1.
Abraham Ortelius
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Abraham Ortelius was a Flemish/Netherlandish cartographer and geographer, conventionally recognized as the creator of the first modern atlas, the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. Ortelius was born in the city of Antwerp, which was then in the Habsburg Netherlands, the Orthellius family were originally from Augsburg, a Free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1535, the family had fallen under suspicion of Protestantism, following the death of Ortelius father, his uncle Jacobus van Meteren returned from religious exile in England to take care of Ortelius. Abraham remained close to his cousin Emanuel van Meteren who would move to London. In 1575 he was appointed geographer to the king of Spain, Philip II, on the recommendation of Arias Montanus, beginning as a map-engraver, in 1547 he entered the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke as an illuminator of maps. He supplemented his income trading in books, prints, and maps, in 1560, however, when travelling with Mercator to Trier, Lorraine, and Poitiers, he seems to have been attracted, largely by Mercator’s influence, towards the career of a scientific geographer. This map subsequently appeared in reduced form in the Terrarum, in 1578 he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient geography by his Synonymia geographica. In 1596 he received a presentation from Antwerp city, similar to that afterwards bestowed on Rubens and his death on 28 June 1598, and his burial in the church of St. Michaels Abbey, Antwerp, were marked by public mourning. Quietis cultor sine lite, uxore, prole, reads the inscription on his tombstone, on 20 May 1570, Gilles Coppens de Diest at Antwerp issued Ortelius’ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the first modern atlas. Most of the maps were admittedly reproductions, and many discrepancies of delineation or nomenclature occur, in 1573 Ortelius published seventeen supplementary maps under the title Additamentum Theatri Orbis Terrarum. Four more Additamenta were to follow, the last one appearing in 1597 and he also had a keen interest and formed a fine collection of coins, medals and antiques, and this resulted in the book Deorum dearumque capita. He also published Itinerarium per nonnuilas Galliae Belgicae partes, a record of a journey in Belgium, in 1589 he published Maris Pacifici, the first dedicated map of the Pacific to be printed. Among his last works were an edition of Caesar, and the Aurei saeculi imago, sive Germanorum veterum vita, mores and he also aided Welser in his edition of the Peutinger Table in 1598. Contrary to popular belief, Abraham Ortelius, who had no children, never lived at the Mercator-Orteliushuis, originals of Ortelius maps are popular collectors items and often sell for tens of thousands of dollars. Facsimiles of his maps are available from many retailers. A map he made of North and South America is also included in the worlds largest commercially available jigsaw puzzle which is of four world maps and this puzzle is made by Ravensburger, measures 6 feet ×9 feet, and has over 18,000 pieces. Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical similarity between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa, and to continental drift as an explanation. Kious described Ortelius thoughts in this way, Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus, suggested that the Americas were torn away from Europe and Africa
2.
Hyperborea
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In Greek mythology the Hyperboreans were mythical race of giants who lived beyond the North Wind. The Greeks thought that Boreas, the god of the North Wind lived in Thrace and this land was supposed to be perfect, with the sun shining twenty-four hours a day, which to modern ears suggests a possible location within the Arctic Circle. Pindar also described the perfection of the Hyperboreans, Never the Muse is absent from their ways, lyres clash and flutes cry. Neither disease nor bitter old age is mixed in their blood, far from labor. The earliest extant source that mentions Hyperborea in detail, Herodotuss Histories, dates from circa 450 BC. Herodotus also wrote that the 7th-century BC poet Aristeas wrote of the Hyperboreans in a poem called Arimaspea about a journey to the Issedones, beyond these lived the one-eyed Arimaspians, further on the gold-guarding griffins, and beyond these the Hyperboreans. Herodotus assumed that Hyperborea lay somewhere in Northeast Asia, Pindar, Simonides of Ceos and Hellanicus of Lesbos, contemporaries of Herodotus in the 5th century BC, each briefly described or referenced the Hyperboreans in their works. The Hyperboreans were believed to live beyond the snowy Riphean Mountains, according to Pausanias, The land of the Hyperboreans, men living beyond the home of Boreas. Homer placed Boreas in Thrace, and therefore Hyperborea was in his opinion north of Thrace, sophocles, Aeschylus, Simonides of Ceos and Callimachus also placed Boreas in Thrace. Other ancient writers however believed the home of Boreas or the Riphean Mountains were in a different location, for example, Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Riphean Mountains were adjacent to the Black Sea. Alternatively Pindar placed the home of Boreas, the Riphean Mountains, heraclides Ponticus and Antimachus in contrast identified the Riphean Mountains with the Alps, and the Hyperboreans as a Celtic tribe who lived just beyond them. Aristotle placed the Riphean mountains on the borders of Scythia, Hecataeus of Abdera and others believed Hyperborea was Britain. Later Roman and Greek sources continued to change the location of the Riphean mountains, however all these sources agreed these were all in the far north of Greece or southern Europe. Other descriptions put it in the area of the Ural Mountains. Plutarch, writing in the 1st century AD, connected the Hyperboreans with the Gauls who had sacked Rome in the 4th century BC, Aelian, Diodorus Siculus and Stephen of Byzantium all recorded important ancient Greek sources on Hyperborea, but added no new descriptions. The 2nd century AD Stoic philosopher Hierocles equated the Hyperboreans with the Scythians, clement of Alexandria and other early Christian writers also made this same Scythian equation. Some scholars have identified this temple with Stonehenge, Diodorus, however, does not identify Hyperborea with Britain, and his description of Britain makes no mention of the Hyperboreans or their spherical temple. Pseudo-Scymnus, around 90 BC, wrote that Boreas dwelled at the extremity of Gaulish territory, some have claimed this is a geographical reference to northern France, and Hyperborea as the British Isles which lay just beyond the English Channel
3.
Continent
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A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, in geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water. Islands are frequently grouped with a continent to divide all the worlds land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. By convention, continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. Earths major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, the most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. From this perspective the edge of the shelf is the true edge of the continent. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia, as a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa, extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions, of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as more or less discrete masses of land, Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no separation of these landmasses by water. Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite, North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II and this remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents, Europe and Asia
4.
Regio Patalis
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Regio Patalis is Latin for the Region of Patala. It took its name from the ancient city of Patala at the mouth of the Indus River, while the Patala was well-known to mariners and traders of the Ancient Mediterranean, by the European Middle Ages, mapmakers no longer knew its location. Regio Patalis appeared on late 15th and early 16th century maps and globes in a variety of increasingly erroneous locations, further and further east and it even appeared on some maps as a promontory of Terra Australis. The geographer Strabo had said, “The Indus falls into the sea by two mouths, encompassing the country of Patalênê, which resembles the Delta in Egypt”. The 1507 Martin Waldseemüller map shows Patala in this location, in the late 2nd century BC, Agatharchides of Cnidus recorded merchants from Patala, or as he called it, Potana, coming to the island of Socotra to trade with Alexandrian merchants. Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander the Great, and the site of ancient Patala has been subject to much conjecture. Ahmad Hasan Dani, director of the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, Islamabad, concluded, “There has been an attempt to identify the city of Patala. ”This opinion was shared by Alexander Burnes, who voyaged up the Indus on a diplomatic mission in 1831-32. Both Robertson and Vincent appear to have entertained the opinion of its identity with Tatta, syene had been used by Eratosthenes of Cyrene in c. Fine’s TERRA AVSTRALIS with its REGIO PATALIS is apparently drawn from the globe of the German cosmographer Johann Schoener produced in Nuremberg in 1523, on this globe the Antarctic continent, called TERRA AVSTRALIS RECENTER INVENTA SED NONDUM PLENE COGNITA also has a large promontory bearing the name REGIO PATALIS. Schoener developed his globe from the globe made by Martin Behaim in Nuremberg in 1492, on Behaims globe, India potalis is located south of the Equator on the Hoch India peninsula, the actual Indochina, on the eastern side of the Sinus Magnus. An inscription on Behaim’s globe explains that Hoch India, was situated so far to the South that the Pole Star was no longer visible, “because this land lies at the antipodes to our land”. Martin Behaim’s source of knowledge of India Patalis was the Ymago Mundi of Pierre DAilly, d’Ailly wrote, “according to Pliny we find there to be habitation under the Tropic of Capricorn and beyond. In discussing the habitability of lands under the Torrid Zone and Tropic of Capricorn, DAilly drew on the Opus Majus, written around the year 1267 English monk and scholar Roger Bacon. Following Magellan’s circumnavigation voyage of 1519-1522, Johann Schoener identified South America with the extended India Superior peninsula and he also split the Region of Patala off from this peninsula and transferred it across the ocean to become a promontory of the Terra Australis. In this he was followed by Oronce Fine, whose mappemonde of 1531 shows the large REGIO PATALIS promontory on the continent of TERRA AVSTRALIS. The REGIO PATALIS is shown on the globe in a clock made by Jean Naze of Lyon in 1560, in a fashion similar to that on Schoener’s globe of 1523. It is also shown on the Nancy Globe, made c.1535, on these maps, Fine’s REGIO PATALIS has evolved into the great promontory of Jave la Grande which extends, like the Regio Patalis, northward from the Austral continent. This development may have influenced by the phrase used by the Italian traveler Ludovico di Varthema in describing Java which, he said
5.
Classical antiquity
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It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia. Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer, and continues through the emergence of Christianity and it ends with the dissolution of classical culture at the close of Late Antiquity, blending into the Early Middle Ages. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many disparate cultures, Classical antiquity may refer also to an idealised vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poes words, the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome. The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of art, philosophy, society. The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place before the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse, the 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, in the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean, carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. The Etruscans had established control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21,753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth and it was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, the people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretias kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, summoned the Senate and had Superbus, after Superbus expulsion, the Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government in 509 BC. In fact the Latin word Rex meaning King became a dirty and hated throughout the Republic. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras. Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC
6.
Northern Hemisphere
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The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earths North pole. Due to the Earths axial tilt, winter in the Northern Hemisphere lasts from the December solstice to the March Equinox, the dates vary each year due to the difference between the calendar year and the astronomical year. Its surface is 60. 7% water, compared with 80. 9% water in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, the Arctic is the region north of the Arctic Circle. Its climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers, precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences some days in summer when the Sun never sets, the duration of these phases varies from one day for locations right on the Arctic Circle to several months near the North Pole, which is the middle of the Northern Hemisphere. Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer lies the Northern Temperate Zone, the changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. However, a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather, tropical regions are generally hot all year round and tend to experience a rainy season during the summer months, and a dry season during the winter months. In the Northern Hemisphere, objects moving across or above the surface of the Earth tend to turn to the right because of the coriolis effect, as a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres. These are best seen in circulation patterns in the North Atlantic. For the same reason, flows of air down toward the surface of the Earth tend to spread across the surface in a clockwise pattern. Thus, clockwise air circulation is characteristic of high pressure weather cells in the Northern Hemisphere, conversely, air rising from the northern surface of the Earth tends to draw air toward it in a counterclockwise pattern. Hurricanes and tropical storms spin counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, the shadow of a sundial moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. When viewed from the Northern Hemisphere, the Moon appears inverted compared to a view from the Southern Hemisphere, the North Pole faces away from the galactic center of the Milky Way. The Northern Hemisphere is home to approximately 6.57 billion people which is around 90% of the total human population of 7.3 billion people
7.
Southern Hemisphere
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The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Macrobius
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Only in later manuscripts were his names reversed as Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius, which James Willis then adopted for his edition of the Commentary. Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and he states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was born under a foreign sky, and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius. His major works have led experts to assume that he was a pagan, which foreign sky Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a prefect of Spain. The Codex Theodosianus also records a praepositus named Macrobius in 422, a number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as Theodosius and it is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena, Cameron notes. Macrobiuss most influential one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages—was a commentary in two books on the Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic. In astronomy, this work is noted for giving the diameter of the Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth. Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb, we possess an abstract by a certain Johannes. See editions by Ludwig von Jan, Franz Eyssenhardt, James Willis, the grammatical treatise will be found in Jans edition and Heinrich Keils Grammatici latini, see also Georg Friedrich Schömann, Commentatio macrobiana. Macrobiuss Saturnalia consists of an account of the held at the house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia. It contains a variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian. The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet. The latter part of the book is taken up with a dissertation upon luxury and the sumptuary laws intended to check it. The seventh book consists largely of the discussion of various physiological questions, the primary value of the work lies in the facts and opinions quoted from earlier writers. Cambridge, MA/ London, Harvard University Press,2011, percival Vaughan Davies, Macrobius, The Saturnalia. New York, Columbia University Press,1969, william Harris Stahl, Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio
9.
Matthew Flinders
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Captain Matthew Flinders RN was an English navigator and cartographer, who was the leader of the first circumnavigation of Australia and identified it as a continent. Flinders made three voyages to the ocean between 1791 and 1810. In the second voyage, George Bass and Flinders confirmed that Van Diemens Land was an island, in the third voyage, Flinders circumnavigated the mainland of what was to be called Australia, accompanied by Aboriginal man Bungaree. Heading back to England in 1803, Flinders vessel needed urgent repairs at Isle de France, although Britain and France were at war, Flinders thought the scientific nature of his work would ensure safe passage, but a suspicious governor kept him under arrest for more than six years. Flinders health had suffered, however, and although he reached home in 1810, he did not live to see the publication of his widely praised book and atlas, A Voyage to Terra Australis. Flinders was born in Donington, Lincolnshire, England, the son of Matthew Flinders, a surgeon, and his wife Susannah, née Ward. In his own words, he was induced to go to sea against the wishes of my friends from reading Robinson Crusoe, initially serving on HMS Alert, he transferred to HMS Scipio, and in July 1790 was made midshipman on HMS Bellerophon under Captain Pasley. By Pasleys recommendation, he joined Captain Blighs expedition on HMS Providence and this was also Blighs second Breadfruit Voyage following on from the ill-fated voyage of the Bounty. The passage between the Australian mainland and Tasmania enabled savings of several days on the journey from England, in honour of this discovery, the largest island in Bass Strait would later be named Flinders Island. The town of Flinders near the mouth of Western Port also commemorates Bass discovery of that bay, Flinders never entered Western Port, and passed Cape Schanck only on 3 May 1802. Flinders once more sailed the Norfolk, this time north on 17 July 1799 and he touched down at Pumicestone Passage, Redcliffe and Coochiemudlo Island and also rowed ashore at Clontarf. During this visit he named Redcliffe after the Red Cliffs, in March 1800, Flinders rejoined the Reliance and set sail for England. Banks used his influence with Earl Spencer to convince the Admiralty of the importance of an expedition to chart the coastline of New Holland. As a result, in January 1801, Flinders was given command of the Investigator, a 334-ton sloop, the Investigator set sail for New Holland on 18 July 1801. Attached to the expedition was the botanist Robert Brown, botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, due to the scientific nature of the expedition, Flinders was issued with a French passport, despite England and France then being at war. On 17 April 1801, Flinders married his longtime friend Ann Chappelle and had hoped to bring her with him to Port Jackson, however the Admiralty had strict rules against wives accompanying captains. This is well documented in correspondence between Flinders and his benefactor, Sir Joseph Banks in May 1801. I have but time to tell you that the news of your marriage, the Lords of the Admiralty have heard also that Mrs. Flinders is on board the Investigator, and that you have some thought of carrying her to sea with you
10.
Name of Australia
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The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning southern, and specifically from the hypothetical Terra Australis postulated in pre-modern geography. The name was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders from 1804 and this theory of balancing land is on record as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius. The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, referring to the entire South Pacific region, Alexander Dalrymple used it in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1771. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who pushed for it to be adopted as early as 1804. Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name, on 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia, ulimaroa was a name given to Australia by the Swedish geographer and cartographer Daniel Djurberg in 1776. Djurberg believed the name meant something like big red land, whereas modern linguists believe it meant long hand — echoing the geography of Grand Terre. The spurious name continued to be reproduced on certain European maps, particularly some Austrian, Czech, German and Swedish maps, including in Carl Almqvists 1817 novel Parjumouf Saga ifrån Nya Holland. The country has been referred to colloquially as Oz since the early 20th century, the Oxford English Dictionary records a first occurrence in 1908, in the form Oss. Oz is often taken as a reference to the fictional Land of Oz in the film The Wizard of Oz. Australians image of Australia as a Land of Oz is not new, the spelling Oz is likely to have been influenced by the 1939 film, though the pronunciation was probably always with a /z/, as it is also for Aussie, sometimes spelt Ozzie. The Baz Luhrmann film Australia makes repeated reference to The Wizard of Oz, so, like Australia, Oz is somewhere to the west of California. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent, like Australia, Oz has inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might almost imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, Australia is colloquially known as the Land Down Under, which derives from the countrys position in the Southern Hemisphere. The term was first recorded in print in 1886, and was popularised internationally by the 1980 song of the name by Men at Work. Other less common nicknames include Straya, and Aussie, which is used as a demonym
11.
Antarctica
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It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres, it is the fifth-largest continent, for comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness, Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is a desert, with precipitation of only 200 mm along the coast. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C, though the average for the quarter is −63 °C. Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra. The continent, however, remained neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of easily accessible resources. In 1895, the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians, Antarctica is a de facto condominium, governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status. Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, and thirty-eight have signed it since then, the treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal, supports scientific research, and protects the continents ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations, the name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική, feminine of ἀνταρκτικός, meaning opposite to the Arctic, opposite to the north. Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c.350 B. C, marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A. D. Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for locations that could be defined as opposite to the north. For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called France Antarctique, the first formal use of the name Antarctica as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. Antarctica has no population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. Cook came within about 120 km of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals, according to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820, von Bellingshausen, Edward Bransfield, and Nathaniel Palmer
12.
A Voyage to Terra Australis
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It describes his circumnavigation of the Australian continent in the early years of the 19th century, and his imprisonment by the French on the island of Mauritius from 1804–1810. The book told in detail of his explorations and included maps. By this, he was referring to the great unknown Southern continent that had been sighted, the ship Flinders commanded, HMS Investigator, was a 334-ton sloop. Up until this time the circumnavigation of Australia which was necessary to prove it was a single continent land mass, had never been completed. He achieved this by circling the continent, leaving Sydney in July 1801, heading north, through Torres Strait, across the top of the continent westward. In January 1811 approval for publication of his narrative was given by the Admiralty, Flinders was responsible for funding the major work. With an account of the shipwreck of the Porpoise, arrival of the Cumberland at Mauritius, and imprisonment of the commander during six years, the book was republished in 3 volumes in 1966 accompanied by a reproduction of the portfolio. Flinders map of Terra Australia was first published in January 1814, on 19 July 1814, the day after the book and atlas was published, Matthew Flinders died, at the age of 40. T, Vallance, T. G, Groves, Eric W, Natures investigator, the diary of Robert Brown in Australia, 1801–1805 / compiled by T. G. Vallance, D. T. Moore & E. W. Groves, Australian Biological Resources Study, ISBN0642568170 CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Fornasiero, F. J. A. G, Moore, D
13.
Gerard de Jode
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Gerard de Jode was a cartographer, engraver and publisher who lived and worked in Antwerp during the 16th century. He was born in Nijmegen and died in Antwerp, in 1547 he was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke, and began his work as a publisher/printseller. His most outstanding work is a two volume atlas Speculum Orbis Terrarum published in 1578 and it was aimed at competing with another atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum by Ortelius, published eight years earlier in 1570. The competing atlas had become so popular by the time he published his own atlas however. Only about a dozen examples have survived, gerard de Jode made plans for another enlarged edition, which was uncompleted at his death in 1591. His son Cornelis de Jode took over and published the Speculum Orbis Terrae in 1593, scholars consider many of de Jodes maps to be superior to those of Ortelius, both in detail and style. Gerard de Jode was probably the maker of a made in Antwerp that also owes much to the cosmographic ideas of Guillaume Postel. Speculum Orbis Terrarum was once the object of a theft from the Yale University Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Smiley was caught and arrested after a staff member found his X-Acto knife on the floor
14.
Australia (continent)
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It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the English conception. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent. Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota, New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the regions known as Australasia and Oceania. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, with a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on Earth. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometres, including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent, then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings, travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand, another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia-New Guinea has also been used, the continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its location on its tectonic plate Australia doesnt have any active volcanic regions. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago, for most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, the Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent, it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a fauna, flora. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals, animal groups such as macropods, monotremes, and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life
15.
Brasil (mythical island)
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Brasil, also known as Hy-Brasil or several other variants, is a phantom island said to lie in the Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland. Irish myths described it as cloaked in mist except for one day seven years. The etymology of the names Brasil and Hy-Brasil is unknown, but in Irish tradition it is thought to come from the Irish Uí Breasail, cf. Old Irish, Í, island, bres, beauty, worth, great, mighty. Despite the similarity, the name of the country Brazil has no connection to the mythical islands, the South American country was at first named Ilha de Vera Cruz and later Terra de Santa Cruz by the Portuguese navigators who discovered the land. After some decades, it started to be called Brazil due to the exploitation of native Brazilwood, in Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. Nautical charts identified an island called Bracile west of Ireland in the Atlantic Ocean as far back as 1325, later it appeared as Insula de Brasil in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco, attached to one of the larger islands of a group of islands in the Atlantic. This was identified for a time with the island of Terceira in the Azores. A Catalan chart of about 1480 labels two islands Illa de brasil, one to the south west of Ireland and one south of Illa verde or Greenland, on maps the island was shown as being circular, often with a central strait or river running east-west across its diameter. Despite the failure of attempts to find it, this appeared regularly on maps lying south west of Galway Bay until 1865, Hy-Brasil has also been identified with Porcupine Bank, a shoal in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 kilometres west of Ireland and discovered in 1862. As early as 1870 a paper was read to the Geological Society of Ireland suggesting this identification, frederick Delius wrote a song titled I-Brasil, with words attributed to Fiona McLeod, pseudonym of the Celtic revival writer William Sharp. Hy-Brasil was featured in the 1989 British comedy-fantasy film Erik the Viking starring Tim Robbins, peter Bishop mysteriously travels to Hy-Brasil in the Beyond the Fringe comic book, a tie-in for the Fringe television series. Hy-Brasil is featured on signs affixed on the façade of the Embassy of Brazil to Bridgetown, Barbados, something which may reference when Barbados was claimed, a land called Hy Brasil featured in Alan Moores comic Promethea. Margaret Elphinstones 2002 novel has Hy-Brazil as its title and setting, mary Burkes short story Hy-Brasil in The Faber Book of Best New Irish Short Stories, 2004-5. Irish mythology in popular culture Inisheer Tech Duinn a mythological island to the west of Ireland were souls go after death, great Ireland a similarly west-of-Ireland place, Irish myths of which, are believed to have influenced the Vikings. Hy Brasil, the metamorphosis of an island, from cartographic error to Celtic Elysium, preliminary Sketches for the Reappearance of HyBrazil
16.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
17.
Espiritu Santo
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Espiritu Santo is the largest island in the nation of Vanuatu, with an area of 3,955.5 km2 and a population of around 40,000 according to the 2009 census. It belongs to the archipelago of the New Hebrides in the Pacific region of Melanesia and it is in the Sanma Province of Vanuatu. The town of Luganville, on Espiritu Santos southeast coast, is Vanuatus second-largest settlement, roads run north and west from Luganville but most of the island is far from the limited road network. Vanuatus highest peak is the 1879 metre Mount Tabwemasana in west-central Espiritu Santo, in 1998, Santo hosted the Melanesia Cup. A Spanish expedition led by Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, during World War II, particularly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the island was used by Allied forces as a military supply and support base, naval harbor, and airfield. In highly fictionalized form, it is the locale of James Micheners Tales of the South Pacific, the presence of the Allies later contributed to the islands diving tourism, as the United States dumped most of their equipment and refuse at what is now known as Million Dollar Point. Another wreck off Espiritu Santo, the SS President Coolidge, is also a diving spot. The SS President Coolidge was a luxury liner that hit a mine during the war. Between May and August 1980 the island was the site of a rebellion during the transfer of power over the colonial New Hebrides from the condominium to independent Vanuatu, a Republic of Vemerana was proclaimed on May 28. France recognized the independence on June 3, on June 5 the tribal chiefs of Santo named the French Ambassador Philippe Allonneau King of Vemerana, Jimmy Stevens became Prime Minister. The troops were recalled shortly before independence, following independence, Vanuatu, now governed by Father Walter Lini, requested assistance from Papua New Guinea, whose forces invaded and conquered Espiritu Santo. Santo, with many wrecks and reefs to be explored, is a popular tourist destination for divers. Champagne Beach draws tourists with its sand and clear waters. The Western Side of the island many caves which may be explored. The local people make their living by supporting the tourist trade, by cash-crop farming, mostly copra but some cacao and kava as well as peanuts, the largest church groups on the island are the Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu, the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Melanesia. Also active are the Apostolic Church, the Church of Christ, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, customary beliefs of a more modern sort are found among followers of the Nagriamel movement based in Fanafo. For almost all Santos people custom plays a part in their lives. The chief system continues strongly in most areas, the people of Santo face some health problems, especially malaria, and tuberculosis
18.
Holy Spirit
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Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is a term found in English translations of the Bible that is understood differently among the Abrahamic religions. Holy Spirit is stated to be a realm beyond the ability of words to properly convey and it must be experienced, realized, kindled within like a holy fire. The term is used to describe aspects of other religions. The word Spirit appears as either alone or with words, in the Hebrew Bible. Combinations include expressions such as the Holy Spirit, Spirit of God, the word Spirit is rendered as רוּחַ in Hebrew-language parts of the Old Testament. In its Aramaic parts, the term is rûacḥ, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, translates the word as πνεῦμα. This is the word that is used throughout the New Testament. The English term Spirit comes from its Latin origin, spiritus, the alternative term, Holy Ghost, comes from Old English translations of spiritus. The Hebrew Bible contains the term Spirit of God in the sense of the might of a unitary God and this meaning is different from the Christian concept of Holy Spirit as one personality of God in the Trinity. According to theologian Rudolf Bultmann, there are two ways to think about the Holy Spirit, animistic and dynamistic, both kinds of thought appear in Jewish and Christian scripture, but animistic is more typical of the Old Testament whereas dynamistic is more common in the New Testament. The distinction coincides with the Holy Spirit as either a temporary or permanent gift, in the Old Testament and Jewish thought, it is primarily temporary with a specific situation or task in mind, whereas in the Christian concept the gift resides in man permanently. The Holy Spirit also has an equivalent in non-Abrahamic Hellenistic mystery religions and they included a distinction of the Spirit and psyche, which Paul the Apostle later incorporated into his epistles. According to proponents of the History of religions school, the Christian concept of the Holy Spirit cannot be explained from Jewish ideas alone without reference to the Hellenistic religions. However, according to theologian Erik Konsmo, the views are so dissimilar that the only legitimate connection one can make is with the term πνεῦμα itself, Another link with ancient Greek thought is the Stoic idea of the Spirit as anima mundi—or world soul—that unites all people. In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote, cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zenos creative fire, had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or spirit, to describe it. The Hebrew language phrase ruach ha-kodesh is a used in the Hebrew Bible. It literally means spirit of the holiness or spirit of the holy place, the Hebrew terms ruacḥ qodshəka, thy holy spirit, and ruacḥ qodshō, his holy spirit also occur. The Holy Spirit in Judaism generally refers to the aspect of prophecy
19.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
20.
New Holland (Australia)
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New Holland is a historical European name for mainland Australia. The name was first applied to Australia in 1644 by the Dutch seafarer Abel Tasman, New Holland continued to be used semi-officially and in popular usage as the name for the whole continent until at least the mid-1850s. The name New Holland was first applied to western and north coast of Australia in 1644 by the Dutch seafarer Abel Tasman, except for giving its name to the land, neither the Netherlands nor the Dutch East India Company claimed any territory in Australia as its own. Although many Dutch expeditions visited the coast during the 200 years after the first Dutch visit in 1606, most of the explorers of this period concluded that the apparent lack of water and fertile soil made the region unsuitable for colonisation. On 22 August 1770, after sailing north along Australias east coast, Cook first named the land New Wales, but revised it to New South Wales. With the establishment of a settlement at Sydney in 1788, the British solidified its claim to the part of Australia. The term New Holland was more used to refer only to that part of the continent that had not yet been annexed to New South Wales. In 1804, the British navigator Matthew Flinders proposed the names Terra Australis or Australia for the whole continent and he continued to use Australia in his correspondence, while attempting to gather support for the term. His suggestion was rejected, but the new name was approved by the British government in 1824. The western boundary of New South Wales was changed to 129° east in 1825, in 1828 a further settlement was made, this time on the Swan River, and the name Swan River Colony was soon the term used to refer to the whole western part of the continent. In 1832, the territory was officially renamed Western Australia, even as late as 1837, in official correspondence between the British government in London and New South Wales, the term New Holland was still being used to refer to the continent as a whole. In the Netherlands, the continent continued to be called Nieuw Holland until about the end of the 19th century, the Dutch name today is Australië. The American author Edgar Allan Poe used the name New Holland to refer to Australia in his prize-winning 1833 short story MS, found in a Bottle, the hulk flew at a rate defying computation and we must have run down the coast of New Holland. In 1851, Herman Melville wrote, in a chapter of his novel Moby-Dick entitled Does the Whales Magnitude Diminish, is it impossible to combine the hardiness of these savages with the intellectualness of the civilized man. History of Western Australia Terra Australis
21.
Ptolemy
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Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
22.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
23.
Cicero
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Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy family of the Roman equestrian order. According to Michael Grant, the influence of Cicero upon the history of European literature, Cicero introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary distinguishing himself as a translator and philosopher. Though he was an orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked by civil wars, following Julius Caesars death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. His severed hands and head were then, as a revenge of Mark Antony. Petrarchs rediscovery of Ciceros letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, according to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity. Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers southeast of Rome and his father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life, although little is known about Ciceros mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Ciceros brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife, Ciceros cognomen, or personal surname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was given to one of Ciceros ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. However, it is likely that Ciceros ancestors prospered through the cultivation. Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames, the family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this name when he entered politics. During this period in Roman history, cultured meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek, Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite, according to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Ciceros fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus, the latter two became Ciceros friends for life, and Pomponius would become, in Ciceros own words, as a second brother, with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence. Cicero wanted to pursue a career in politics along the steps of the Cursus honorum
24.
Somnium Scipionis
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Upon his arrival in Africa, a guest at the court of Massinissa, Scipio Aemilianus is visited by his dead grandfather, Scipio Africanus, hero of the Second Punic War. He finds himself looking down upon Carthage from a place full of stars, shining. Nevertheless, Scipio Aemilianus sees that Rome is an insignificant part of the earth, the planetary spheres are enumerated with references to Pythagorean thought and the idea of the Music of the Spheres. Then the climatic belts of the earth are observed, from the fields to the deserts, and there is discussion of the nature of the Divine. The literary and philosophical influence of the Somnium was great, Macrobius commented on it in his Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis, which in turn was an important source for medieval dream theory. The tale is modelled on The Myth of Er in Platos Republic, although the story of Er records a near-death experience, while the journey of Scipios disembodied soul takes place in a dream, both give examples of belief in astral projection. Macrobius Commentary upon Scipios Dream was known to the sixth-century philosopher Boethius, the work assumed the astrological cosmos formulated by Claudius Ptolemy. Chretien de Troyes referred to Macrobius work in his first Arthurian romance, Erec, chaucer referred to the work in The Nuns Priests Tale and especially in the Parlement of Foules. Some critics consider Raphaels painting Vision of a Knight to be a depiction of Scipios Dream, the composer Mozart, at the age of fifteen, wrote a short opera entitled Il sogno di Scipione based upon Scipio Aemilianuss soul-journey through the cosmos. Iain Pears wrote a novel called The Dream of Scipio which refers to Ciceros work in various direct and indirect ways. This story is the basis for Chris McCullys poem Scipios Dream from his collection Not Only I, images from a 12th-century manuscript of Macrobius Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis. Source, Copenhagen, Det Kongelige Bibliotek, ms, Somnium Scipionis The Dream of Scipio
25.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
26.
Antipodes
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In geography, the antipode of any place on Earth is the point on the Earths surface that is diametrically opposite to it. A pair of antipodes are two points that are antipodal /ænˈtɪpədəl/ to each other and are connected by a line running through the centre of the Earth. Such points are as far away from each other as possible, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Antipodes may be used to refer to Australia and New Zealand, and Antipodeans to their inhabitants. Geographically the antipodes of Britain and Ireland are in the Pacific Ocean and this gave rise to the name of the Antipodes Islands of New Zealand, which are close to the antipode of London at about 50°S 179°E. The antipodes of Australia are in the North Atlantic Ocean, while parts of Spain, Portugal, approximately 15% of land territory is antipodal to other land, representing approximately 4. 4% of the Earths surface. The antipode of any place on the Earth is the place that is diametrically opposite it, so a line drawn from the one to the passes through the centre of the Earth. For example, the antipodes of New Zealands lower North Island lie in Spain, most of the Earths land surfaces have ocean at their antipodes, this being a consequence of most land being in the land hemisphere. The singular antipode is a back-formation from the plural antipodes, which in Greek is the plural of the singular antipous, sunrise and sunset do not quite oppose each other at antipodes due to refraction of sunlight. If the geographic coordinates of a point on the Earths surface are and this relation holds true whether the Earth is approximated as a perfect sphere or as a reference ellipsoid. For example, the antipode of the point in China at 37° N 119° E is the point in Argentina at 37° S 61° W, the word antipodes comes from the Greek, ἀντίποδες, plural of antipous, with feet opposite, from anti- opposed and pous foot. Medieval illustrations imagine them in some way inverted, with their growing out of their heads. From the time of St Augustine, the Christian church was skeptical of the notion. In 748, in reply to a letter from Saint Boniface, Pope Zachary declared the belief that beneath the earth there was another world and other men, another sun, in his letter, Boniface had apparently maintained that Vergilius of Salzburg held such a belief. The antipodes being an attribute of a spherical Earth, some ancient authors used their perceived absurdity as an argument for a flat Earth and this posed the problem that Christ told the apostles to evangelize all mankind, with regard to the unreachable antipodes, this would have been impossible. Christ would either have appeared a second time, in the antipodes, such an argument was forwarded by the Spanish theologian Alonso Tostado as late as the 15th century and St. Augustine doubts was a response to Columbuss proposal to sail westwards to the Indies. The author of the Norwegian book Konungs Skuggsjá, from around 1250 and he notes that they will see the sun in the north in the middle of the day and that they will have seasons opposite those of the Northern Hemisphere. The earliest surviving account by a European who had visited the Southern Hemisphere is that of Marco Polo and he noted that it was impossible to see the star Polaris from there. The idea of dry land in the southern climes, the Terra Australis, was introduced by Ptolemy, there are no non-stop scheduled flights between any two antipodal locations by commercial airline service—or anything even close
27.
Age of Discovery
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It also marks the rise of the period of widespread adoption in Europe of colonialism and mercantilism. Many lands previously unknown to Europeans were discovered during this period, from the perspective of many non-Europeans, the Age of Discovery marked the arrival of settlers and invaders from a previously unknown continent. This represented one of the most-significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture and it also allowed for the expansion of Christianity throughout the world with the spread of missionary activity, becoming the worlds largest religion. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, in 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon funded Christopher Columbuss plan to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic and he landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a new world, the Americas. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the valuable Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later. In 1513, Spanish Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, thus, Europe first received news of the eastern and western Pacific within a one-year span around 1512. Meanwhile, from the 1580s to the 1640s, Russians explored and conquered almost the whole of Siberia, another source was the Radhanite Jewish trade networks of merchants established as go-betweens between Europe and the Muslim world during the time of the Crusader states. Knowledge about the Atlantic African coast was fragmented and derived mainly from old Greek and Roman maps based on Carthaginian knowledge, the Red Sea was barely known and only trade links with the Maritime republics, the Republic of Venice especially, fostered collection of accurate maritime knowledge. Indian Ocean trade routes were sailed by Arab traders, between 1405 and 1421, the Yongle Emperor of Ming China sponsored a series of long range tributary missions under the command of Zheng He. The fleets visited Arabia, East Africa, India, Maritime Southeast Asia, by 1400 a Latin translation of Ptolemys Geographia reached Italy coming from Constantinople. The rediscovery of Roman geographical knowledge was a revelation, both for mapmaking and worldview, although reinforcing the idea that the Indian Ocean was landlocked, a prelude to the Age of Discovery was a series of European expeditions crossing Eurasia by land in the late Middle Ages. A series of Europeans took advantage of these to explore eastwards, most were Italians, as trade between Europe and the Middle East was controlled mainly by the Maritime republics. The close Italian links to the Levant raised great curiosity and commercial interest in countries which lay further east, christian embassies were sent as far as Karakorum during the Mongol invasions of the Levant, from which they gained a greater understanding of the world. The first of these travellers was Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, dispatched by Pope Innocent IV to the Great Khan, about the same time, Russian prince Yaroslav of Vladimir, and subsequently his sons Alexander Nevsky and Andrey II of Vladimir, travelled to the Mongolian capital. Though having strong political implications, their journeys left no detailed accounts, other travellers followed, like French André de Longjumeau and Flemish William of Rubruck, who reached China through Central Asia. After returning, he dictated an account of his journeys to a scholar he met in Granada, the Rihla, between 1357 and 1371 a book of supposed travels compiled by John Mandeville acquired extraordinary popularity. These overland journeys had little immediate effect, the Mongol Empire collapsed almost as quickly as it formed and soon the route to the east became more difficult and dangerous
28.
Gerardus Mercator
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Gerardus Mercator was a 16th-century German-Netherlandish cartographer, geographer and cosmographer. Mercator was one of the founders of the Netherlandish school of cartography and is considered as the most notable representative of the school in its golden age. He chose the word as a commemoration of a King Atlas of Mauretania whom he considered to be the first great geographer and this King Atlas was a son of the Titan Atlas but the two myths very quickly coalesced. A large part of Mercators income came from the sales of his terrestrial and celestial globes, for sixty years they were considered to be the finest in the world, and they were sold in such great numbers that there are many surviving examples. This was a substantial enterprise involving making the spheres, printing the gores, building substantial stands and he was also renowned for his scientific instruments, particularly his astrolabes and astronomical rings used to study the geometry of astronomy and astrology. Mercator wrote on geography, philosophy, chronology and theology, all of the wall maps were engraved with copious text on the region concerned. As an example the famous map of 1569 is inscribed with over 5000 words in fifteen legends. His table of chronology ran to some 400 pages fixing the dates of earthly dynasties, major political and military events, volcanic eruptions and he also wrote on the gospels and the old testament. Mercator was a devout Christian born into a Catholic family at a time when Martin Luthers Protestantism was gaining ground and he never declared himself as a Lutheran but he was clearly sympathetic and he was accused of heresy. He spent six months in prison but he emerged unscathed and this period of persecution is probably the major factor in his move from Catholic Leuven to a more tolerant Duisburg where he lived for the last thirty years of his life. Gerardus Mercator was born Geert De Kremer, the child of Hubert De Kremer. Their home town was Gangelt in the Duchy of Jülich but, at the time of the birth, Hubert was a poor artisan, a shoemaker by trade, but Gisbert, a priest, was a man of some importance in the community. Their stay in Rupelmonde was brief and within six months returned to Gangelt. Six years later, in 1518, the Kremers moved back to Rupelmonde, possibly motivated by the conditions in Gangelt—famine, plague. Today, many Belgians and Germans still claim Mercator as their own, despite the lack of any evidence pertaining to the birthplace and background of his father, Hubert. Most modern scholars adopt a position, hesitating to assign a nationality to Mercator. After Huberts death in 1526, Gisbert became Mercators guardian, hoping that Mercator might follow him into the priesthood, he sent the 15 year old Geert to the famous school of the Brethren of the Common Life at s-Hertogenbosch in the Duchy of Brabant. Mercator would follow similar precepts later in life—with problematic outcomes, the Brethren were renowned for their scriptorum and here Mercator may have encountered the italic script which he employed in his later work
29.
Alexander Dalrymple
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Alexander Dalrymple FRS was a Scottish geographer and the first Hydrographer of the British Admiralty. He was the proponent of the theory that there existed a vast undiscovered continent in the South Pacific. He produced thousands of nautical charts, mapping a remarkable number of seas and oceans for the first time, and contributing significantly to the safety of shipping. Dalrymple was born at Newhailes, near Edinburgh, the eleventh of fifteen children of Sir James Dalrymple and his wife, Lady Christian Hamilton and he went to London in 1752 and was appointed a writer in the British East India Company, being first posted to Madras. He arrived in Madras in 1753 and he was elected Provisional Deputy Governor by the Manila Council with the departure of Dawsonne Drake on 29 March 1764. He then departed Manila 10 April for Sulu with Sultan Alimuddin I, in 1765 he returned to London where was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. There he became acquainted with the civil engineer John Smeaton, who during the course of his studies on windmills had devised a descriptive scale for grading wind speed and this scale was included in the paper for which he was awarded the Copley Medal. It is believed that Dalrymple conveyed this information to Francis Beaufort, who refined the wind scale that bears his name. Whilst translating some Spanish documents captured in the Philippines in 1762, meanwhile, James Cook had been appointed in his place to lead an expedition to the South Pacific which in 1770 discovered the east coast of Australia. In 1772 Dalrymple published his first set of charts, four of which were of the seas around Sulu, in 1779, he headed the hydrographic office of the East India Company, and that of the Admiralty in 1795. In 1782 he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Royal Society—Dalrymple was elected to membership in the Society in 1771 and those signing that nomination letter were, Benjamin Franklin, Richard Hazard, John Colebrooke, John Pringle, Daniel Wray, Charles Morton, James Burrow, William Hunter, Nevil Maskelyne. James Horsburgh, Alexander Dalrymples successor Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Library of Scotland, shelfmark Nha. M90 Friendly, Alfred. Defining the Wind, The Beaufort Scale, and How a 19th-Century Admiral Turned Science into Poetry, ISBN 978-1-4000-4884-7 Howard T. Fry, Alexander Dalrymple and the Expansion of British Trade, London, Cass for the Royal Commonwealth Society,1970. ISBN 0-7146-2594-9 Portrait of Alexander Dalrymple, National Museum of Scotland
30.
Landmass
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Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of the Earth that is not permanently covered by water. The vast majority of activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture, habitat. Some life forms have developed from species that lived in bodies of water. Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones, the division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans. The demarcation between land and water can vary by jurisdiction and other factors. A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation, a variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land. Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries, where there is no point at which the land ends. Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather, the word land is derived from Middle English land, lond and Old English land, lond, from Proto-Germanic *landą, and from Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ-. Cognate with Scots land, West Frisian lân, Dutch land, German Land, Swedish land, non-Germanic cognates include Old Irish lann, Welsh llan, Breton lann, Old Church Slavonic lędо from Proto-Slavic *lenda and Albanian lëndinë from lëndë. A continuous area of land surrounded by ocean is called a landmass, although it may be most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage land mass—the measure of land area—it is also used as two words. Landmasses include supercontinents, continents, and islands, there are four major continuous landmasses of the Earth, Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, Australia and Antarctica. Land, capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops, is called arable land, a country or region may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people. Many countries and other places have names incorporating -land, the earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 bya, therefore, the Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. By 4. 54±0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust, in nebular theory, planetesimals commence forming as particulate matter accrues by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10–20 myr, Earths atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70% luminosity, by 3.5 bya, the Earths magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind
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Counterweight
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A counterweight is a weight that, by exerting an opposite force, provides balance and stability of a mechanical system. Its purpose is to make lifting the load more efficient, which saves energy and is less taxing on the lifting machine, Counterweights are often used in traction lifts, cranes and funfair rides. This distance times mass is called the load moment, a counterbalance is a weight or force that balances or offsets another as when two objects of equal weight, power, or influence are acting in opposition to each other. The objects are said to be in counterbalance. Trebuchet, There are five components of a trebuchet, beam, counterweight, frame, guide chute. After the counterweight drops from a platform on the frame, gravity pulls the counterweight, without the counterweight, the beam could not complete the arc that allows the sling to accurately release the projectile. Crankshaft, A counterweight is also used in rotating systems to reduce vibrations due to imbalances in the rotating assembly. A typical example is counterweights on crankshafts in piston engines, desk lamp, Some balanced arm lamps work with a counterweight to keep the arm and lamp in the desired position. Elevator, In traction elevators, a heavy counterweight counterbalances the load of the elevator carriage, the counterweight also increases the ascending acceleration force and decreases the descending acceleration force to reduce the amount of power needed by the motor. The elevator carriage and the both have wheel roller guides attached to them to prevent irregular movement and provide a smoother ride for the passengers. Space elevator, A space elevator is a structure designed to transport material from a celestial bodys surface into space. Metronome, A wind-up mechanical metronome has a weight and spring mechanism that allows the speed to be adjusted by placement of the weight on the spindle. The tempo speed is decreased by moving the weight to a higher spindle marking or increased by moving it to a lower marking, crane, The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane that is fixed to the ground. A horizontal boom is balanced asymmetrically across the top of the tower, the long arm carries the lifting gear. The short arm is called the arm, this holds the motors and electronics to operate the crane. Vertical lift bridge Drawbridge Bascule bridge Media related to Counterweights at Wikimedia Commons
32.
Dieppe
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Dieppe is a coastal community in the Arrondissement of Dieppe in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northern France. The population stood at 34,670 in 2006, the mouth of the Scie river lies in the Canton of Dieppe-Ouest at Hautot-sur-Mer. The inhabitants of the town of Dieppe are called Dieppois and Dieppoise in French, Dieppe belongs to the Pays de Caux, lying along the Alabaster Coast in the region of Normandy. It is located on the Channel coast, north of Rouen at the mouth of the Arques river, mentioned as Deppae in 1015–1029, Dieppa in 1030, then in the 12th century, Deppa, Deupa and Diopa. From Dutch diep > deep, or Old English deop or Old Norse djupr, the same adjective can be recognized in other place-names like Dieppedalle and Dipdal in Normandy, which is the same as Deepdale in Great Britain. The stream running through Dieppe was called Tella in Merovingian and Carolingian documents, the name has stuck to the town, although the name of the stream changed again, to Béthune. First recorded as a fishing settlement in 1030, Dieppe was an important prize fought over during the Hundred Years War. Dieppe housed the most advanced French school of cartography in the 16th century, the expedition resulted in the construction of Fort Caroline, the first French colony in the New World. Another expedition two years before where Goulaine de Laudonnière was under command of Jean Ribault, a local Huguenot captain, had resulted in the foundation of Charlesfort, Dieppe was the premier port of the kingdom in the 17th century. On July 23,1632,300 colonists heading to New France departed from Dieppe, at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dieppe lost 3,000 of its Huguenot citizens, who fled abroad. Dieppe was an important target in wartime, the town was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch naval bombardment in 1694. It was rebuilt after 1696 in a typical French classical style by Ventabren, an architect and it was popularised as a seaside resort following the 1824 visit of the widowed Duchess of Berry, daughter-in-law of Charles X. She encouraged the building of the recently renovated municipal theatre, the Petit-Théâtre, during the later 19th century, Dieppe became popular with English artists as a beach resort. Prominent literary figures such as Arthur Symons loved to keep up with the latest fads of avant-garde France here, Dieppe was occupied by German naval and army forces after the fall of France in 1940. In order to allow a better defence of the coast against a possible Allied landing, the destruction of the casino had only begun at the time of the Dieppe Raid. The Dieppe Raid in the Second World War was a battle for the Allies. The Allies suffered more than 1,400 deaths,1,946 Canadian soldiers were captured—more prisoners than the army lost in the 11 months of the 1944–45 NW Europe campaign. However, no major objectives on the ground were achieved, in the air, the port remained garrisoned by German forces until the conclusion of the Battle of Normandy
33.
Jave la Grande
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Marco Polo’s Java Minor, he called Samatrez. Some say that it is islands but from what I have seen of it, it is terre ferme …That called Jave Mynore is an island, but la Grand Jave is terre ferme. This is seen clearly in Jean Rotz’s Lande of Java of 1542, alfonse’s map of La Grande Jave bears a striking resemblance to that of Rotz.3, cap.13. Others believe it to be Sumatra from the distance which the same Polo assigned to it, others take it for the Island of Sumbawa, and some others, more modern, for New Holland. We, from so much variety of opinion, do not offer a conclusion on the matter, leaving the dispute undecided. ”As a result of this mis-placement southwards of the lands and islands described by Marco Polo, Coronelli and others confused Java Minor, Polos name for Sumatra. In the Dieppe maps, Jave la Grande was made a part of the Antarctic continent, lochac was Marco Polo’s rendition of the Chinese Lo-huk, which was how they referred to the southern Thai kingdom of Lavapura, or Louvo. Louvo was united with Siam in 1350, Lopburi was a province of the Khmer empire in Marco Polos time, and he may have used Locach to refer to Cambodia. The golden spires of Angkor, the capital of the Khmer empire, Marco also noted the abundance of elephants in Locach, Locach was notable in the Chinese annals for sending elephants as tribute. Pentan is the island of Bintan, and Malaiur was the old Tamil name for the Sumatran city of Jambi, on the Dieppe Maps, the great promontory of JAVE LA GRANDE extends, like the Regio Patalis, northward from the Austral continent. The region where the shortest day would only last four hours would be in latitude 63° South, theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia Dieppe maps Regio Patalis Abel Tasman
34.
Guillaume Le Testu
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Guillaume Le Testu, sometimes referred to as Guillaume Le Têtu, was a French privateer, explorer and navigator. He was one of the foremost cartographers of his time and an author of the Dieppe maps and his maps were distinguished by their sophistication and detail, they influenced generations of cartographers, navigators and explorers. Le Testu was successful as a privateer during the years of the French Wars of Religion. His maps also showed unicorns and monstrous creatures such as 200 metre long giant snakes, basilisks, satyrs, Blemmyes, however, these attempts were abandoned following Colignys assassination in 1572 and Le Testus death the following year. Guillaume le Testu was born sometime around 1509–12, in either Le Havre, Normandy or Grasse and he was one of the last students to be taught cartography at the famed school of Dieppe. Le Testu subsequently took part in voyages of exploration throughout the Atlantic Ocean, in 1550, Le Testu was commissioned by King Henry II to create a map of the Americas, particularly where the French were trading. In June 1551, he sailed to Brazil on both an exploration and reconnaissance mission from Henry II, charting as far as the Rio de la Plata and his ship, the Salamandre, reached as far south as 26 latitude a fair distance past present-day Rio de Janeiro. Le Testu was also involved in the founding of a French colony near Rio de Janeiro in 1555, the Cosmographie Universelle contained 56 maps reportedly based on charts Le Testu had personally drawn by hand on his expeditions. This atlas was dedicated to his mentor and patron Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the manuscript was based on charts from French, Spanish and Portuguese sources supplied by Coligny. Included in this atlas were twelve charts of Jave le Grand/Terra Australis, Coligny subsequently supported a proposal from the dAlbagno brothers, for an expedition to Terra Australis to investigate the possibility of a French colony there. Le Testus Cosmographie Universelle and world atlas are both in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, the map, said Jenks, was said to have been “the property of a man named Rotz, a French sailor who passed some part of his life in England”. Jenks commented, “this fact gives some colour to the claim put forward by the French, the claim is based mainly upon the fact that Testu’s name appears on a map dated 1555, on which a southern continent, styled Jave la Grande, is outlined. But this fact, of course, merely proves that Testu had heard of such a country and he would remain imprisoned for over four years until he was released by order of King Charles IX, due to public interest on his behalf. On March 23,1573, Le Testu unexpectedly encountered Sir Francis Drake near Cabo de Cativas, near Cativá, Panama. Le Testu was in command of the 80-ton warship Havre with a crew of seventy, although it is unknown what Le Testus mission was and he reportedly presented to Drake a scimitar, formerly belonging to the condottiero Piero Strozzi, as a gift on behalf of Coligny. He and Drake sailed their fleet to the Francisco River. Le Testu and Drake landed with their men just east of Nombre de Dios, Le Testu had 70 men under his command while Drake himself led 31 men including his Cimarron allies. It was soon after their arrival that the party heard bells in the distance signaling the arrival of the caravan, cimarrons scouts also warned of their approach reporting the size of the caravan consisting of almost 200 mules each carrying up to three hundred pounds of treasure
35.
Dieppe maps
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The Dieppe maps are a series of world maps produced in Dieppe, France, in the 1540s, 1550s and 1560s. They are large hand-produced maps, commissioned for wealthy and royal patrons, including Henry II of France, the Dieppe school of cartographers included Pierre Desceliers, Johne Rotz, Guillaume Le Testu, Guillaume Brouscon and Nicolas Desliens. The Dieppe Maps known to have existed into modern times include the following Jean Mallard, Map of the World, British Library, London Johne Rotz, Boke of Idrography,1542. British Library, London Guillaume Brouscon, world chart,1543, Huntington Library, Los Angeles, California Pierre Desceliers, John Rylands Library, University of Manchester Anonymous, Harleian or Dauphin world chart. British Library, London Anonymous, made for Nicholas Vallard, portolan atlas, Huntington Library, Los Angeles, California Pierre Desceliers, world chart,1550. British Library, London Pierre Desceliers, world chart,1553, vienna Guillaume Le Testu, Cosmographie Universelle,1555. Bibliothèque du Service historique de l‘Armée de Terre, Paris Anonymous, portolan atlas -attributed to Pierre Desceliers, morgan Library, New York City Guillaume Le Testu, world chart,1566. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris Nicolas Desliens, world chart, saxon State Library, Dresden Nicolas Desliens, world chart,1566. Attributed to Nicholas Desliens, world chart, c1568, Jean Cossin, Carte cosmographique ou Universelle description du monde,1570. Sarah Toulouse has published a detailed and comprehensive list of 37 charts. It has been assumed that Portuguese cartographers were bribed for information of the latest discoveries, the Cantino map of 1502 shows evidence of second hand Portuguese sources, and this has been taken by some as supporting evidence for this assumption. A common feature of most of the Dieppe world maps are the roses and navigational rhumb lines. For example, the Desceliers 1550 map carries descriptions of early French attempts to colonise Canada, the conquests of Peru by the Spanish, on the same map can be found descriptions of legendary Cathay, king Prester John in Ethiopia, and the race of Amazons in Russia. Other Dieppe maps also carry fictitious features such as the Marco Polo inspired Zanzibar/Îles des Geanz, as with other maps made before the 17th century, the Dieppe maps show no knowledge of longitude. While latitude could be marked in degrees as observed by astrolabe or quadrant, mercators projection first appeared in 1568-9, a development too late to influence the Dieppe cartographers. Most of the Dieppe maps depict a large land mass entitled Jave la Grande, in the English-speaking world particularly, academic and popular interest in the Dieppe maps over the last 150 years has focused largely on this feature of the maps. This is because Jave la Grande is thought by some writers to provide clues of a possible Portuguese exploration of Australias coasts in the 1520s and this group of writers argue that the maps are not necessarily literal records of voyages of exploration. Similarly, on the 1570 Carte cosmographique ou Universelle description du monde of Jean Cossin, an originator of the sinusoidal projection, the Dieppe maps all depict the southern continent, Terra Australis, incorporating a huge promontory extending northward called Jave la Grande
36.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
37.
Brittany
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Brittany is a cultural region in the north-west of France. Brittany has also referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain. It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its land area is 34,023 km². Since reorganisation in 1956, the administrative region of Brittany comprises only four of the five Breton departments. The remaining area of old Brittany, the Loire-Atlantique department around Nantes, at the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. Of these, 71% lived in the region of Brittany, while 29% lived in the Loire-Atlantique department, in 2012, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes, Rennes, and Brest. Brittany is the homeland of the Breton people and is recognised by the Celtic League as one of the six Celtic nations. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, the word Brittany, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne, Breizh and Bertaèyn, derive from the Latin Britannia, which means Britons land. This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain and this word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη or Βρεττανίαι, used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which close to the sea. Another name, Letauia, was used until the 12th century and it possibly means wide and flat or to expand and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw. Later, authors like Geoffrey of Monmouth used the terms Britannia minor, breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two dialects, the KLT and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it Breiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it, the official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh, on its side, Gallo language has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA, Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe and their only original feature was a distinct culture, called Colombanian. One of the oldest hearths in the world has found in Plouhinec
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Gaspard II de Coligny
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Coligny came of a noble family of Burgundy. His family traced their descent from the 11th century, and in the reign of Louis XI, were in the service of the King of France. His father, Gaspard I de Coligny, known as the Marshal of Châtillon, served in the Italian Wars from 1494 to 1516, married in 1514, and was created Marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de Montmorency, sister of the constable, he had three sons, all of whom played an important part in the first period of the Wars of Religion, Odet, Gaspard. Born at Châtillon-sur-Loing in 1519, Gaspard came to court at the age of 22, in the campaign of 1543 Coligny distinguished himself, and was wounded at the sieges of Montmédy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaigns under the Count of Enghien, King Charles VIII, King Louis XII, King Francis I and was knighted on the Field of Ceresole. Returning to France, he took part in different military operations and that year he married Charlotte de Laval. He was made admiral on the death of Claude dAnnebaut, in 1557 he was entrusted with the defence of Saint-Quentin. In the siege he displayed courage, resolution, and strength of character, but the place was taken. On payment of a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty, the Coligny brothers were the most zealous and consistent aristocratic supporters of Protestantism in sixteenth-century France. By this time he had become a Huguenot, through the influence of his brother, the first known letter which John Calvin addressed to him is dated 4 September 1558. Gaspard de Coligny secretly focused on protecting his co-religionists, by attempting to establish colonies abroad in which Huguenots could find a refuge and they were afterwards expelled by the Portuguese, in 1567. Coligny also was the patron for the failed French colony of Fort Caroline in Spanish Florida led by Jean Ribault in 1562. In 1566 and 1570, Francisque and André dAlbaigne submitted to Coligny projects for establishing relations with the Austral lands, although he gave favourable consideration to these initiatives, they came to naught when Coligny was killed in 1572 during the St. Bartholomews Day massacres. Following the death of Henry II he placed himself with Louis, Prince of Condé, at the forefront of the Huguenot party, in 1560, at the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and François of Guise broke forth violently. When the civil wars began in 1562, Coligny decided to take arms only after long hesitation and he was blamed by the Guise faction for the assassination of Francis, Duke of Guise at Orléans in 1563. In the third war of 1569 the defeat and death of the Prince of Condé at the Battle of Jarnac left Coligny the sole leader of the Protestant armies. Victorious at the Battle of La Roche-lAbeille, but defeated in the Battle of Moncontour on 3 October, he entered into the negotiations for what became the Peace of Saint-Germain
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St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
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The St. Bartholomews Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. Many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding, the massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572, two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. The king ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, lasting several weeks, the massacre expanded outward to other urban centres and the countryside. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, the massacre also marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion. Though by no means unique, it was the worst of the religious massacres. Throughout Europe, it printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody, the Massacre of Saint Bartholomews Day was the culmination of a series of events, The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which put an end to the third War of Religion on 8 August 1570. The marriage between Henry III of Navarre and Margaret of Valois on 18 August 1572, the failed assassination of Admiral de Coligny on 22 August 1572. The Peace of Saint-Germain put an end to three years of civil war between Catholics and Protestants. This peace, however, was precarious since the more intransigent Catholics refused to accept it, with the Guise family, who led this faction, out of favour at the French court, the Huguenot leader Admiral Gaspard de Coligny was readmitted into the kings council in September 1571. Staunch Catholics were shocked by the return of Protestants to the court and they were also conscious of the kingdoms financial difficulties, which led them to uphold the peace and remain on friendly terms with Coligny. The Huguenots were in a defensive position as they controlled the fortified towns of La Rochelle, La Charité-sur-Loire, Cognac. To cement the peace between the two parties, Catherine planned to marry her daughter Margaret to the Protestant prince Henry of Navarre. The royal marriage was arranged for 18 August 1572 and it was not accepted by traditionalist Catholics or by the Pope. Both the Pope and King Philip II of Spain strongly condemned Catherines policy, the impending marriage led to the gathering of a large number of well-born Protestants in Paris, who had come to escort their prince. But Paris was a violently anti-Huguenot city, and Parisians, who tended to be extreme Catholics, encouraged by Catholic preachers, they were horrified at the marriage of a princess of France with a Protestant. The Parlement of Paris itself decided to snub the marriage ceremony, compounding this bad feeling was the fact that the harvests had been poor and taxes had risen. The rise in prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. A particular point of tension was a cross erected on the site of the house of Philippe de Gastines
