1.
Abraham Ortelius
–
Abraham Ortelius was a Flemish/Netherlandish cartographer and geographer, conventionally recognized as the creator of the first modern atlas, the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. Ortelius was born in the city of Antwerp, which was then in the Habsburg Netherlands, the Orthellius family were originally from Augsburg, a Free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1535, the family had fallen under suspicion of Protestantism, following the death of Ortelius father, his uncle Jacobus van Meteren returned from religious exile in England to take care of Ortelius. Abraham remained close to his cousin Emanuel van Meteren who would move to London. In 1575 he was appointed geographer to the king of Spain, Philip II, on the recommendation of Arias Montanus, beginning as a map-engraver, in 1547 he entered the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke as an illuminator of maps. He supplemented his income trading in books, prints, and maps, in 1560, however, when travelling with Mercator to Trier, Lorraine, and Poitiers, he seems to have been attracted, largely by Mercator’s influence, towards the career of a scientific geographer. This map subsequently appeared in reduced form in the Terrarum, in 1578 he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient geography by his Synonymia geographica. In 1596 he received a presentation from Antwerp city, similar to that afterwards bestowed on Rubens and his death on 28 June 1598, and his burial in the church of St. Michaels Abbey, Antwerp, were marked by public mourning. Quietis cultor sine lite, uxore, prole, reads the inscription on his tombstone, on 20 May 1570, Gilles Coppens de Diest at Antwerp issued Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the first modern atlas. Most of the maps were admittedly reproductions, and many discrepancies of delineation or nomenclature occur, in 1573 Ortelius published seventeen supplementary maps under the title Additamentum Theatri Orbis Terrarum. Four more Additamenta were to follow, the last one appearing in 1597 and he also had a keen interest and formed a fine collection of coins, medals and antiques, and this resulted in the book Deorum dearumque capita. He also published Itinerarium per nonnuilas Galliae Belgicae partes, a record of a journey in Belgium, in 1589 he published Maris Pacifici, the first dedicated map of the Pacific to be printed. Among his last works were an edition of Caesar, and the Aurei saeculi imago, sive Germanorum veterum vita, mores and he also aided Welser in his edition of the Peutinger Table in 1598. Contrary to popular belief, Abraham Ortelius, who had no children, never lived at the Mercator-Orteliushuis, originals of Ortelius maps are popular collectors items and often sell for tens of thousands of dollars. Facsimiles of his maps are available from many retailers. A map he made of North and South America is also included in the worlds largest commercially available jigsaw puzzle which is of four world maps and this puzzle is made by Ravensburger, measures 6 feet ×9 feet, and has over 18,000 pieces. Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical similarity between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa, and to continental drift as an explanation. Kious described Ortelius thoughts in this way, Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus, suggested that the Americas were torn away from Europe and Africa
Abraham Ortelius
–
Abraham Ortelius by
Peter Paul Rubens
Abraham Ortelius
–
1564 Typus Orbis Terrarum
Abraham Ortelius
–
Map of the
Persian Empire from the
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum
Abraham Ortelius
–
Maris Pacifici
2.
Hyperborea
–
In Greek mythology the Hyperboreans were mythical race of giants who lived beyond the North Wind. The Greeks thought that Boreas, the god of the North Wind lived in Thrace and this land was supposed to be perfect, with the sun shining twenty-four hours a day, which to modern ears suggests a possible location within the Arctic Circle. Pindar also described the perfection of the Hyperboreans, Never the Muse is absent from their ways, lyres clash and flutes cry. Neither disease nor bitter old age is mixed in their blood, far from labor. The earliest extant source that mentions Hyperborea in detail, Herodotuss Histories, dates from circa 450 BC. Herodotus also wrote that the 7th-century BC poet Aristeas wrote of the Hyperboreans in a poem called Arimaspea about a journey to the Issedones, beyond these lived the one-eyed Arimaspians, further on the gold-guarding griffins, and beyond these the Hyperboreans. Herodotus assumed that Hyperborea lay somewhere in Northeast Asia, Pindar, Simonides of Ceos and Hellanicus of Lesbos, contemporaries of Herodotus in the 5th century BC, each briefly described or referenced the Hyperboreans in their works. The Hyperboreans were believed to live beyond the snowy Riphean Mountains, according to Pausanias, The land of the Hyperboreans, men living beyond the home of Boreas. Homer placed Boreas in Thrace, and therefore Hyperborea was in his opinion north of Thrace, sophocles, Aeschylus, Simonides of Ceos and Callimachus also placed Boreas in Thrace. Other ancient writers however believed the home of Boreas or the Riphean Mountains were in a different location, for example, Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Riphean Mountains were adjacent to the Black Sea. Alternatively Pindar placed the home of Boreas, the Riphean Mountains, heraclides Ponticus and Antimachus in contrast identified the Riphean Mountains with the Alps, and the Hyperboreans as a Celtic tribe who lived just beyond them. Aristotle placed the Riphean mountains on the borders of Scythia, Hecataeus of Abdera and others believed Hyperborea was Britain. Later Roman and Greek sources continued to change the location of the Riphean mountains, however all these sources agreed these were all in the far north of Greece or southern Europe. Other descriptions put it in the area of the Ural Mountains. Plutarch, writing in the 1st century AD, connected the Hyperboreans with the Gauls who had sacked Rome in the 4th century BC, Aelian, Diodorus Siculus and Stephen of Byzantium all recorded important ancient Greek sources on Hyperborea, but added no new descriptions. The 2nd century AD Stoic philosopher Hierocles equated the Hyperboreans with the Scythians, clement of Alexandria and other early Christian writers also made this same Scythian equation. Some scholars have identified this temple with Stonehenge, Diodorus, however, does not identify Hyperborea with Britain, and his description of Britain makes no mention of the Hyperboreans or their spherical temple. Pseudo-Scymnus, around 90 BC, wrote that Boreas dwelled at the extremity of Gaulish territory, some have claimed this is a geographical reference to northern France, and Hyperborea as the British Isles which lay just beyond the English Channel
Hyperborea
–
Arctic continent on the
Gerardus Mercator map of 1595.
Hyperborea
–
Map by
Abraham Ortelius, Amsterdam 1572: at the top left Oceanvs Hyperborevs separates
Iceland from
Greenland
3.
Continent
–
A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, in geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water. Islands are frequently grouped with a continent to divide all the worlds land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. By convention, continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. Earths major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, the most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. From this perspective the edge of the shelf is the true edge of the continent. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia, as a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa, extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions, of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as more or less discrete masses of land, Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no separation of these landmasses by water. Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite, North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II and this remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents, Europe and Asia
Continent
–
The Ancient Greek geographer
Strabo holding a globe showing Europa and Asia
Continent
–
Animated, color-coded map showing the various continents and regions.
Depending on the convention and model, some continents may be consolidated or subdivided: for example,
Eurasia is most often subdivided into
Europe and
Asia (red shades), while
North and
South America are sometimes recognized as
one American continent (green shades).
Continent
–
Medieval
T and O map showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah —Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham).
Continent
–
Universalis Cosmographia, Waldseemüller's 1507 world map—the first to show the Americas separate from Asia
4.
Regio Patalis
–
Regio Patalis is Latin for the Region of Patala. It took its name from the ancient city of Patala at the mouth of the Indus River, while the Patala was well-known to mariners and traders of the Ancient Mediterranean, by the European Middle Ages, mapmakers no longer knew its location. Regio Patalis appeared on late 15th and early 16th century maps and globes in a variety of increasingly erroneous locations, further and further east and it even appeared on some maps as a promontory of Terra Australis. The geographer Strabo had said, “The Indus falls into the sea by two mouths, encompassing the country of Patalênê, which resembles the Delta in Egypt”. The 1507 Martin Waldseemüller map shows Patala in this location, in the late 2nd century BC, Agatharchides of Cnidus recorded merchants from Patala, or as he called it, Potana, coming to the island of Socotra to trade with Alexandrian merchants. Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander the Great, and the site of ancient Patala has been subject to much conjecture. Ahmad Hasan Dani, director of the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, Islamabad, concluded, “There has been an attempt to identify the city of Patala. ”This opinion was shared by Alexander Burnes, who voyaged up the Indus on a diplomatic mission in 1831-32. Both Robertson and Vincent appear to have entertained the opinion of its identity with Tatta, syene had been used by Eratosthenes of Cyrene in c. Fine’s TERRA AVSTRALIS with its REGIO PATALIS is apparently drawn from the globe of the German cosmographer Johann Schoener produced in Nuremberg in 1523, on this globe the Antarctic continent, called TERRA AVSTRALIS RECENTER INVENTA SED NONDUM PLENE COGNITA also has a large promontory bearing the name REGIO PATALIS. Schoener developed his globe from the globe made by Martin Behaim in Nuremberg in 1492, on Behaims globe, India potalis is located south of the Equator on the Hoch India peninsula, the actual Indochina, on the eastern side of the Sinus Magnus. An inscription on Behaim’s globe explains that Hoch India, was situated so far to the South that the Pole Star was no longer visible, “because this land lies at the antipodes to our land”. Martin Behaim’s source of knowledge of India Patalis was the Ymago Mundi of Pierre DAilly, d’Ailly wrote, “according to Pliny we find there to be habitation under the Tropic of Capricorn and beyond. In discussing the habitability of lands under the Torrid Zone and Tropic of Capricorn, DAilly drew on the Opus Majus, written around the year 1267 English monk and scholar Roger Bacon. Following Magellan’s circumnavigation voyage of 1519-1522, Johann Schoener identified South America with the extended India Superior peninsula and he also split the Region of Patala off from this peninsula and transferred it across the ocean to become a promontory of the Terra Australis. In this he was followed by Oronce Fine, whose mappemonde of 1531 shows the large REGIO PATALIS promontory on the continent of TERRA AVSTRALIS. The REGIO PATALIS is shown on the globe in a clock made by Jean Naze of Lyon in 1560, in a fashion similar to that on Schoener’s globe of 1523. It is also shown on the Nancy Globe, made c.1535, on these maps, Fine’s REGIO PATALIS has evolved into the great promontory of Jave la Grande which extends, like the Regio Patalis, northward from the Austral continent. This development may have influenced by the phrase used by the Italian traveler Ludovico di Varthema in describing Java which, he said
Regio Patalis
–
Patala and Patalene on the map by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Orbis Veteribus Notus [The World Known to the Ancients], in Complete Body of Ancient Geography, Laurie and Whittle, London, 1795.
Regio Patalis
–
Patala on the Waldseemüller map
Regio Patalis
–
Regio Patalis as part of Terra Australis: Abraham Ortelius, Typus Orbis Terrarum, 1564.
5.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
6.
Classical antiquity
–
It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia. Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer, and continues through the emergence of Christianity and it ends with the dissolution of classical culture at the close of Late Antiquity, blending into the Early Middle Ages. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many disparate cultures, Classical antiquity may refer also to an idealised vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poes words, the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome. The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of art, philosophy, society. The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place before the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse, the 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, in the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean, carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. The Etruscans had established control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21,753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth and it was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, the people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretias kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, summoned the Senate and had Superbus, after Superbus expulsion, the Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government in 509 BC. In fact the Latin word Rex meaning King became a dirty and hated throughout the Republic. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras. Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC
Classical antiquity
–
The
Parthenon is one of the most iconic symbols of the classical era, exemplifying ancient Greek culture
7.
Northern Hemisphere
–
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earths North pole. Due to the Earths axial tilt, winter in the Northern Hemisphere lasts from the December solstice to the March Equinox, the dates vary each year due to the difference between the calendar year and the astronomical year. Its surface is 60. 7% water, compared with 80. 9% water in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, the Arctic is the region north of the Arctic Circle. Its climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers, precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences some days in summer when the Sun never sets, the duration of these phases varies from one day for locations right on the Arctic Circle to several months near the North Pole, which is the middle of the Northern Hemisphere. Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer lies the Northern Temperate Zone, the changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. However, a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather, tropical regions are generally hot all year round and tend to experience a rainy season during the summer months, and a dry season during the winter months. In the Northern Hemisphere, objects moving across or above the surface of the Earth tend to turn to the right because of the coriolis effect, as a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres. These are best seen in circulation patterns in the North Atlantic. For the same reason, flows of air down toward the surface of the Earth tend to spread across the surface in a clockwise pattern. Thus, clockwise air circulation is characteristic of high pressure weather cells in the Northern Hemisphere, conversely, air rising from the northern surface of the Earth tends to draw air toward it in a counterclockwise pattern. Hurricanes and tropical storms spin counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, the shadow of a sundial moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. When viewed from the Northern Hemisphere, the Moon appears inverted compared to a view from the Southern Hemisphere, the North Pole faces away from the galactic center of the Milky Way. The Northern Hemisphere is home to approximately 6.57 billion people which is around 90% of the total human population of 7.3 billion people
Northern Hemisphere
–
Northern Hemisphere highlighted in blue
8.
Southern hemisphere
–
The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
Southern hemisphere
–
A famous photo of Earth from
Apollo 17 (
Blue Marble) originally had the south pole at the top; however, it was turned upside-down to fit the traditional perspective
Southern hemisphere
–
Aurora australis appearing in the night sky of Swifts Creek, 100 km (62 mi) north of
Lakes Entrance,
Victoria,
Australia
Southern hemisphere
–
Aurora australis appearing from
Stewart Island / Rakiura at the southern point of the
South Island of
New Zealand
9.
Macrobius
–
Only in later manuscripts were his names reversed as Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius, which James Willis then adopted for his edition of the Commentary. Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and he states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was born under a foreign sky, and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius. His major works have led experts to assume that he was a pagan, which foreign sky Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a prefect of Spain. The Codex Theodosianus also records a praepositus named Macrobius in 422, a number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as Theodosius and it is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena, Cameron notes. Macrobiuss most influential one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages—was a commentary in two books on the Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic. In astronomy, this work is noted for giving the diameter of the Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth. Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb, we possess an abstract by a certain Johannes. See editions by Ludwig von Jan, Franz Eyssenhardt, James Willis, the grammatical treatise will be found in Jans edition and Heinrich Keils Grammatici latini, see also Georg Friedrich Schömann, Commentatio macrobiana. Macrobiuss Saturnalia consists of an account of the held at the house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia. It contains a variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian. The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet. The latter part of the book is taken up with a dissertation upon luxury and the sumptuary laws intended to check it. The seventh book consists largely of the discussion of various physiological questions, the primary value of the work lies in the facts and opinions quoted from earlier writers. Cambridge, MA/ London, Harvard University Press,2011, percival Vaughan Davies, Macrobius, The Saturnalia. New York, Columbia University Press,1969, william Harris Stahl, Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio
Macrobius
–
Macrobius presenting his work to his son Eustachius. From an 1100 copy of Macrobius'
Dream of Scipio.
Macrobius
–
Early printed edition of Macrobius's Somnium Scipionis and Saturnalia.
Macrobius
–
Initial E shaped in the form of a writing man, probably representing Macrobius himself.
Macrobius
–
The Universe, the Earth in the centre, surrounded by the seven planets within the zodiacal signs.
10.
European exploration of Australia
–
The European exploration of Australia was the exploration of Australia by Europeans or white explorers, encompassing several waves of seafarers and land explorers. While Australias territory never became an actual Dutch settlement or colony, Dutch navigators were the first to undisputedly explore, in the 17th century, the Dutch East India Companys navigators and explorers charted almost three-quarters of Australias coastline, except its east coast. The Dutch ship, Duyfken, led by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606, explorers by land and sea continued to survey the continent for some years after settlement. Some writers have advanced the theory that the Portuguese were the first Europeans to sight Australia in the 1520s, a number of relics and remains have been interpreted as evidence that the Portuguese reached Australia. However, most historians do not accept this theory, and the interpretation of the Dieppe maps is highly contentious. The French navigator Binot Paulmier de Gonneville claimed to have landed at a land he described as east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1504, for some time it had been thought he discovered Australia, but the place he landed has now been shown to be Brazil. The Dutch East India Company was set up in 1602 and traded extensively with the islands now form parts of Indonesia. The first documented and undisputed European sighting of and landing on Australia was in late February or early March 1606, Janszoon charted the Australian coast and met with Aboriginal people. On 26 February 1606, Janszoon and his party made landfall near the town of Weipa and the Pennefather River. Janszoon proceeded down the coast for some 350 km and he stopped in some places, but was met by hostile natives and some of his men were killed. These events were recorded in Aboriginal oral history that has come down to the present day, here Janszoon decided to turn back, the place later being called Cape Keerweer, Dutch for turnabout. Later that year, De Quiros deputy Luís Vaez de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, charting New Guineas southern coast, and possibly sighting Cape York in October 1606. In 1611 Hendrik Brouwer, working for VOC, discovered that sailing from Europe to Batavia was much quicker if the Roaring Forties were used. Up to that point, the Dutch had followed a route copied from Arab and Portuguese sailors who followed the coasts of Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon. The Brouwer Route involved sailing south from the Cape of Good Hope into the Roaring Forties then sailing east before turning north to Java using the South Indian Ocean Current, the Brouwer Route became compulsory for Dutch vessels in 1617. Most of these landfalls were unplanned, the first such landfall was in 1616, when Dirk Hartog, employed by VOC, reached land at Shark Bay off the coast of Western Australia. Finding nothing of interest, Hartog continued sailing northwards along this previously undiscovered coastline of Western Australia and he then left the coast and continued on to Batavia. He called Australia T Landt van dEendracht, after his ship, in 1619 Frederik de Houtman, in the VOC ship Dordrecht, and Jacob dEdel, in another VOC ship Amsterdam, sighted land on the Australian coast near present-day Perth which they called dEdelsland
European exploration of Australia
–
Map of
William Dampier 's voyage.
European exploration of Australia
European exploration of Australia
–
Voyages of
George Bass
European exploration of Australia
–
Voyages of
Phillip Parker King
11.
Matthew Flinders
–
Captain Matthew Flinders RN was an English navigator and cartographer, who was the leader of the first circumnavigation of Australia and identified it as a continent. Flinders made three voyages to the ocean between 1791 and 1810. In the second voyage, George Bass and Flinders confirmed that Van Diemens Land was an island, in the third voyage, Flinders circumnavigated the mainland of what was to be called Australia, accompanied by Aboriginal man Bungaree. Heading back to England in 1803, Flinders vessel needed urgent repairs at Isle de France, although Britain and France were at war, Flinders thought the scientific nature of his work would ensure safe passage, but a suspicious governor kept him under arrest for more than six years. Flinders health had suffered, however, and although he reached home in 1810, he did not live to see the publication of his widely praised book and atlas, A Voyage to Terra Australis. Flinders was born in Donington, Lincolnshire, England, the son of Matthew Flinders, a surgeon, and his wife Susannah, née Ward. In his own words, he was induced to go to sea against the wishes of my friends from reading Robinson Crusoe, initially serving on HMS Alert, he transferred to HMS Scipio, and in July 1790 was made midshipman on HMS Bellerophon under Captain Pasley. By Pasleys recommendation, he joined Captain Blighs expedition on HMS Providence and this was also Blighs second Breadfruit Voyage following on from the ill-fated voyage of the Bounty. The passage between the Australian mainland and Tasmania enabled savings of several days on the journey from England, in honour of this discovery, the largest island in Bass Strait would later be named Flinders Island. The town of Flinders near the mouth of Western Port also commemorates Bass discovery of that bay, Flinders never entered Western Port, and passed Cape Schanck only on 3 May 1802. Flinders once more sailed the Norfolk, this time north on 17 July 1799 and he touched down at Pumicestone Passage, Redcliffe and Coochiemudlo Island and also rowed ashore at Clontarf. During this visit he named Redcliffe after the Red Cliffs, in March 1800, Flinders rejoined the Reliance and set sail for England. Banks used his influence with Earl Spencer to convince the Admiralty of the importance of an expedition to chart the coastline of New Holland. As a result, in January 1801, Flinders was given command of the Investigator, a 334-ton sloop, the Investigator set sail for New Holland on 18 July 1801. Attached to the expedition was the botanist Robert Brown, botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, due to the scientific nature of the expedition, Flinders was issued with a French passport, despite England and France then being at war. On 17 April 1801, Flinders married his longtime friend Ann Chappelle and had hoped to bring her with him to Port Jackson, however the Admiralty had strict rules against wives accompanying captains. This is well documented in correspondence between Flinders and his benefactor, Sir Joseph Banks in May 1801. I have but time to tell you that the news of your marriage, the Lords of the Admiralty have heard also that Mrs. Flinders is on board the Investigator, and that you have some thought of carrying her to sea with you
Matthew Flinders
–
Matthew Flinders
Matthew Flinders
–
Memorial at
Flinders, Victoria commemorating the discovery of
Western Port on 4 January 1798, by George Bass and the later passage of
Bass Strait by Bass and Flinders in the same year.
Matthew Flinders
–
View of Port Jackson taken from South from A Voyage to
Terra Australis.
Matthew Flinders
–
1744 Chart of Hollandia Nova – Terra Australis.
12.
Name of Australia
–
The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning southern, and specifically from the hypothetical Terra Australis postulated in pre-modern geography. The name was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders from 1804 and this theory of balancing land is on record as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius. The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, referring to the entire South Pacific region, Alexander Dalrymple used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1771. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who pushed for it to be adopted as early as 1804. Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name, on 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia, ulimaroa was a name given to Australia by the Swedish geographer and cartographer Daniel Djurberg in 1776. Djurberg believed the name meant something like big red land, whereas modern linguists believe it meant long hand — echoing the geography of Grand Terre. The spurious name continued to be reproduced on certain European maps, particularly some Austrian, Czech, German and Swedish maps, including in Carl Almqvists 1817 novel Parjumouf Saga ifrån Nya Holland. The country has been referred to colloquially as Oz since the early 20th century, the Oxford English Dictionary records a first occurrence in 1908, in the form Oss. Oz is often taken as a reference to the fictional Land of Oz in the film The Wizard of Oz. Australians image of Australia as a Land of Oz is not new, the spelling Oz is likely to have been influenced by the 1939 film, though the pronunciation was probably always with a /z/, as it is also for Aussie, sometimes spelt Ozzie. The Baz Luhrmann film Australia makes repeated reference to The Wizard of Oz, so, like Australia, Oz is somewhere to the west of California. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent, like Australia, Oz has inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might almost imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, Australia is colloquially known as the Land Down Under, which derives from the countrys position in the Southern Hemisphere. The term was first recorded in print in 1886, and was popularised internationally by the 1980 song of the name by Men at Work. Other less common nicknames include Straya, and Aussie, which is used as a demonym
Name of Australia
–
1570 map by
Abraham Ortelius depicting Terra Australis Nondum Cognita as a large continent on the bottom of the map and also an Arctic continent
Name of Australia
–
The name "Austrialia" was used for the first time by Quiros – on 1 May 1606.
Tridentine Calendar or 3 May Roman Calendar
Name of Australia
–
Austrialia was altered or 'corrected' to Australia over time (one example shown).
Name of Australia
–
The name Australia was specifically applied to the continent for the first time in 1794.
13.
Antarctica
–
It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres, it is the fifth-largest continent, for comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness, Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is a desert, with precipitation of only 200 mm along the coast. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C, though the average for the quarter is −63 °C. Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra. The continent, however, remained neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of easily accessible resources. In 1895, the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians, Antarctica is a de facto condominium, governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status. Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, and thirty-eight have signed it since then, the treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal, supports scientific research, and protects the continents ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations, the name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική, feminine of ἀνταρκτικός, meaning opposite to the Arctic, opposite to the north. Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c.350 B. C, marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A. D. Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for locations that could be defined as opposite to the north. For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called France Antarctique, the first formal use of the name Antarctica as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. Antarctica has no population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. Cook came within about 120 km of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals, according to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820, von Bellingshausen, Edward Bransfield, and Nathaniel Palmer
Antarctica
–
Adelie penguins in Antarctica
Antarctica
–
Antarctica
Antarctica
–
Painting of
James Weddell 's second expedition in 1823, depicting the brig Jane and the cutter Beaufroy.
Antarctica
–
Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party (left to right):
Wild,
Shackleton,
Marshall and
Adams
14.
A Voyage to Terra Australis
–
It describes his circumnavigation of the Australian continent in the early years of the 19th century, and his imprisonment by the French on the island of Mauritius from 1804–1810. The book told in detail of his explorations and included maps. By this, he was referring to the great unknown Southern continent that had been sighted, the ship Flinders commanded, HMS Investigator, was a 334-ton sloop. Up until this time the circumnavigation of Australia which was necessary to prove it was a single continent land mass, had never been completed. He achieved this by circling the continent, leaving Sydney in July 1801, heading north, through Torres Strait, across the top of the continent westward. In January 1811 approval for publication of his narrative was given by the Admiralty, Flinders was responsible for funding the major work. With an account of the shipwreck of the Porpoise, arrival of the Cumberland at Mauritius, and imprisonment of the commander during six years, the book was republished in 3 volumes in 1966 accompanied by a reproduction of the portfolio. Flinders map of Terra Australia was first published in January 1814, on 19 July 1814, the day after the book and atlas was published, Matthew Flinders died, at the age of 40. T, Vallance, T. G, Groves, Eric W, Natures investigator, the diary of Robert Brown in Australia, 1801–1805 / compiled by T. G. Vallance, D. T. Moore & E. W. Groves, Australian Biological Resources Study, ISBN0642568170 CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Fornasiero, F. J. A. G, Moore, D
A Voyage to Terra Australis
–
Entrance to Port Lincoln: 1801
A Voyage to Terra Australis
–
Map showing Matthew Flinders' voyages aboard
HMS Investigator
A Voyage to Terra Australis
–
Voyage to Terra Australis: Title Page
15.
Gerard de Jode
–
Gerard de Jode was a cartographer, engraver and publisher who lived and worked in Antwerp during the 16th century. He was born in Nijmegen and died in Antwerp, in 1547 he was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke, and began his work as a publisher/printseller. His most outstanding work is a two volume atlas Speculum Orbis Terrarum published in 1578 and it was aimed at competing with another atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum by Ortelius, published eight years earlier in 1570. The competing atlas had become so popular by the time he published his own atlas however. Only about a dozen examples have survived, gerard de Jode made plans for another enlarged edition, which was uncompleted at his death in 1591. His son Cornelis de Jode took over and published the Speculum Orbis Terrae in 1593, scholars consider many of de Jodes maps to be superior to those of Ortelius, both in detail and style. Gerard de Jode was probably the maker of a made in Antwerp that also owes much to the cosmographic ideas of Guillaume Postel. Speculum Orbis Terrarum was once the object of a theft from the Yale University Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Smiley was caught and arrested after a staff member found his X-Acto knife on the floor
Gerard de Jode
–
Gerard de Jode
Gerard de Jode
–
Map of the Northern hemisphere. Color print from copper engraving (printer Arnold Coninx). Antwerp 1593
Gerard de Jode
–
The Southern hemisphere. The maps were published in an atlas by Cornelis de Jode
Speculum Orbis Terrae
16.
Australia (continent)
–
It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the English conception. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent. Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota, New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the regions known as Australasia and Oceania. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, with a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on Earth. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometres, including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent, then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings, travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand, another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia-New Guinea has also been used, the continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its location on its tectonic plate Australia doesnt have any active volcanic regions. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago, for most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, the Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent, it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a fauna, flora. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals, animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life
Australia (continent)
–
Mainland
Australia showing the continental
Sahul Shelf (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south
Australia (continent)
–
Australia
17.
Terra Incognita
–
Terra incognita or terra ignota is a term used in cartography for regions that have not been mapped or documented. The expression is believed to be first seen in Ptolemys Geography c, the term was reintroduced in the 15th century from the rediscovery of Ptolemy’s work during the Age of Discovery. The equivalent on French maps would be terres inconnues, and some English maps may show Parts Unknown, similarly, uncharted or unknown seas would be labeled mare incognitum, Latin for unknown sea. An urban legend claims that cartographers labelled such regions with Here be dragons, however, ancient Roman and Medieval cartographers did use the phrase HIC SVNT LEONES when denoting unknown territories on maps. Alternatively, terra incognita may also refer to the hypothesized continent Terra Australis Incognita, during the 19th century terra incognita disappeared from maps of the earth, since both the coastlines and the inner parts of the continents had been fully explored. But the bottoms of the seas remain mostly un-mapped, as do many other surfaces in the solar system. The phrase is now also used metaphorically by various researchers to describe any unexplored subject or field of research, Terra, Latin for earth or land. Related English words include terrestrial, territory and terrain, Incognita, from Latin cognoscere to know, be acquainted with, which is related to English know and Greek γνῶσις gnosis knowledge. Related English words include agnostic, cognition, gnosticism, for more history of the terms, see Terra Australis, and also Etymology at Australia
Terra Incognita
–
Map of North America from 1566 showing
Italian inscriptions, both Terra In Cognita and Mare In Cognito
18.
Brasil (mythical island)
–
Brasil, also known as Hy-Brasil or several other variants, is a phantom island said to lie in the Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland. Irish myths described it as cloaked in mist except for one day seven years. The etymology of the names Brasil and Hy-Brasil is unknown, but in Irish tradition it is thought to come from the Irish Uí Breasail, cf. Old Irish, Í, island, bres, beauty, worth, great, mighty. Despite the similarity, the name of the country Brazil has no connection to the mythical islands, the South American country was at first named Ilha de Vera Cruz and later Terra de Santa Cruz by the Portuguese navigators who discovered the land. After some decades, it started to be called Brazil due to the exploitation of native Brazilwood, in Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. Nautical charts identified an island called Bracile west of Ireland in the Atlantic Ocean as far back as 1325, later it appeared as Insula de Brasil in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco, attached to one of the larger islands of a group of islands in the Atlantic. This was identified for a time with the island of Terceira in the Azores. A Catalan chart of about 1480 labels two islands Illa de brasil, one to the south west of Ireland and one south of Illa verde or Greenland, on maps the island was shown as being circular, often with a central strait or river running east-west across its diameter. Despite the failure of attempts to find it, this appeared regularly on maps lying south west of Galway Bay until 1865, Hy-Brasil has also been identified with Porcupine Bank, a shoal in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 kilometres west of Ireland and discovered in 1862. As early as 1870 a paper was read to the Geological Society of Ireland suggesting this identification, frederick Delius wrote a song titled I-Brasil, with words attributed to Fiona McLeod, pseudonym of the Celtic revival writer William Sharp. Hy-Brasil was featured in the 1989 British comedy-fantasy film Erik the Viking starring Tim Robbins, peter Bishop mysteriously travels to Hy-Brasil in the Beyond the Fringe comic book, a tie-in for the Fringe television series. Hy-Brasil is featured on signs affixed on the façade of the Embassy of Brazil to Bridgetown, Barbados, something which may reference when Barbados was claimed, a land called Hy Brasil featured in Alan Moores comic Promethea. Margaret Elphinstones 2002 novel has Hy-Brazil as its title and setting, mary Burkes short story Hy-Brasil in The Faber Book of Best New Irish Short Stories, 2004-5. Irish mythology in popular culture Inisheer Tech Duinn a mythological island to the west of Ireland were souls go after death, great Ireland a similarly west-of-Ireland place, Irish myths of which, are believed to have influenced the Vikings. Hy Brasil, the metamorphosis of an island, from cartographic error to Celtic Elysium, preliminary Sketches for the Reappearance of HyBrazil
Brasil (mythical island)
–
Brasil as shown in relation to Ireland on a map by
Abraham Ortelius (1572)
Brasil (mythical island)
–
Catalan Atlas from 1375
Brasil (mythical island)
–
Piri Reis map of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea from 1513
Brasil (mythical island)
–
Map of Europe from 1570
19.
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The Nao Victoria Replica in the
Nao Victoria Museum,
Punta Arenas,
Chile
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The
Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Monument in
Lapu-Lapu City,
Cebu in the
Philippines.
20.
Holy Spirit
–
Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is a term found in English translations of the Bible that is understood differently among the Abrahamic religions. Holy Spirit is stated to be a realm beyond the ability of words to properly convey and it must be experienced, realized, kindled within like a holy fire. The term is used to describe aspects of other religions. The word Spirit appears as either alone or with words, in the Hebrew Bible. Combinations include expressions such as the Holy Spirit, Spirit of God, the word Spirit is rendered as רוּחַ in Hebrew-language parts of the Old Testament. In its Aramaic parts, the term is rûacḥ, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, translates the word as πνεῦμα. This is the word that is used throughout the New Testament. The English term Spirit comes from its Latin origin, spiritus, the alternative term, Holy Ghost, comes from Old English translations of spiritus. The Hebrew Bible contains the term Spirit of God in the sense of the might of a unitary God and this meaning is different from the Christian concept of Holy Spirit as one personality of God in the Trinity. According to theologian Rudolf Bultmann, there are two ways to think about the Holy Spirit, animistic and dynamistic, both kinds of thought appear in Jewish and Christian scripture, but animistic is more typical of the Old Testament whereas dynamistic is more common in the New Testament. The distinction coincides with the Holy Spirit as either a temporary or permanent gift, in the Old Testament and Jewish thought, it is primarily temporary with a specific situation or task in mind, whereas in the Christian concept the gift resides in man permanently. The Holy Spirit also has an equivalent in non-Abrahamic Hellenistic mystery religions and they included a distinction of the Spirit and psyche, which Paul the Apostle later incorporated into his epistles. According to proponents of the History of religions school, the Christian concept of the Holy Spirit cannot be explained from Jewish ideas alone without reference to the Hellenistic religions. However, according to theologian Erik Konsmo, the views are so dissimilar that the only legitimate connection one can make is with the term πνεῦμα itself, Another link with ancient Greek thought is the Stoic idea of the Spirit as anima mundi—or world soul—that unites all people. In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote, cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zenos creative fire, had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or spirit, to describe it. The Hebrew language phrase ruach ha-kodesh is a used in the Hebrew Bible. It literally means spirit of the holiness or spirit of the holy place, the Hebrew terms ruacḥ qodshəka, thy holy spirit, and ruacḥ qodshō, his holy spirit also occur. The Holy Spirit in Judaism generally refers to the aspect of prophecy
Holy Spirit
–
Depiction of the Christian Holy Spirit
as a dove, by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in the
apse of
Saint Peter's Basilica.
21.
Java
–
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
Java
–
Mount Semeru and
Bromo in
East Java
Java
–
Topography of Java
Java
–
Parahyangan highland near
Buitenzorg, c. 1865–1872
Java
–
Male
Javan rhino shot in 1934 in West Java. Today only small numbers of Javan rhino survive in
Ujung Kulon; it is the World's rarest rhino.
22.
New Holland (Australia)
–
New Holland is a historical European name for mainland Australia. The name was first applied to Australia in 1644 by the Dutch seafarer Abel Tasman, New Holland continued to be used semi-officially and in popular usage as the name for the whole continent until at least the mid-1850s. The name New Holland was first applied to western and north coast of Australia in 1644 by the Dutch seafarer Abel Tasman, except for giving its name to the land, neither the Netherlands nor the Dutch East India Company claimed any territory in Australia as its own. Although many Dutch expeditions visited the coast during the 200 years after the first Dutch visit in 1606, most of the explorers of this period concluded that the apparent lack of water and fertile soil made the region unsuitable for colonisation. On 22 August 1770, after sailing north along Australias east coast, Cook first named the land New Wales, but revised it to New South Wales. With the establishment of a settlement at Sydney in 1788, the British solidified its claim to the part of Australia. The term New Holland was more used to refer only to that part of the continent that had not yet been annexed to New South Wales. In 1804, the British navigator Matthew Flinders proposed the names Terra Australis or Australia for the whole continent and he continued to use Australia in his correspondence, while attempting to gather support for the term. His suggestion was rejected, but the new name was approved by the British government in 1824. The western boundary of New South Wales was changed to 129° east in 1825, in 1828 a further settlement was made, this time on the Swan River, and the name Swan River Colony was soon the term used to refer to the whole western part of the continent. In 1832, the territory was officially renamed Western Australia, even as late as 1837, in official correspondence between the British government in London and New South Wales, the term New Holland was still being used to refer to the continent as a whole. In the Netherlands, the continent continued to be called Nieuw Holland until about the end of the 19th century, the Dutch name today is Australië. The American author Edgar Allan Poe used the name New Holland to refer to Australia in his prize-winning 1833 short story MS, found in a Bottle, the hulk flew at a rate defying computation and we must have run down the coast of New Holland. In 1851, Herman Melville wrote, in a chapter of his novel Moby-Dick entitled Does the Whales Magnitude Diminish, is it impossible to combine the hardiness of these savages with the intellectualness of the civilized man. History of Western Australia Terra Australis
New Holland (Australia)
–
New Holland as mapped on a
Coronelli globe commissioned in 1681
New Holland (Australia)
–
Map of a part of New Holland made by William Dampier in 1699
New Holland (Australia)
–
1744 Chart of Hollandia Nova – Terra Australis.
23.
Ptolemy
–
Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
Ptolemy
–
Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy being guided by the muse Astronomy, from Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, 1508. Although
Abu Ma'shar believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the conquest of
Alexander the title ‘King Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated standing in science.
Ptolemy
–
Early
Baroque artist's rendition
Ptolemy
–
A 15th-century manuscript copy of the
Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography (circa 150), indicating the countries of "
Serica " and "Sinae" (
China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (
Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (
Malay Peninsula).
Ptolemy
–
Prima Europe tabula. A C15th copy of Ptolemy's map of Britain
24.
Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
Indian Ocean
–
The economically important
Silk Road (red) and spice
trade routes (blue) were blocked by the
Ottoman Empire in ca. 1453 with the fall of the
Byzantine Empire. This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the
Age of Discovery.
Indian Ocean
–
Extent of the Indian Ocean according to the
CIA World Factbook
Indian Ocean
–
British heavy cruisers
Dorsetshire and
Cornwall under Japanese air attack and heavily damaged on 5 April 1942
Indian Ocean
–
A
dhow off the coast of Kenya
25.
Marcus Tullius Cicero
–
Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy family of the Roman equestrian order. According to Michael Grant, the influence of Cicero upon the history of European literature, Cicero introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked by civil wars, following Julius Caesars death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. His severed hands and head were then, as a revenge of Mark Antony. Petrarchs rediscovery of Ciceros letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, according to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity. Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers southeast of Rome and his father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life, although little is known about Ciceros mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Ciceros brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife, Ciceros cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was given to one of Ciceros ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is likely that Ciceros ancestors prospered through the cultivation. Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames, the family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this name when he entered politics. During this period in Roman history, cultured meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek, Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite, according to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Ciceros fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the latter two became Ciceros friends for life, and Pomponius would become, in Ciceros own words, as a second brother, with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence. Cicero wanted to pursue a career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum
Marcus Tullius Cicero
–
A first century AD bust of Cicero in the
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Marcus Tullius Cicero
–
The Young Cicero Reading by
Vincenzo Foppa (fresco, 1464), now at the
Wallace Collection
Marcus Tullius Cicero
–
Cicero Denounces Catiline,
fresco by
Cesare Maccari, 1882–88
Marcus Tullius Cicero
–
Cicero's death (France, 15th century)
26.
Somnium Scipionis
–
Upon his arrival in Africa, a guest at the court of Massinissa, Scipio Aemilianus is visited by his dead grandfather, Scipio Africanus, hero of the Second Punic War. He finds himself looking down upon Carthage from a place full of stars, shining. Nevertheless, Scipio Aemilianus sees that Rome is an insignificant part of the earth, the planetary spheres are enumerated with references to Pythagorean thought and the idea of the Music of the Spheres. Then the climatic belts of the earth are observed, from the fields to the deserts, and there is discussion of the nature of the Divine. The literary and philosophical influence of the Somnium was great, Macrobius commented on it in his Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis, which in turn was an important source for medieval dream theory. The tale is modelled on The Myth of Er in Platos Republic, although the story of Er records a near-death experience, while the journey of Scipios disembodied soul takes place in a dream, both give examples of belief in astral projection. Macrobius Commentary upon Scipios Dream was known to the sixth-century philosopher Boethius, the work assumed the astrological cosmos formulated by Claudius Ptolemy. Chretien de Troyes referred to Macrobius work in his first Arthurian romance, Erec, chaucer referred to the work in The Nuns Priests Tale and especially in the Parlement of Foules. Some critics consider Raphaels painting Vision of a Knight to be a depiction of Scipios Dream, the composer Mozart, at the age of fifteen, wrote a short opera entitled Il sogno di Scipione based upon Scipio Aemilianuss soul-journey through the cosmos. Iain Pears wrote a novel called The Dream of Scipio which refers to Ciceros work in various direct and indirect ways. This story is the basis for Chris McCullys poem Scipios Dream from his collection Not Only I, images from a 12th-century manuscript of Macrobius Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis. Source, Copenhagen, Det Kongelige Bibliotek, ms, Somnium Scipionis The Dream of Scipio
Somnium Scipionis
–
Scipio Africanus the Elder, who in Cicero's story appears to his grandson and tells him of the universe and his destiny.
Somnium Scipionis
–
The Universe, the Earth in the centre, surrounded by the seven planets within the zodiacal signs.
Somnium Scipionis
–
Initial E shaped in the form of a writing man, probably representing Macrobius himself.
Somnium Scipionis
–
The five
climes of the Earth. Frozen climes in yellow; Temperate climes in blue; Torrid clime in red.
27.
Renaissance
–
The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
Renaissance
–
David, by
Michelangelo (
Accademia di Belle Arti,
Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art.
Renaissance
–
Renaissance
Renaissance
–
Leonardo da Vinci 's
Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) shows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in
Vitruvius '
De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.
Renaissance
–
Portrait of a young woman (c. 1480-85) (
Simonetta Vespucci) by
Sandro Botticelli
28.
Antipodes
–
In geography, the antipode of any place on Earth is the point on the Earths surface that is diametrically opposite to it. A pair of antipodes are two points that are antipodal /ænˈtɪpədəl/ to each other and are connected by a line running through the centre of the Earth. Such points are as far away from each other as possible, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Antipodes may be used to refer to Australia and New Zealand, and Antipodeans to their inhabitants. Geographically the antipodes of Britain and Ireland are in the Pacific Ocean and this gave rise to the name of the Antipodes Islands of New Zealand, which are close to the antipode of London at about 50°S 179°E. The antipodes of Australia are in the North Atlantic Ocean, while parts of Spain, Portugal, approximately 15% of land territory is antipodal to other land, representing approximately 4. 4% of the Earths surface. The antipode of any place on the Earth is the place that is diametrically opposite it, so a line drawn from the one to the passes through the centre of the Earth. For example, the antipodes of New Zealands lower North Island lie in Spain, most of the Earths land surfaces have ocean at their antipodes, this being a consequence of most land being in the land hemisphere. The singular antipode is a back-formation from the plural antipodes, which in Greek is the plural of the singular antipous, sunrise and sunset do not quite oppose each other at antipodes due to refraction of sunlight. If the geographic coordinates of a point on the Earths surface are and this relation holds true whether the Earth is approximated as a perfect sphere or as a reference ellipsoid. For example, the antipode of the point in China at 37° N 119° E is the point in Argentina at 37° S 61° W, the word antipodes comes from the Greek, ἀντίποδες, plural of antipous, with feet opposite, from anti- opposed and pous foot. Medieval illustrations imagine them in some way inverted, with their growing out of their heads. From the time of St Augustine, the Christian church was skeptical of the notion. In 748, in reply to a letter from Saint Boniface, Pope Zachary declared the belief that beneath the earth there was another world and other men, another sun, in his letter, Boniface had apparently maintained that Vergilius of Salzburg held such a belief. The antipodes being an attribute of a spherical Earth, some ancient authors used their perceived absurdity as an argument for a flat Earth and this posed the problem that Christ told the apostles to evangelize all mankind, with regard to the unreachable antipodes, this would have been impossible. Christ would either have appeared a second time, in the antipodes, such an argument was forwarded by the Spanish theologian Alonso Tostado as late as the 15th century and St. Augustine doubts was a response to Columbuss proposal to sail westwards to the Indies. The author of the Norwegian book Konungs Skuggsjá, from around 1250 and he notes that they will see the sun in the north in the middle of the day and that they will have seasons opposite those of the Northern Hemisphere. The earliest surviving account by a European who had visited the Southern Hemisphere is that of Marco Polo and he noted that it was impossible to see the star Polaris from there. The idea of dry land in the southern climes, the Terra Australis, was introduced by Ptolemy, there are no non-stop scheduled flights between any two antipodal locations by commercial airline service—or anything even close
Antipodes
–
This map shows the antipodes of each point on the
Earth 's surface—the points where the blue and yellow overlap are land antipodes—most land has its antipodes in the ocean. This map uses the
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection. The yellow areas can be considered to be opposite reflections of the blue areas but on the inner "surface" of the globe of the Earth
29.
Oronce Fine
–
Oronce Finé was a French mathematician and cartographer. Born in Briançon, the son and grandson of physicians, he was educated in Paris and he was imprisoned in 1524, probably for practicing judicial astrology. In 1531, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics at the Collège Royal, founded by King Francis I, although primarily a populariser, Finé was one of the most prolific authors of mathematical books of his age. He worked in a range of mathematical fields, including practical geometry, arithmetic, optics, gnomonics, astronomy. He gave the value of pi to be 22 2⁄9/7 ≈3.1746 in 1544, later, he gave 47/15 ≈3.1333 and, in De rebus mathematicis, he gave 3 11/78 ≈3.1410. In 1542 Finé published De mundi sphaera, an astronomy textbook whose woodcut illustrations were much appreciated. His writing on astronomy included guides to the use of astronomical equipment and he also described more recent innovations, such as an instrument he called a méthéoroscope. Explanatory work was complemented by direct contributions and his woodcut map of France is one of the first of its kind. He constructed an ivory sundial in 1524, which still exists, Finés heart-shaped map projection may be his most famous illustration, and was frequently employed by other notable cartographers, including Peter Apian and Gerardus Mercator. Finé attempted to reconcile discoveries in the New World with old medieval legends, thus, on one of his two world maps, Nova Universi Orbis Descriptio, the legend marked Asia covers both North America and Asia, which were represented as one landmass. He used the toponym America for South America, and thus Marco Polos Mangi, Tangut, Finés cosmography was derived from the German mathematician and cosmographer Johannes Schöner. Lucien Gallois also noted the undeniable ressemblance parfaite between Finés 1531 mappemonde and Schöners globe of 1533, wieders identification of Schöners map gores of 1523 strengthens Gallois case for Finés reliance upon Schöner. Finé died in Paris at age 60, jean Clouet is said to have painted a portrait of Finé in 1530, when Finé was 36. With the original painting lost, the rendering is now known only through prints derived from the original image, the lunar crater Orontius and Finaeus Cove in Antarctica are named after Oronce Finé, using his Latinized name. In 2014, a named after Oronce Fine was inaugurated in Paris. Http, //www. diegocuoghi. com/Piri_Reis/Finaeus. htm THE MYSTERIES OF THE PIRI REIS MAP, THE CART OF ORONTIUS FINAEUS ]
Oronce Fine
–
Oronce Finé
Oronce Fine
–
Heart-shaped map
30.
Saint Thomas the Apostle
–
Thomas the Apostle was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, according to the New Testament. He is informally called doubting Thomas because he doubted Jesus resurrection when first told, followed later by his confession of faith, My Lord and my God, on seeing Jesus wounded body. According to undocumented traditions, the Apostle reached Muziris, in AD52 and baptized several people, after his death, the reputed relics of Saint Thomas the Apostle were enshrined as far as Mesopotamia in the 3rd century, and later moved to various places. In 1258, some of the relics were brought to Abruzzo in Ortona, Italy and he is often regarded as the Patron Saint of India, and the name Thoma remains quite popular among Saint Thomas Christians of India. Today scholars say the legends are no more possible for there is no written claim before centuries later. Thomas first speaks in the Gospel of John, in John 11,16, when Lazarus had recently died, the apostles do not wish to go back to Judea, where some Jews had attempted to stone Jesus. Thomas says, Let us also go, that we may die with him and he speaks again in John 14,5. There, Jesus had just explained that he was going away to prepare a heavenly home for his followers, Thomas reacted by saying, Lord, we don’t know where you are going, so how can we know the way. But when Jesus appeared later and invited Thomas to touch his wounds and behold him, Thomas showed his belief by saying, My Lord and my God. Jesus then said, Thomas, because thou hast seen me, thou hast believed, blessed they that have not seen, and have believed. The name Thomas given for the apostle in the New Testament is derived from the Aramaic or Syriac, ܬܐܘܡܐ Toma, equivalently from Hebrew Teom, the equivalent term for twin in Greek, which is also used in the New Testament, is Δίδυμος Didymus. The Nag Hammadi copy of the Gospel of Thomas begins, These are the sayings that the living Jesus spoke. Early Syrian traditions also relate the apostles full name as Judas Thomas, some have seen in the Acts of Thomas an identification of Saint Thomas with the apostle Judas, brother of James, better known in English as Jude. However, the first sentence of the Acts follows the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in distinguishing the apostle Thomas, when the feast of Saint Thomas was inserted in the Roman calendar in the 9th century, it was assigned to 21 December. 3 July was the day on which his relics were translated from Mylapore, traditionalist Roman Catholics and many Anglicans, still celebrate his feast day on 21 December. However, most modern liturgical calendars prefer 3 July, the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic churches celebrate his feast day on 6 October. Thomas is commemorated in common with all of the apostles on 30 June. He is also associated with the Arabian icon of the Theotokos, the Malankara Orthodox church celebrates his feast on three days,3 July,18 December, and 21 December
Saint Thomas the Apostle
–
Eastern icon of Thomas
Saint Thomas the Apostle
–
St. Thomas receiving the Virgin Mary's girdle from heaven.
Saint Thomas the Apostle
–
The tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle in
Mylapore,
India.
31.
Southern Hemisphere
–
The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
Southern Hemisphere
–
A famous photo of Earth from
Apollo 17 (
Blue Marble) originally had the south pole at the top; however, it was turned upside-down to fit the traditional perspective
Southern Hemisphere
–
Aurora australis appearing in the night sky of Swifts Creek, 100 km (62 mi) north of
Lakes Entrance,
Victoria,
Australia
Southern Hemisphere
–
Aurora australis appearing from
Stewart Island / Rakiura at the southern point of the
South Island of
New Zealand
