1.
Food packaging
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Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical and it may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale. Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life, modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the shelf life is a primary function. Containment or agglomeration - Small items are grouped together in one package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment, information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required by governments, marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades, marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and the point of sale display. Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment, Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to reduce the risks of package pilferage, some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage. Packages may include authentication seals to indicate that the package. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention, convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse. Portion control - Single-serving packaging has an amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities can be divided into packages that are a suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory, selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, the above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such as, Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made, tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet. Packaging machines may be of the general types, Reduced packaging
2.
Lund
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Lund is a city in the province of Scania, southern Sweden. The town had 87,244 inhabitants in 2015, out of a total of 118,150 in 2016. It is the seat of Lund Municipality, Skåne County, Lund is believed to have been founded around 990, when Scania belonged to Denmark. From 1103 it was the see of the Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Lund, Lund was transferred to Sweden following the signing of the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. It was temporarily the capital of Sweden between 1716 and 1718, Lund University, established 1666, is today one of Scandinavias largest institutions for education and research. The university and its buildings dominate much of the centre of the city, numerous literary and intellectual figures have lived or studied in Lund, including the writer August Strindberg and the scientist and naturalist Carl Linnaeus. Along with Sigtuna, Lund is the oldest city in present-day Sweden, until the 1980s, the town was thought to have been founded around 1020 by either Sweyn I Forkbeard or his son Canute the Great of Denmark. The area was part of the kingdom of Denmark. But, recent archaeological discoveries suggest that the first settlement dated to circa 990, the Uppåkra settlement dates back to the first century B. C. and its remains are at the present site of the village of Uppåkra. King Sweyn I Forkbeard moved Lund to its present location, a distance of five kilometres. The new location of Lund, on a hill and across a ford, gave the new site considerable defensive advantages in comparison with Uppåkra, the diocese of nearby Dalby was absorbed in 1066. Lund Cathedral was similarly founded in or shortly after 1103, in 1152, the Norwegian archdiocese of Nidaros was founded as a separate province of the church, independent of Lund. In 1164 Sweden also acquired an archbishop of its own, although he was subordinate to the archbishop of Lund. It is still, as the diocese of Lund, a diocese in the Church of Sweden, Lund Cathedral School was founded in 1085 by the Danish king Canute the Saint. This is the oldest school in Scandinavia and one of the oldest in Northern Europe, many prominent people were educated there, among them the actor Max von Sydow and several high-ranking politicians. In 1658, the Scanian lands were ceded by Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Roskilde, on December 4,1676 Lund was defended in the Battle of Lund, one of the bloodiest battles fought in Scandinavia. Lund University, established in 1666, is Swedens largest, with 42,000 full or part-time students, the figure includes Lund Institute of Technology, which is to some extent independent of the old university. As late as the 1940s, Lund was a small city with few large-scale industries, covering only about a quarter of the current urban area, and dominated by the cathedral
3.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
4.
Ruben Rausing
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Ruben Rausing was the founder of the liquid food packaging company Tetra Pak. Ruben Rausing was born in 1895 in Råå, a fishing hamlet in the district of Raus outside of Helsingborg in the south of Sweden, to August. His father ran a small but successful business as a master painter, Rausing went to Upper Secondary School in Helsingborg, graduating in 1915. When doing his military service, Rausing, at the time still called Ruben Andersson, was allegedly nicknamed rausingen by his fellow servicemen, taking a liking to this name, he eventually changed his surname from Andersson to Rausing. With the help of a loan from his aunt, Rausing studied at the recently founded Stockholm School of Economics and Business Administration, after a brief engagement at the privately owned Enskilda Banken, Rausing was employed by Sveriges Litografiska Tryckerier, SLT, a well-known printing company. In 1919 he earned a scholarship from SSE to continue his studies at Columbia University in New York and obtained a MSc in Economics in 1920. Experiencing self-service grocery stores for the first time during his stay in America, Rausing realised that this system, returning to Sweden in 1920, Rausing continued his employment at SLT, first as a Manager Assistant and then as a Manager. Åkerlund & Rausing was the first packaging company in Scandinavia and eventually became a manufacturer of dry food carton packages. Initially, however, the company had difficulties making profits and in 1933 Åkerlund sold his share to Rausing, in 1951 there was still no viable packaging material for the new package, and efforts to develop packaging material increased. Finally, in 1952, the first machine producing tetrahedron cream packages was sold to Lundabygdens Mejeri, the new packaging system was not an immediate success and the company had difficulties throughout the 1950s, with Rausing continuing to spend large amounts on development. Initially catering primarily to the Swedish market, the company expanded gradually, with Germany, France, Tetra Paks commercial break-through did not arrive until the mid-60s with the new Tetra Brik package, introduced in 1963, and the development of the Aseptic technology. After 30 years of effort and investment, Rausings venture finally proved to be successful. He was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences, Ruben Rausing was married to Elisabeth and had three sons, Hans, Gad and Sven. For tax reasons, Rausing left Sweden for Rome in 1969, all his life, however, he kept his country home Simontorp, outside of Lund
5.
Pully
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Pully is a municipality in Switzerland in the canton of Vaud, located in the district of Lavaux-Oron. It is one of the suburbs of the city of Lausanne, located on the shores of Lake Geneva and at the foot of the vineyards of Lavaux on the road to Vevey. Pully is first mentioned in 994 as Pulliacum, in 1826 a neolithic cemetery with about 30 graves was uncovered at Pierra-Portray. However, the artifacts were not fully preserved and only one flint blade, near Pierra-Portray, along the Chemin de Chamblandes, Albert Naef examined 23 tombs in 1901-10. These tombs belonging to a set of tombs which were sporadically excavated and recorded between 1880-1993. The local rectangular graves consisted of boxes assembled from four vertical slabs of about 1 meter in length, with a plate that served as a lid. The dead were lying on their side with their legs drawn up to the chest. The largest find of stone box graves in Pully was the cemetery at Chamblandes, due to the number of finds at Chamblandes, all similar cist or stone box graves in the surrounding area came to be known as Chamblandes type graves. The cemetery of Chamblandes extends over a length of about a hundred meters and included 76 graves and this Middle Neolithic graveyard included as grave goods, ocher, various commodities and jewelry. Two collars, one needle, a dagger and a bronze knife-blade hatchet are attributed to an early Bronze Age grave, in 1992 a cremation grave was discovered that dated from the Late Bronze Age. In the 1970s, while working on foundation of a terrace of the Le Prieuré building, the villa dates from the period between the second half of the 1st Century and 4th Century AD. The accompanying small thermal baths, a pool and several walls were already known from earlier excavations. The heart of the east wing of the villa is a multi-level, the lower hall is decorated with, in situ preserved, wall paintings which represent a chariot race. The painting dates from the first quarter of the 2nd Century, finds from the 4th and 5th Centuries show that the site was also, at least partially populated, during the late antiquity period. Between the 5th and 6th Century, the baths were converted into a Christian burial chapel with numerous burials, during the Carolingian era the additional buildings were built around the burial chapel. During the Early Middle Ages a cemetery was operating at Les Deserts, in the 10th Century the royal family of Burgundy granted their vineyards at Pully to Payerne Priory. The priory retained this land in Pully until 1536, in 1079, Bishop Burkhard of Oltigen received some property from the Emperor in Pully. This land had belonged to Rudolf of Swabia
6.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
7.
World
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The world is the planet Earth and all life upon it, including human civilization. In a philosophical context, the world is the whole of the physical Universe, in a theological context, the world is the material or the profane sphere, as opposed to the celestial, spiritual, transcendent or sacred. The end of the world refers to scenarios of the end of human history. World history is understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia. World population is the sum of all human populations at any time, similarly, world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies or countries, terms like world championship, gross world product, world flags imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states. The English word world comes from the Old English weorold, weorld, worold, a compound of wer man and eld age, which thus means roughly Age of Man. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *wira-alđiz, also reflected in Old Saxon werold, Old High German weralt, the corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally clean, elegant, itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos orderly arrangement. Earth, on the hand, refers to the planet as a physical entity. World was also used to mean the material universe, or the cosmos, The worlde is an apte frame of heauen and earthe. The earth was often described as the center of the world, World can also be used attributively, to mean global, relating to the whole world, forming usages such as world community or world canonical texts. By extension, a world may refer to any planet or heavenly body, especially when it is thought of as inhabited, World, in its original sense, when qualified, can also refer to a particular domain of human experience. The world of work describes paid work and the pursuit of a career, in all its aspects, to distinguish it from home life. The fashion world describes the environment of the designers, fashion houses, historically, the New World vs. the Old World, referring to the parts of the world colonized in the wake of the age of discovery. Now mostly used in zoology and botany, as in New World monkey, in philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe, in others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense. The question of what the world is has by no means been settled, in his Allegory of the Cave, Plato distinguishes between forms and ideas and imagines two distinct worlds, the sensible world and the intelligible world. In Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegels philosophy of history, the expression Weltgeschichte ist Weltgericht is used to assert the view that History is what judges men, their actions, science is born from the desire to transform the World in relation to Man, its final end is technical application. The World as Will and Representation is the work of Arthur Schopenhauer
8.
Hans Rausing
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Sir Hans Rausing, KBE is a Swedish businessman based in the United Kingdom. He made his fortune from his co-inheritance of Tetra Pak, a company founded by his father Ruben Rausing, in the Forbes world fortune ranking, Rausing was placed at number 83 with an estimated fortune of $US10 billion in 2011. According to Forbes, he was the second richest Swedish billionaire in 2013, as of July 2016, Forbes reported his net worth as $12. 5B. As of 17 May 2013, Bloomberg Billionaires Index estimated Rausings net worth to be $13.3 billion, Rausing was born in Gothenburg in 1926 as the second son to industrialist Ruben Rausing and his wife Elisabeth. Rausing had two brothers, Gad and Sven, Rausing studied Economics, Statistics and Russian at Lund University, graduating in 1948. In 1954, at the age of 28, Rausing was appointed Managing Director of Tetra Pak, Rausing retained this post until 1985, when he took over as Chairman of the Board. Rausing left Tetra Pak in 1993 and sold his 50% share of the company to Gad in 1995 in what was at the called the largest private buyout ever in Europe. Over the course of his business career, Rausing became a specialist in Russian affairs and has many private investments in both Russia and Ukraine. Hans Rausing and his wife Märit have donated large sums to charities and research in the UK and Sweden, among others to large research projects at Karolinska Institutet. Through the Märit and Hans Rausing Fund, they support local community projects in their county of Sussex. The University of Cambridge Department of History and Philosophy of Science hosts an Annual Hans Rausing Lecture, Hans Rausing has been appointed Doctor Honoris Causa in Medicine and Economics at Lund University. He is a professor at Mälardalens Högskola, Sweden, and honorary professor at the University of Dubna. He was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2006, Hans Rausing and his wife Märit Rausing have two daughters, Lisbet and Sigrid, and one son, Hans Kristian Rausing. Rausing has been a resident of the UK since 1982 and he currently lives in Wadhurst, East Sussex. Arcadia Fund Sussex Community Foundation Tetra Pak Homepage
9.
Gad Rausing
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Dr. Gad Rausing was a Swedish industrialist and archaeologist. Together with his brother Hans he inherited the Swedish packaging company Tetra Pak, founded by their father Ruben Rausing, in 1995 Rausing bought out his brothers interest in the company in what was at the time the most extensive private buyout in Europe. In addition to his work as Deputy Managing Director at Tetra Pak he was a frequent lecturer at the Institute of Archaeology at Lund University, Rausing was born in Bromma, outside of Stockholm, in 1922 as the eldest son of industrialist Ruben Rausing and his wife Elisabeth. He had two brothers, Hans and Sven. The tetrahedron subsequently became the product of Tetra Pak, which was founded in 1951 as a subsidiary to Åkerlund & Rausing. Rausing joined Tetra Pak as Deputy Managing Director in 1954, Rausing had a parallel career as a scholar in pre-historic Scandinavian archaeology and was a Reader at the Institute of Archaeology at Lund University. Rausing’s passion for the led to his frequent sponsoring of various research projects. Rausing became Doctor Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm in 1983, the Lahore University of Management Sciences library has been renamed as Gad & Birgit Rausing Library to acknowledge the donation provided by the Rausing family to construct the library building. Mr. Dennis Jönsson, CEO Tetra Pak inaugurated Gad & Birgit Rausing Library on Thursday, mr. Jönsson appreciated that the funds donated by the Rausing family were utilized for educational purposes. He also unveiled a plaque commemorating the Rausing familys donation for development of the library building, Gad Rausing was married to Birgit Rausing and had three children, Finn, Jörn and Kirsten. The Swedish Sea Rescue Society has a class of vessels where the lead ship Gad Rausing was built in 2002 after a large donation from the Tetra Laval group
10.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
11.
1,000,000,000
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1,000,000,000 is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001. One billion can also be written as b or bn, in scientific notation, it is written as 1 ×109. The SI prefix giga indicates 1,000,000,000 times the base unit, one billion years may be called eon in astronomy and geology. Previously in British English, the word billion referred exclusively to a million millions, however, this is no longer as common as earlier, and the word has been used to mean one thousand million for some time. The alternative term one thousand million is used in the U. K. or countries such as Spain that uses one thousand million as one million million constitutes a billion. The worded figure, as opposed to the figure is used to differentiate between one thousand million or one billion. The term milliard can also be used to refer to 1,000,000,000, whereas milliard is seldom used in English, in the South Asian numbering system, it is known as 100 crore or 1 Arab. 1000000007 – smallest prime number with 10 digits,1023456789 – smallest pandigital number in base 10. 1026753849 – smallest pandigital square that includes 0,1073741824 –2301073807359 – 14th Kynea number. 1162261467 –3191220703125 –513 1232922769- 35113^2 Centered hexagonal number,1234567890 – pandigital number with the digits in order. 1882341361 – The least prime whose reversal is both square and triangular,1977326743 –7112147483647 – 8th Mersenne prime and the largest signed 32-bit integer. 2147483648 –2312176782336 –6122214502422 – 6th primary pseudoperfect number,2357947691 –1192971215073 – 11th Fibonacci prime. 3405691582 – hexadecimal CAFEBABE, used as a placeholder in programming,3405697037 – hexadecimal CAFED00D, used as a placeholder in programming. 3735928559 – hexadecimal DEADBEEF, used as a placeholder in programming,3486784401 –3204294836223 – 16th Carol number. 4294967291 – Largest prime 32-bit unsigned integer,4294967295 – Maximum 32-bit unsigned integer, perfect totient number, product of the five prime Fermat numbers. 4294967296 –2324294967297 – the first composite Fermat number,6103515625 –5146210001000 – only self-descriptive number in base 10. 6975757441 –1786983776800 – 15th colossally abundant number, 15th superior highly composite number 7645370045 – 27th Pell number,8589934592 –2339043402501 – 25th Motzkin number. 9814072356 – largest square pandigital number, largest pandigital pure power,9876543210 – largest number without redundant digits
12.
Lausanne
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Lausanne is a city in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, and the capital and biggest city of the canton of Vaud. The city is situated on the shores of Lake Geneva and it faces the French town of Évian-les-Bains, with the Jura Mountains to its north-west. Lausanne is located 62 kilometres northeast of Geneva, Lausanne has a population of 146,372, making it the fourth largest city in Switzerland, with the entire agglomeration area having 420,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area of Lausanne-Geneva was over 1.2 million inhabitants in 2000, Lausanne is a focus of international sport, hosting the International Olympic Committee, the Court of Arbitration for Sport and some 55 international sport associations. It lies in a noted wine-growing region, the city has a 28-station metro system, making it the smallest city in the world to have a rapid transit system. Lausanne will host the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics, by the 2nd century AD it was known as vikanor Lousonnensium and in 280 as lacu Lausonio. By 400 it was civitas Lausanna and in 990 it was mentioned as Losanna, after the fall of the Roman Empire, insecurity forced the transfer of Lausanne to its current centre, a hilly site that is easier to defend. The city which emerged from the camp was ruled by the Dukes of Savoy, then it came under Bern from 1536 to 1798 and a number of its cultural treasures, including the hanging tapestries in the Cathedral, were permanently removed. Lausanne has made a number of requests to recover them, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Lausanne became a place of refuge for French Huguenots. In 1729 a seminary was opened by Antoine Court and Benjamin Duplan, by 1750 ninety pastors had been sent back to France to work clandestinely, this number would rise to four hundred. Official persecution ended in 1787, a faculty of Protestant theology was established at Montauban in 1808, during the Napoleonic Wars, the citys status changed. In 1803, it became the capital of a newly formed Swiss canton, in 1964 the city hosted the Swiss National Exhibition, displaying its newly found confidence to host major international events. From the 1950s to 1970s a large number of Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese immigrated, settling mostly in the district of Renens. The city has served as a refuge for European artists, while under the care of a psychiatrist at Lausanne, T. S. Eliot composed most of his 1922 poem The Wasteland. Hemingway also visited from Paris with his wife during the 1920s, in fact, many creative people - such as Edward Gibbon, an historian, and Romantic era poets Shelley and Byron - have sojourned, lived, and worked in Lausanne or nearby. The city has been quiet, but in the late 1960s. Later demonstrations took place to protest against the high cinema prices, the most important geographical feature of the area surrounding Lausanne is Lake Geneva. Lausanne boasts a dramatic panorama over the lake and the Alps, in addition to its generally southward-sloping layout, the centre of the city is the site of an ancient river, the Flon, which has been covered since the 19th century
13.
Erik Wallenberg
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Erik Wallenberg was a Swedish engineer. He is credited for inventing the Tetra Pak tetrahedron packaging in 1944, Wallenberg had initially planned to join the Army as an officer, but fell ill during military training and had to abandon his plans. He was accepted at Karolinska Institutet medical school in Stockholm, but decided to move to Lund, in 1943, waiting to get accepted at Lund University, Wallenberg got a job as lab assistant at Åkerlund & Rausing, a local firm manufacturing food packaging. When his manager got drafted in 1944, he head of the research lab. The key to this was to use as little packaging material as possible, the research lab had tried and failed a number of different solutions. Finally, reportedly when ill with fever, Wallenberg got the idea of using one single sheet of paper rolled into a cylinder and folded from two different sides, creating a mathematical tetrahedron. The volume created only needed to be sealed in three places and the packages could be produced in one subsequent sequence from one roll of paper, using a minimum of material, with a minimum of waste. After some initial hesitation, Ruben Rausing became convinced that the invention was a good idea, in March 1944 he filed for a patent, and in 1951 Tetra Pak was created as a subsidiary to Åkerlund & Rausing. The tetrahedron package made Tetra Pak one of the worlds most successful companies, the package is still sold today under the name of Tetra Classic Aseptic. The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences has called the Tetra Pak packaging system one of Sweden’s most successful inventions of all times
14.
Tetrahedron
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In geometry, a tetrahedron, also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra, the tetrahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a Euclidean simplex. The tetrahedron is one kind of pyramid, which is a polyhedron with a polygon base. In the case of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle, like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere on which all four vertices lie, a regular tetrahedron is one in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have known since antiquity. In a regular tetrahedron, not only are all its faces the same size and shape, regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate, but if alternated with regular octahedra they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation. The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron, the compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula. This form has Coxeter diagram and Schläfli symbol h, the tetrahedron in this case has edge length 2√2. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the together form the stellated octahedron. In other words, if C is the centroid of the base and this follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other. The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron, the symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube, those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other. The tetrahedron is the only Platonic solid that is not mapped to itself by point inversion, the regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group Td, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. The first corresponds to the A2 Coxeter plane, the two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron define a set of parallel planes. When one of these intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle. When the intersecting plane is one of the edges the rectangle is long. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square, the aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly, if the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges
15.
Carton
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A carton is a box or container usually made of paperboard and sometimes of corrugated fiberboard. Many types of cartons are used in packaging, sometimes a carton is also called a box. A carton is a type of packaging suitable for food, pharmaceuticals, hardware, folding cartons are usually combined into a tube at the manufacturer and shipped flat to the packager. Tray styles have a bottom and are often shipped as flat blanks. High-speed equipment is available to set up, load, and close the cartons, egg cartons or trays are designed to protect whole eggs while in transit. Traditionally these have made of molded pulp. This uses recycled newsprint which is molded into a shape which protects the eggs, more recently egg cartons have also been made from expanded polystyrene and PET. Cartons for liquids can be fabricated from laminates of liquid packaging board, foil, most are based on either Tetra Pak or SIG Combibloc systems. One option is to have the printed laminate supplied on a roll, the carton is cut, scored, and formed at the packager. A second option is to have the pre-assembled tubes delivered to the packager for completion and these are suited for aseptic processing and are used for milk, soup, juice, etc. Gable top cartons are used for liquid products such as milk, juice. These use polyethylene-coated liquid packaging board and sometimes a foil laminate, most are opened by pushing open the gables at the top back and pulling the top out. Some have fitments to assist in opening and pouring the contents, the history of the carton goes as far back as 1879 in a Brooklyn, New York, factory operated by Robert Gair. A die-ruled, cut, and scored paperboard into an impression of a folded carton. By 1896, the National Biscuit Company was the first to use cartons to package crackers, the inventor of this carton was G. W. However, it was in 1915 that John Van Wormer of Toledo, Ohio, was granted the first patent for the first paper bottle, which was the first folded blank box for holding milk. The milk carton was original in the sense that it could be folded, glued, filled with milk, the early 1960s brought many automated systems to help with production of repeatable processes. It was at time that an engineer from Detroit, Michigan, named Mario Lepore developed a machine to fold
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Tetra Brik
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Tetra Brik is a brand name for a carton package produced by the Swedish packaging company Tetra Pak. Its shape is cubic or cuboid, and it is available with or without a number of different caps. The Tetra Brik is the most well-known and the most sold package in the Tetra Pak packaging family, the Tetra Brik comes in either chilled or ambient package types. The Tetra Brik package was introduced in 1963, after a process of development. Large amounts were spent on development and in 1963 the first Tetra Brik packaging machine was installed in Motala in central Sweden, the Tetra Brik Aseptic came onto the market in 1969 and soon became Tetra Paks flagship package. Due to the technology, there was no longer a need for a cold chain. Tetra Brik has been distinguished as one of the 20th centurys design icons and it is now part of the permanent collection at the MoMA in New York
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Aseptic processing
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Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile product is packaged in a sterile container in a way that maintains sterility. Sterility is achieved with a process, which retains more nutrients. Pharmaceutical Sterile processing includes use of rooms, bacteria retaining filters. Aseptic food preservation methods allow processed food to keep for long periods of time without preservatives, the aseptic packages are typically a mix of paper, polyethylene, and aluminum, with a tight polyethylene inside layer. Sterile pharmaceuticals are usually packaged in plastic or glass, together these materials form a tight seal against microbiological organisms, contaminants, and degradation, eliminating the need for refrigeration. The first aseptic filling plant for milk was presented in Switzerland in 1961, the Tetra Pak company later became one of the leading suppliers of processing and packaging equipment for dairies. Aseptic techniques were common in Europe and Asia before they were introduced in the United States in the 1980s, Aseptic containers may range in size from a few fluid ounces to a nearly 8-million-US-gallon aseptic tank on an ocean-going ship. Aseptic processing makes worldwide export and import of new, economical, bag-In-Box technology is commonly used because it provides strong containers that are lightweight and easy to handle prior to being filled. Other common package types are drink boxes and pouches, in 1991, the Institute of Food Technologists rated the top 10 innovations in food technology. Aseptic processing and packaging ranked No,1, ahead of juice concentrates, safe canning processes, freeze-drying and food fortification. In 2007 Dr. Philip E. Nelson received the World Food Prize in recognition for his work in aseptic processing. The first aseptic packing of foods was carried out in Denmark prior to 1913, in 1917, Dunkley in USA patented sterilization with saturated steam of cans and subsequent filling of pre-sterilized product. In 1923, aseptically packaged milk from South Africa reached a fair in London. The American can company developed a machine in 1933, called the Heat-Cool-Fill system which used saturated steam under pressure to sterilize the cans. The sterile cans were filled with product and the ends sealed on in a closed chamber. Three commercial plants were built and operated on this principle until 1945, in the 1940s, Martin developed a process in which empty metal cans were sterilized by treatment with superheated steam at 210°C prior to being filled with cold, sterile product. In 1950, the Dole Company bought the first commercial aseptic filling plant on the market, at the end of 1940, a dairy enterprise and machinery manufacturers in Switzerland combined to develop UHT-sterilized, aseptically canned milk, which was marketed in Switzerland in 1953. However, this system was not economical mainly because of the cost of the cans, long shelf life milk packaged in this manner was first sold in Switzerland in October,1961
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Cold chain
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A cold chain is a temperature-controlled supply chain. It is used to preserve and to extend and ensure the life of products, such as fresh agricultural produce, seafood, frozen food, photographic film, chemicals. Such products, during transport and when in transient storage, are called cool cargo, mobile refrigeration was innovated in 1940 by Frederick McKinley Jones, who founded Thermo King. Cold chains are common in the food and pharmaceutical industries and also in some chemical shipments, one common temperature range for a cold chain in pharmaceutical industries is 2 to 8 °C. but the specific temperature tolerances depend on the actual product being shipped. This is important in the supply of vaccines to distant clinics in hot climates served by poorly developed transport networks, disruption of a cold chain due to war may produce consequences similar to the smallpox outbreaks in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War. Patients that thought they were being immunized, in reality were put at risk due to the inactivated vaccines they received. Thus great attention is now being paid to the cold chain distribution process to ensure that simple diseases can eventually be eradicated from society. Traditionally all historical stability data developed for vaccines was based on the range of 2–8 °C. As such, the process must be validated to ensure that there is no negative impact to the safety. The GMP environment requires that all processes that impact the safety, efficacy or quality of the drug substance must be validated, including storage. A cold chain can be managed by a quality management system and it should be analyzed, measured, controlled, documented, and validated. The overall approach to validation of a process is by building more and more qualifications on top of each other to get to a validated state. Performing thermal testing can help with validating the cold chain. Certified test labs use environmental chambers to simulate ambient profiles that a package may encounter in the distribution cycle, thermocouple probes and separate temperature dataloggers measure temperatures within the product load to determine the response of the package to the test conditions. Replicate testing based on a qualification protocols is used to create a final report that can be used to defend the configuration when audited by regulators. It is normally best to have an individual understands the principles of validation. Cold chains need to be evaluated and controlled, Carriers and logistics providers can assist shippers and these providers have the technical ability to link with airlines for real time status, generate web-based export documentation and provide electronic tracking. The use of trucks, refrigerator cars, reefer ships, reefer containers
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Polyethylene terephthalate
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It may also be referred to by the brand name Dacron, in Britain, Terylene, or, in Russia and the former Soviet Union, Lavsan. The majority of the worlds PET production is for synthetic fibers, in the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride are first, second and third. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating units, PET is commonly recycled, and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol. Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both as an amorphous and as a semi-crystalline polymer, the semicrystalline material might appear transparent or opaque and white depending on its crystal structure and particle size. Polymerization is through a reaction of the monomers with water as the byproduct. Because PET is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks, for certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol layer to further reduce its oxygen permeability. Biaxially oriented PET film can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability and these properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation. Because of its mechanical strength, PET film is often used in tape applications. Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and blister packs, if crystallizable PET is used, the trays can be used for frozen dinners, since they withstand both freezing and oven baking temperatures. As opposed to amorphous PET, which is transparent, crystallizable PET or CPET tends to be black in colour, when filled with glass particles or fibres, it becomes significantly stiffer and more durable. PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells, Terylene is also spliced into bell rope tops to help prevent wear on the ropes as they pass through the ceiling. PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers Association of Manchester, DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, USA, first used the trademark Mylar in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films US, in the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name Lavsan is an acronym thereof. The PET bottle was patented in 1973 by Nathaniel Wyeth, PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid and it makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol and solvents. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene, about 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers
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Science Museum, London
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The Science Museum is a major museum on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. It was founded in 1857 and today is one of the major tourist attractions. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the Science Museum does not charge visitors for admission. Temporary exhibitions, however, may incur an admission fee and it is part of the Science Museum Group, having merged with the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in 2012. It included a collection of machinery which became the Museum of Patents in 1858, and this collection contained many of the most famous exhibits of what is now the Science Museum. In 1883, the contents of the Patent Office Museum were transferred to the South Kensington Museum, in 1885, the Science Collections were renamed the Science Museum and in 1893 a separate director was appointed. The Art Collections were renamed the Art Museum, which became the Victoria. When Queen Victoria laid the stone for the new building for the Art Museum, she stipulated that the museum be renamed after herself. On 26 June 1909 the Science Museum, as an independent entity, the Science Museums present quarters, designed by Sir Richard Allison, were opened to the public in stages over the period 1919–28. This building was known as the East Block, construction of which began in 1913, as the name suggests it was intended to be the first building of a much larger project, which was never realized. It also contains hundreds of interactive exhibits, a recent addition is the IMAX 3D Cinema showing science and nature documentaries, most of them in 3-D, and the Wellcome Wing which focuses on digital technology. Entrance has been free since 1 December 2001, the museum houses some of the many objects collected by Henry Wellcome around a medical theme. The fourth floor exhibit is called Glimpses of Medical History, with reconstructions, the fifth floor gallery is called Science and the Art of Medicine, with exhibits of medical instruments and practices from ancient days and from many countries. The collection is strong in clinical medicine, biosciences and public health, the museum is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. The Science Museum has a library, and until the 1960s was Britains National Library for Science, Medicine. It holds runs of periodicals, early books and manuscripts, and is used by scholars worldwide and it was, for a number of years, run in conjunction with the Library of Imperial College, but in 2007 the Library was divided over two sites. The Imperial College library catalogue search system now informs searchers that volumes formerly held there are Available at Science Museum Library Swindon Currently unavailable, a new Research Centre with library facilities is promised for late 2015 but is unlikely to have book stacks nearby. The Science Museums medical collections have a scope and coverage
21.
Vitra Design Museum
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The Vitra Design Museum is an internationally renowned, privately owned museum for design in Weil am Rhein, Germany. Vitra CEO Rolf Fehlbaum founded the museum in 1989 as an independent private foundation, the Vitra corporation provides it with a financial subsidy, the use of Vitra architecture, and organizational cooperation. It is one of the worlds largest collections of furniture design, including pieces representative of all major periods. Instead, the museum puts on temporary collections focused on one particular designer, in turn, parts of the collection are lent to other institutions around the world. In addition, the museum produces workshops, publications and museum products, as well as maintaining an archive, a restoration and conservation laboratory, and it also organises guided tours of the Vitra premises, a major attraction to those interested in modern architecture. The museum building, an attraction in its own right, was Frank O. Gehrys first building in Europe. For the first time, he allowed curved forms to break up his more usual angular shapes, the sloping white forms appear to echo the Notre Dame du Haut chapel by Le Corbusier in Ronchamp, France, not far from Weil. Architecture critic Paul Heyer described the impression on the visitor as “. As a totality it resolves itself into a coherent display. ”The building backs the factory fence and is embedded in a meadow adorned with cherry trees. Claes Oldenburgs prominent sculpture Balancing Tools provides a colourful contrast, while Tadao Andos nearby conference pavilion gives a more muted one, homepage of the Vitra Design Museum Vitra Design Museum on greatbuildings. com Vitra Design Museum on the Guggenheim Foundation website
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Institute of Food Technologists
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It has more than 17,000 members from more than 95 countries. Literature such as Upton Sinclairs The Jungle in 1906 about slaughterhouse operations would be a factor in the establishment of the U. S. Food, by 1935, two MIT professors, Samuel C. Prescott and Bernard E. Proctor decided that it was time to hold a conference regarding this. Prescott replied with fifty or sixty people,500 people actually attended the event. This meeting proved so successful that in early 1938 that a conference would be held in 1939. The second conference was held at MIT June 29 to July 1,1939 with Proctor as conference chair, at the final session, the chairman of the session Fred C. Blanck of the United States Department of Agriculture, proposed that an organization be established as the Institute of Food Technologists and its first officers were Prescott as President, Roy C. Newton of Swift & Company in Chicago, Illinois as Vice President, and Hucker as Secretary-Treasurer. By 1949, IFT had 3,000 members, regional sections were established in IFT as early as 1940 in northern California. The first IFT Award, the Nicholas Appert Award was established in 1942 by IFTs Chicago section with additional awards being established since then, for the first ten years, IFT officers were President, Vice-President, Secretary, and Treasurer. In 1949, IFT moved into offices in Chicago and created a permanent position of Executive Secretary to run daily organizational operations. Retired U. S. Army Colonel Charles S. Lawrence was named the first Executive Secretary, during Willeys term as Executive Director, IFT would grow from 6,000 members in 1961 to 23,000 members in 1987. Additionally, IFT Divisions were established in 1971 with the Refrigerated, the IFT Student Division was established in 1975, and was reorganized in 1984 to be the IFT Student Association with the chairperson serving as a member of the IFT Board of Directors. IFT also communicates with the media, using sixty scientists to discuss the scientific perspective on food issues. IFT is also active in the level by its membership in the International Union of Food Science and Technology, headquartered in Oakville, Ontario. Education has always been a focus of IFT, going as far back as 1941, education standards for undergraduate students were approved by IFT in 1966 for food science and technology. These standards were revised and updated in 1977,1992,2001, today, IFT sits on the advisory council for the International Food Protection Training Institute. IFT largest in-person gathering is IFT’s Annual Meeting & Food Expo, IFT offers the Certified Food Scientist designation. The CFS is the only globally-recognized certification for food scientists, and has more than 1600 certificants in 55 countries, the CFS program is officially endorsed by the Australian Institute of Food Science Technology as well as the Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology
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Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
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Self-service
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Self-service is the practice of serving oneself, usually when purchasing items. Common examples include many gas stations, where the customer pumps their own gas rather than have an attendant do it, in 1917, the US Patent Office awarded Clarence Saunders a patent for a self-serving store. Saunders licensed the business method to independent grocery stores, these operated under the name Piggly Wiggly, self-service is over the phone, web, and email to facilitate customer service interactions using automation. Self-service software and self-service apps become increasingly common
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Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
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Cream
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Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
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Food safety
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Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards, in this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering market to consumer practices, the thought is that food ought to be safe in the market. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In theory, food poisoning is 100% preventable, the five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are, Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods, cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens. Store food at the proper temperature, do use safe water and safe raw materials. This is a derivative of ISO9000. A2003 World Health Organization report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, in 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety. Same for polysorbate E435, see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk, only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with No 583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary. Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, potential problems associated with product packaging such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to packaging or pest infestation, as well as problems and diseases spread by pests. Also covers potential causes of cross contamination, catering for customers who are particularly at risk of food-borne illness, as well as those with allergies or intolerance. Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaning products and their use. Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protective clothing, Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state-based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines, Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture
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Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
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Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
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Anti-competitive practices
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Anti-competitive practices are business, government or religious practices that prevent or reduce competition in a market. These can include, Dumping, where a company sells a product in a market at a loss. Though the company money for each sale, the company hopes to force other competitors out of the market. Exclusive dealing, where a retailer or wholesaler is obliged by contract to purchase from the contracted supplier. Price fixing, where companies collude to set prices, effectively dismantling the free market, limit pricing, where the price is set by a monopolist at a level intended to discourage entry into a market. Tying, where products that arent naturally related must be purchased together, resale price maintenance, where resellers are not allowed to set prices independently. Religious / minority group doctrine, where businesses must apply tribute to a significant part of the community in order to engage in trade with that community, digital rights management which prevents owners from selling used media, as would normally be allowed by the first sale doctrine. It is usually difficult to practice anti-competitive practices unless the parties involved have significant market power or government backing, monopolies and oligopolies are often accused of, and sometimes found guilty of, anti-competitive practices. For this reason, company mergers are often examined closely by government regulators to avoid reducing competition in an industry, some people believe that the realities of the marketplace are sometimes more complex than this or similar theories of competition would suggest. For example, oligopolistic firms may achieve economies of scale that would elude smaller firms, again, very large firms, whether quasi-monopolies or oligopolies, may achieve levels of sophistication e. g. in business process and/or planning that smaller firms would not easily attain. There are undoubtedly industries in which the levels of investment are so high that only extremely large firms that may be quasi-monopolies in some areas of their businesses can survive. Many governments regard these market niches as natural monopolies, and believe that the inability to full competition is balanced by government regulation. However, the companies in these niches tend to believe that they should avoid regulation, in some cases, anti-competitive behavior can be difficult to distinguish from competition. For instance, a distinction must be made between product bundling, which is a market strategy, and product tying, which violates anti-trust law. Some advocates of laissez-faire capitalism reject the term, seeing all anti-competitive behavior as forms of competition that benefit consumers
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European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
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Alfa Laval
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Alfa Laval AB is a Swedish company, founded in 1883 by Gustaf de Laval and Oscar Lamm. The company, which started in the separation of solutions, now deals in the production of specialized products, the products are used to heat, cool, separate and transport such products as oil, water, chemicals, beverages, foodstuffs, starch and pharmaceuticals. In 2016, Alfa Laval had a workforce of 17,309 employees. Alfa Laval is a heavy industry company that focuses on the operations, such as the Marine, Energy. As well as selling equipment, Alfa Laval contracts out to provide solutions to the demands of heavy industry. Alfa Laval is known in the Maritime Industry as producer of maritime equipment, Alfa Laval manufactures valves, pumps, heat exchangers, evaporators, distillers, oil separators, filters, and all other hardware vital to the operation of the a ship’s engine room. As of 2011, Alfa Laval consolidated its Marine, Off-shore, Alfa Laval introduced PureBallast in 2006, which is the worlds first commercially sold water treatment system for the Maritime Industry. It also is the first chemical-free solution to ballast water treatment and it works by filtering the water inside the ballasts tanks though an enhanced AOT process. The process of PureBallast creates free radicals that destroy the membrane of biological contaminates, Alfa Laval has updated its PureBallast system to Pure Ballast 3.0 that adheres to the new IMO regulations. South Korea, the largest ship building nation in the world, has placed orders for the new ballast system, the company was founded in 1883 as AB Separator and in 1938 produced its first heat exchanger. The name Alfa-Laval was introduced in 1963, spelled with a hyphen until 1993, in 1991 Alfa-Laval was acquired by Tetra Pak and between 1993 and 2000 Alfa Laval was a part of the Tetra Laval Group. In 1993, Alfa Laval Agri, a company producing dairy farming equipment, was split from Alfa Laval, when Alfa Laval was sold, Alfa Laval Agri remained a part of the Tetra Laval Group and was renamed DeLaval, after the companys founder. Alfa Laval now divides its operations between equipment and process technology, recently, Alfa Laval has been working towards the consolidation of its manufacturing of boilers. By 2014, Alfa Laval should have all its manufacturing of boilers located in Qingdao, the boiler manufacturing plant in Hai Phong, Vietnam have been shut down in 2013 due to production consolidation. As of 2012, Alfa Laval has a total of 32 manufacturing facilities,15 of which are located in Europe,9 in Asia,6 in the United States, in 1983, Alfa Laval entered the biotechnology industry by offering separators that can isolate genetic samples. In midsummer 2008 there was a theft at the facility at Lund where 80 metric ton of titanium were stolen in two trailers that were driven to Poland, manufacturing at Alfa Laval is carried out in several countries including Sweden, India, China, the UK, and USA. Alfa Laval is headquartered in Toronto and in 2009 opened a centre in Edmonton. In late 2010, staff in the Canadian operations numbered 74, the brand is known for such products as Tri-Clover, Contherm, Sharples, Merco, Standard Refrigeration, Ketema and Champ
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Gustaf de Laval
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Karl Gustaf Patrik de Laval was a Swedish engineer and inventor who made important contributions to the design of steam turbines and dairy machinery. Gustaf de Laval was born at Orsa in Dalarna in the Swedish de Laval Huguenot family and he enrolled at the Institute of Technology in Stockholm in 1863, receiving a degree in mechanical engineering in 1866, after which he matriculated at Uppsala University in 1867. He was then employed by the Swedish mining company, Stora Kopparberg, from there he returned to Uppsala University and completed his doctorate in 1872. He was further employed in Kloster Iron works in Husby parish, Gustaf de Laval was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from 1886. He was a engineer and businessman. He also held office, being elected to Swedish parliament, from 1888 to 1890. De Laval died in Stockholm in 1913 at the age of 67, in 1882 he introduced his concept of an impulse steam turbine and in 1887 built a small steam turbine to demonstrate that such devices could be constructed on that scale. In 1890 Laval developed a nozzle to increase the steam jet to supersonic speed, working off the energy of the steam. The nozzle, now known as a de Laval nozzle, is used in rocket engine nozzles. De Laval turbines can run at up to 30,000 rpm, the turbine wheel was mounted on a long flexible shaft, its two bearings spaced far apart on either side. The higher speed of the turbine demanded that he also design new approaches to reduction gearing, after trying several methods, he concluded that a centrifugal separator was the most affordable and effective method. He developed several types, and their success established the centrifugal separator as a device in a variety of applications. De Laval also made important contributions to the industry, including the first centrifugal milk-cream separator and early milking machines. It was not until after his death, however, that the company he founded marketed the first commercially practical milking machine, in 1918. Together with Oscar Lamm, de Laval founded the company Alfa Laval in 1883, in 1991, Alfa Laval Agri, a company producing dairy and farming machinery was split from Alfa Laval when it was bought by the Tetra Pak Group. When Alfa Laval was sold, Alfa Laval Agri remained a part of the Tetra Pak group and was renamed DeLaval and he is interred at Norra begravningsplatsen in Stockholm, Sweden. History of the combustion engine Alfa Laval - Official site DeLaval - Official site DeLaval - Unofficial site
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Heat exchanger
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A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between a solid object and a fluid, or between two or more fluids. The fluids may be separated by a wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. They are widely used in heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas processing. Another example is the heat sink, which is a heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium. There are three classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends, in a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchangers performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, in most simple systems this is the log mean temperature difference. Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used, double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest exchangers used in industries. On one hand, these heat exchangers are cheap for both design and maintenance, making them a choice for small industries. On the other hand, their low efficiency coupled with the space occupied in large scales, has led modern industries to use more efficient heat exchangers like shell. However, since double pipe heat exchangers are simple, they are used to teach heat exchanger design basics to students as the rules for all heat exchangers are the same. Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of series of tubes, One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of types of tubes, plain, longitudinally finned. Shell and tube heat exchangers are used for high-pressure applications
39.
European Court of Justice
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The European Court of Justice, officially just the Court of Justice, is the highest court in the European Union in matters of European Union law. As a part of the Court of Justice of the European Union it is tasked with interpreting EU law, the Court was established in 1952 and is based in Luxembourg. It is composed of one judge per member state – currently 28 – although it normally hears cases in panels of three, five or 15 judges, the court has been led by president Koen Lenaerts since 2015. The court was established in 1952, by the Treaty of Paris as part of the European Coal and it was established with seven judges, allowing both representation of each of the six member States and being an unequal number of judges in case of a tie. One judge was appointed from each state and the seventh seat rotated between the large Member States. The Maastricht Treaty was ratified in 1993, and created the European Union, the name of the Court did not change unlike the other institutions. The power of the Court resided in the Community pillar, the Court gained power in 1997 with the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty. Issues from the pillar were transferred to the first pillar. Previously, these issues were settled between the member states, the ECJ is the highest court of the European Union in matters of Union law, but not national law. It is not possible to appeal the decisions of courts to the ECJ. However, it is ultimately for the court to apply the resulting interpretation to the facts of any given case. Although, only courts of appeal are bound to refer a question of EU law when one is addressed. The treaties give the ECJ the power for consistent application of EU law across the EU as a whole, the court also acts as arbiter between the EUs institutions and can annul the latters legal rights if it acts outside its powers. The judicial body is now undergoing strong growth, as witnessed by its continually rising caseload, the Luxembourg courts received more than 1,300 cases when the most recent data was recorded in 2008, a record. The staff budget also hit a new high of almost €238 million in 2009, the Court of Justice consists of 28 Judges who are assisted by 11 Advocates-General. The Judges and Advocates-General are appointed by common accord of the governments of the member states, 37% of judges had experience of judging appeals before they joined the ECJ. In practice, each member state nominates a judge whose nomination is then ratified by all the member states. The President of the Court of Justice is elected from and by the judges for a term of three years
€11.9 billion (2015)
