likely, the rise of the term Hesychasm reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete, Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner focus and blocking of the physical senses. In this, hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Ponticus and even in the Greek tradition of going back to Plato. This is the same prayer used by the Christian Hesychasts and is the reason that they were mocked by their opponents as navel gazers. This bodily position and the practice of rhythmically breathing while invoking a divine name seems to be common to both Jewish Merkabah mysticism and Christian Hesychasm, thus the practice may have origins in the ascetical practices of the biblical prophets. Daniel Boyarin notes that Pauls own account of experience would therefore be the earliest first person account of the mystical vision of a Merkabah adept. The Hesychast interprets Christs injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to go into your closet to pray to mean one should ignore the senses. Saint John of Sinai writes, Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless primary Cognitive faculty of the soul in the house of the body. Theosis is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer resulting from the cultivation of watchfulness, according to the standard ascetic formulation of this process, there are three stages, Katharsis or purification, Theoria or illumination, and Theosis or deification. The primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis, in solitude and retirement, the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner
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Quietism (Christian philosophy)
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Since the late seventeenth century, “Quietism” has functioned, as the shorthand for accounts which are perceived to fall foul of the same theological errors, and thus to be heretical. As such, the term has come to be applied to beliefs far outside its original context, the term quietism was not used until the 17th century, so some writers have dubbed the expression of such errors before this era as ‘pre-quietism’. Quietism is particularly associated with Miguel de Molinos, referred to by the Catholic Encyclopedia as the founder of Quietism, Molinos and the doctrines of quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull Coelestis Pastor of 1687. Molinos was imprisoned in the Castel SantAngelo, where he died in 1696, Quietism spread among Roman Catholicism through small groups into France. Here it was influenced by the thought of François de Sales. Madame Guyon won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and she was also a spiritual counsellor to Archbishop Fénelon of Cambrai. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, in 1699, after Fénelon’s spirited defense in a press war with Bossuet, Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s Maxims of the Saints, to which Fénelon submitted at once. The inquisitions proceedings against remaining quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century and it is possible to isolate similar tendencies as those condemned in the seventeenth century “Quietist” controversy in earlier periods. The Cathars’ denial of the need for sacerdotal rites has been perceived as a form of quietism, likewise, the twelfth and thirteenth-century Brethren of the Free Spirit, Beguines and Beghards were all accused of holding beliefs with similarities to those condemned in the Quietist controversy. This may be a reference to the Cathars or Albigenses of southern France and Catalonia. Similar assertions of individual autonomy on the part of the Fraticelli led to their condemnation by John XXII in 1317, the condemnation of the errors of Meister Eckhart in 1329 may also be seen as an instance of an analogous concern in Christian history. In early sixteenth century Spain, concern over a set of beliefs held by those known as alumbrados raised similar concerns to those of Quietism and these concerns continued into the mid-sixteenth century, and the writings of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross. Thus, their work was not condemned as heresy, being consistent with Church teaching, the Capuchin friar Benet Canfield, an English Catholic living in Belgium, espoused quietism in a tract called Way of Perfection, on deep prayer and meditation. Beguines and Beghards Christian mysticism Hesychasm Johannes Kelpius Religious Society of Friends Taoism Zen Buddhism Nondualism Dandelion, a Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers, The Silent Revolution New York, Ontario & Lampeter, Edwin Mellen Press,1996. Renoux, Christian, Quietism, in The Papacy, An Encyclopedia, vol 3, edited by Philippe Levillain,3 vols, Miguel de Molinos, The Spiritual Guide, ed and trans by Robert P Baird, Bayley, Peter. Between Ambition and Quietism, the Socio-political Background of 1 Thessalonians 4, Revolution and Quietism, Two Political Attitudes in Theological Perspective. Quietism versus Enthusiasm, The Philadelphia Quakers and the Great Awakening, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Catholic Encyclopedia, Quietism as a false or exaggerated mysticism Columbia Encyclopedia on quietism More information Encyclopedia. com on quietism Encyclopædia Britannica1911, Quietism Informative
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Divinization (Christian)
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In Christian theology, divinization is the transforming effect of divine grace, the spirit of God, or the atonement of Christ. It literally means to become divine, or to become God. There were many varied references to divinization in the writings of the Church Fathers, in the second century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons said that God became what we are in order to make us what he is himself. Irenaeus also wrote, If the Word became a man, It was so men may become gods. He added, Do we cast blame on him because we were not made gods from the beginning, but were at first created merely as men, and then later as gods. For it was necessary at first that nature be exhibited, then after that what was mortal would be conquered and swallowed up in immortality. At about the time, Clement of Alexandria, wrote, Yea, I say. Clement further stated that f one knows himself, he will know God and his is beauty, true beauty, for it is God, and that man becomes a god, since God wills it. So Heraclitus was right when he said, Men are gods, Clement of Alexandria also stated that he who obeys the Lord and follows the prophecy given through him. Becomes a god while still moving about in the flesh, 100–165) insisted that in the beginning men were made like God, free from suffering and death, and that they are thus deemed worthy of becoming gods and of having power to become sons of the highest. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, stated his belief in literal deification, just as the Lord, putting on the body, became a man, so also we men are both deified through his flesh, and henceforth inherit everlasting life. Athanasius also observed, For the Son of God became man so that we might become God, Augustine of Hippo said, But he himself that justifies also deifies, for by justifying he makes sons of God. For he has given them power to become the sons of God, If then we have been made sons of god, we have also been made gods. To make human beings gods, Augustine said, He was made man who was God, Augustine goes on to write that are not born of His Substance, that they should be the same as He, but that by favour they should come to Him. Clement of Alexandria he Word of God became man, that thou mayest learn from man how man may become God. For if one knows himself, he will know God, and knowing God, he will be made like God is is beauty, the beauty, for it is God. Heraclitus, then, rightly said, Men are gods, and to be incorruptible is to participate in divinity. Theophilus of Antioch For if He had made him immortal from the beginning, again, if He had made him mortal, God would seem to be the cause of his death
33.
Catharsis
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Catharsis is the purification and purgation of emotions—especially pity and fear—through art or any extreme change in emotion that results in renewal and restoration. It is a metaphor used by Aristotle in the Poetics. Catharsis is a term in art that describes the effect of tragedy principally on the audience. Nowhere does Aristotle explain the meaning of catharsis as he is using that term in the definition of tragedy in the Poetics, for this reason, a number of diverse interpretations of the meaning of this term have arisen. The term is discussed along with Aristotles concept of anagnorisis. D. W. Lucas, in an edition of the Poetics, comprehensively covers the various nuances inherent in the meaning of the term in an Appendix devoted to Pity, Fear. Lucas himself does not accept any one of interpretations as his own. Purgation and purification, used in centuries, as the common interpretations of catharsis are still in wide use today. In his works prior to the Poetics, Aristotle had used the term catharsis purely in its medical sense, here, however, he employs it as a medical metaphor. F. L. Lucas maintains, therefore, that purification and cleansing are not proper translations for catharsis and it is the human soul that is purged of its excessive passions. Else made the argument against the purgation theory, It presupposes that we come to the tragic drama as patients to be cured, relieved, restored to psychic health. But there is not a word to support this in the Poetics, on the contrary it is evident in every line of the work that Aristotle is presupposing normal auditors, normal states of mind and feeling, normal emotional and aesthetic experience. Tragedy is then a corrective, through watching tragedy, the audience learns how to feel these emotions at proper levels. In the twentieth century a shift took place in the interpretation of catharsis with a number of scholars contributing to the argument in support of the intellectual clarification concept. It is generally understood that Aristotles theory of mimesis and catharsis are responses to Platos negative view of artistic mimesis on an audience. Aristotles concept of catharsis, in all of the major senses attributed to it, the following analysis by E. R. what fascinates us is the spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest motives a series of actions which lead to his own ruin. Oedipus might have left the plague to take its course, when Apollos word came back, he might still have left the murder of Laius uninvestigated, but piety and justice required him to act. He need not have forced the truth from the reluctant Theban herdsman, teiresias, Jocasta, the herdsman, each in turn tries to stop him, but in vain, he must read the last riddle, the riddle of his own life
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Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)
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Theosis or deification is a transformative process whose aim is likeness to or union with God, as taught by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. As a process of transformation, theosis is brought about by the effects of catharsis, According to Eastern Christian teaching, theosis is very much the purpose of human life. It is considered achievable only through a synergy between human activity and Gods uncreated energies, Eastern Christians consider that no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian in the proper sense. Theology in Eastern Christianity is not treated primarily as an academic pursuit, St. Athanasius of Alexandria wrote, He was incarnate that we might be made god. His statement is an apt description of the doctrine, what would otherwise seem absurd—that fallen, sinful man may become holy as God is holy—has been made possible through Jesus Christ, who is God incarnate. Most specifically creatures, i. e. created beings, cannot become God in His transcendent essence, or ousia, such a concept would be the henosis, or absorption and fusion into God of Greek pagan philosophy. However, every being and reality itself is considered as composed of the immanent energy, or Energeia, as energy is the actuality of God, i. e. His immanence, from Gods being, it is also the Energeia or activity of God, thus the doctrine avoids pantheism while partially accepting Neoplatonisms terms and general concepts, but not its substance. Let us become the image of the one whole God, bearing nothing earthly in ourselves, so that we may consort with God and become gods, receiving from God our existence as gods. e. The created image of God, through their communion with Jesus Christ, God shares Himself with the race, in order to conform them to all that He is in knowledge, righteousness. As God became human, in all ways except sin, He will also make humans God, i. e. holy or saintly, in all ways except His Divine Essence, which is uncaused and uncreated. Some Eastern Christian theologians go so far as to say that Jesus would have become incarnate for this alone, even if Adam. All of humanity is fully restored to the potential of humanity because the Son of God took to himself a human nature to be born of a woman. In Christ the two natures of God and human are not two persons but one, thus a union is effected in Christ between all of humanity in principle and God, so the holy God and sinful humanity are reconciled in principle in the one sinless man, Jesus Christ. This reconciliation is made actual through the struggle to conform to the image of Christ, without the struggle, the praxis, there is no real faith, faith leads to action, without which it is dead. One must unite will, thought, and action to Gods will, his thoughts, a person must fashion his life to be a mirror, a true likeness of God. Thus the term describes the whole process and its objective. By means of purification a person comes to theoria and then to theosis, Theosis is the participation of the person in the life of God
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Abstinence
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Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food, the practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs, for example, one can abstain from smoking. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, in the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be an act, freely chosen to enhance life. The latter is a state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the life of desire, to a chosen ideal. Hindus observe fast once in a fightnight on the day of Ekadashi. This is done to please Lord Sri Krishna by keeping themselves busy in religious activities on this day, for Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the month of Ramadan. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet, in both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for a prior to taking Holy Communion. Many Traditionalist Catholics abstain from eating meat all Fridays in the year, Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence, the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat. Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol, mormons absstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for spiritual and charitable reasons. The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking. In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Hindus abstain from eating meat, total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Theresa, St". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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