1.
Command-line interface
–
A program which handles the interface is called a command language interpreter or shell. The interface is implemented with a command line shell, which is a program that accepts commands as text input. Command-line interfaces to computer operating systems are widely used by casual computer users. Alternatives to the line include, but are not limited to text user interface menus, keyboard shortcuts. Examples of this include the Windows versions 1,2,3,3.1, and 3.11, DosShell, and Mouse Systems PowerPanel. Command-line interfaces are preferred by more advanced computer users, as they often provide a more concise. Programs with command-line interfaces are generally easier to automate via scripting, a program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter, command processor or shell. Under most operating systems, it is possible to replace the shell program with alternatives, examples include 4DOS for DOS, 4OS2 for OS/2. For example, the default Windows GUI is a program named EXPLORER. EXE. These programs are shells, but not CLIs, application programs may also have command line interfaces. When a program is launched from an OS command line shell, interactive command line sessions, After launch, a program may provide an operator with an independent means to enter commands in the form of text. OS inter-process communication, Most operating systems support means of inter-process communication, Command lines from client processes may be redirected to a CLI program by one of these methods. Some applications support only a CLI, presenting a CLI prompt to the user, Some examples of CLI-only applications are, DEBUG Diskpart Ed Edlin Fdisk Ping Some computer programs support both a CLI and a GUI. In some cases, a GUI is simply a wrapper around a separate CLI executable file, in other cases, a program may provide a CLI as an optional alternative to its GUI. CLIs and GUIs often support different functionality, for example, all features of MATLAB, a numerical analysis computer program, are available via the CLI, whereas the MATLAB GUI exposes only a subset of features. The early Sierra games, like the first three Kings Quest games, used commands from a command line to move the character around in the graphic window. Early computer systems often used teleprinter machines as the means of interaction with a human operator, the computer became one end of the human-to-human teleprinter model. So instead of a human communicating with another human over a teleprinter, in time, the actual mechanical teleprinter was replaced by a glass tty, and then by a smart terminal
2.
File manager
–
A file manager or file browser is a computer program that provides a user interface to manage files and folders. Folders and files may be displayed in a tree based on their directory structure. Some file managers contain features inspired by web browsers, including forward, some file managers provide network connectivity via protocols, such as FTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV. This is achieved by allowing the user to browse for a server or by providing its own full client implementations for file server protocols. A term that predates the usage of file manager is directory editor, the term was used by other developers, including Jay Lepreau, who wrote the dired program in 1980, which ran on BSD. This was in inspired by an older program with the same name running on TOPS-20. Dired inspired other programs, including dired, the editor script, file-list file managers are lesser known and older than orthodox file managers. One such file manager is flist, which was first used in 1981 on the Conversational Monitor System and this is a variant of fulist, which originated before late 1978, according to comments by its author, Theo Alkema. The flist program provided a list of files in the users minidisk, the file attributes could be passed to scripts or function-key definitions, making it simple to use flist as part of CMS EXEC, EXEC2 or XEDIT scripts. Orthodox file managers or command-based file managers are text-menu based file managers, Orthodox file managers are one of the longest running families of file managers, preceding Graphical User Interface-based types. Developers create applications that duplicate and extend the manager that was introduced by PathMinder, the concept is more than thirty years old—PathMinder was released in 1984, and Norton Commander version 1.0 was released in 1986. Despite the age of this concept, file managers based on Norton Commander are actively developed, and dozens of implementations exist for DOS, Unix, Nikolai Bezroukov publishes his own set of criteria for an OFM standard. An orthodox file manager typically has three windows, two of the windows are called panels and are positioned symmetrically at the top of the screen. The third is the line, which is essentially a minimized command window that can be expanded to full screen. Only one of the panels is active at a given time, the active panel contains the file cursor. Panels are resizable and can be hidden, files in the active panel serve as the source of file operations performed by the manager. For example, files can be copied or moved from the panel to the location represented in the passive panel. This scheme is most effective for systems in which the keyboard is the primary or sole input device, the active panel shows information about the current working directory and the files that it contains
3.
Midnight Commander
–
GNU Midnight Commander is a free cross-platform orthodox file manager. It was started by Miguel de Icaza in 1994 as a clone of the then popular Norton Commander, GNU Midnight Commander is part of the GNU project and is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Midnight Commander is an application with a text user interface. The main interface consists of two panels which display the file system, File selection is done using arrow keys, the insert key is used to select files and the function keys perform operations such as renaming, editing and copying files. Later versions of the Midnight Commander additionally have mouse support, such versions are aware of GPM and X terminal emulators which support mouse reporting. When running inside an X terminal, these versions can update the name of the window in which Midnight Commander runs, Midnight Commander also includes an editor called mcedit, which can be executed as a standalone program or from Midnight Commander using the F4 key. Users also have the option to replace mcedit with the editor of their choice, Midnight Commander can also rename groups of files, unlike a number of other file managers that can only rename one file at a time. This is convenient for manipulating large collections of files, e. g. to make them conform to a new naming convention, Midnight Commander can also move files to a different directory at the same time as it renames them. It lets the user specify the original and resulting file names using wildcard characters and this makes the power of regular expressions available for renaming files, with a convenient user interface. In addition, the user can select whether or not to use shell patterns or globs, all of these features are available by using the File > Rename/Move menu selection. Native support for UTF-8 locales for Unicode was added in 2009 to development versions of Midnight Commander, as of version 4.7.0, mc has had Unicode support
4.
Vim (text editor)
–
Vim is a clone of Bill Joys vi text editor program for Unix. It was written by Bram Moolenaar based on source for a port of the Stevie editor to the Amiga, Vim is designed for use both from a command-line interface and as a standalone application in a graphical user interface. Vim is free and open software and is released under a license that includes some charityware clauses. The license is compatible with the GNU General Public License, although Vim was originally released for the Amiga, Vim has since been developed to be cross-platform, supporting many other platforms. Bram Moolenaar began working on Vim for the Amiga computer in 1988, Moolenaar first publicly released Vim in 1991. Vim was based on an editor, Stevie, for the Atari ST, created by Tim Thompson, Tony Andrews. The name Vim is an acronym for Vi IMproved because Vim is a version of the vi editor. Originally, the acronym stood for Vi IMitation, but that was changed with the release of Vim 2.0 in December 1993, a later comment states that the reason for changing the name was that Vims feature set surpassed that of vi. Vi tends to allow a typist to keep their fingers on the home row, Vim has a built-in tutorial for beginners. There is also the Vim Users Manual that details Vims features and this manual can be read from within Vim, or found online. Vim also has a built-in help facility that allows users to query and navigate through commands, part of Vims power is that it can be extensively customized. There are many available that will extend or add new functionality to Vim. These complex scripts are written in Vims internal scripting language. Vim also supports scripting using Lua, Perl, Python, Racket, Ruby, there are projects bundling together complex scripts and customizations and aimed at turning Vim into a tool for a specific task or adding a major flavour to its behaviour. Examples include Cream, which makes Vim behave like a click-and-type editor, or VimOutliner, Vim has a vi compatibility mode, but, when not in this mode, Vim has many enhancements over vi. However, even in compatibility mode, Vim is not entirely compatible with vi as defined in the Single Unix Specification, Vim has nevertheless been described as very much compatible with Vi. Vim script is the language built into Vim. Based on the ex editor language of the vi editor, early versions of Vim added commands for control flow
5.
Retronym
–
A retronym is a neologism for a word created to differentiate between two words, where previously no clarification was required. Advances in technology are responsible for the coinage of retronyms. For example, the acoustic guitar was coined at the advent of electric guitars. Since the end of the 19th century, most bicycles have been expected to have two equal sized wheels, and the type has been renamed penny-farthing or high-wheeler bicycle. Similarly, the term cisgender was coined to describe persons who identify with the gender they were assigned at birth, the term retronym was coined by Frank Mankiewicz in 1980 and popularized by William Safire in The New York Times Magazine. In 2000 The American Heritage Dictionary became the first major dictionary to include the word retronym, back-formation Backronym Contrastive focus reduplication -onym Protologism
6.
Graphical user interface
–
GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
7.
Computer graphics
–
Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science, the phrase was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes referred to as CGI. The overall methodology depends heavily on the sciences of geometry, optics. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the user and it is also used for processing image data received from the physical world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, the term computer graphics has been used a broad sense to describe almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, a well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, thesis, many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery can be categorized into different types, two dimensional, three dimensional, and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers use of mattes to create effects for the earliest films dating from 1895. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, early projects like the Whirlwind and SAGE Projects introduced the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface and introduced the light pen as an input device. Douglas T. Ross of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed an experiment in 1954 in which a small program he wrote captured the movement of his finger. Electronics pioneer Hewlett-Packard went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established ties with Stanford University through its founders. This began the transformation of the southern San Francisco Bay Area into the worlds leading computer technology hub - now known as Silicon Valley. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware, further advances in computing led to greater advancements in interactive computer graphics. In 1959, the TX-2 computer was developed at MITs Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces
8.
Text mode
–
Text mode is a computer display mode in which content is internally represented on a computer screen in terms of characters rather than individual pixels. Typically, the screen consists of a rectangular grid of character cells. Text mode is contrasted to all points addressable mode or other kinds of computer graphics modes, text mode applications communicate with the user with command-line interfaces and text user interfaces. A typical example is the IBM code page 437 character set and this was an analogy of early mechanical printers which had fixed pitch. This way, the output seen on the screen could be sent directly to the printer maintaining exactly the same format, depending on the environment, the screen buffer can be directly addressable. Programs that display output on remote video terminals must issue special control sequences to manipulate the screen buffer, the most popular standards for such control sequences are ANSI and VT100. Text mode video rendering came to prominence in the early 1970s, the advantages of text modes as compared to graphics modes include lower memory consumption and faster screen manipulation. Early framebuffers were standalone devices which cost thousands of dollars, in addition to the expense of the advanced high-resolution displays to which they were connected. For applications that required simple line graphics but for which the expense of a framebuffer could not be justified, but there were many computer applications for which all that was required was the ability to render ordinary text in a quick and cost-effective fashion to a cathode ray tube. Text mode avoids the problem of memory by having dedicated display hardware re-render each line of text from characters into pixels with each scan of the screen by the cathode ray. In turn, the hardware needs only enough memory to store the pixels equivalent to one line of text at a time. For example, a screen buffer sufficient to hold a standard grid of 80 by 25 characters requires at least 2,000 bytes. S. dollars, another advantage of text mode is that it has relatively low bandwidth requirements in remote terminal use. Text mode rendering with user-defined characters has also been useful for 2D computer, a video controller implementing a text mode usually uses two distinct areas of memory. Character memory or a table contains a raster font in use. Display matrix tracks which character is in each cell, in the simple case the display matrix can be just a matrix of code points, but it usually stores for each character position not only a code, but also attributes. The video controller has two registers, scan line counter and dot counter, serving as coordinates in the dot matrix. Each of them must be divided by corresponding glyph size to obtain an index in the display matrix, the character memory resides in a read-only memory in some systems. Other systems allow the use of RAM for this purpose, making it possible to redefine the typeface, in some historical graphics chips, including the TMS9918, the MOS Technology VIC, and the Game Boy graphics hardware, this was actually the canonical way of doing pixel graphics
9.
Computer mouse
–
A computer mouse is a pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, physically, a mouse consists of an object held in ones hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also other elements, such as touch surfaces and wheels. The earliest known publication of the mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill Englishs July 1965 publication. The plural for the rodent is always mice in modern usage. The plural of a mouse is mouses and mice according to most dictionaries. The first recorded usage is mice, the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use. The trackball, a pointing device, was invented in 1944 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System. Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service, Benjamins project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a ball for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston, Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navys DATAR system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamins display, the trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, by counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball and it was not patented, since it was a secret military project. Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input
_en.png)
-console.png)
