1.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
2.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
3.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
4.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
5.
Luther Bible
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The Luther Bible is a German language Bible translation from Hebrew and ancient Greek by Martin Luther. The New Testament was first published in 1522 and the complete Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments and Apocrypha, the project absorbed Luthers later years. Thanks to the recently invented printing press, the result was widely disseminated and contributed significantly to the development of todays modern High German language. He translated from the Greek text, using Erasmus second edition of the Greek New Testament, Luther did not translate from the Latin Vulgate translation, which is the Latin translation officially used by the Roman Catholic Church. Like Erasmus, Luther had learned Greek at the Latin schools led by the Brethren of the Common Life and these lay brothers added Greek as a new subject to their curriculum in the late 15th century. At that time Greek was seldom taught even at universities, to help him in translating into contemporary German, Luther would make forays into nearby towns and markets to listen to people speaking. He wanted to ensure their comprehension by translating as closely as possible to their contemporary language usage and his translation was published in September 1522, six months after he had returned to Wittenberg. It was a republication of the gospel and he made the Bible the peoples book in church, school, and house. Luther worked on refining the translation up to his death in 1546, there were 117 original woodcuts included in the 1534 edition issued by the Hans Lufft press in Wittenberg. They reflected the recent trend of including artwork to reinforce the textual message, apologist James Swan lists numerous Catholic sources that also translated Romans 3,28 with the word alone, or testified to others doing so before Luther. He called the Letter of James an epistle of straw, finding little in it pointed to Christ. He also had harsh words for the Revelation of John, saying that he could in no way detect that the Holy Spirit produced it, the four which follow have from ancient times had a different reputation. His views on some of these books changed in later years, Luther chose to place the Biblical apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments. These books and addenda to Biblical canon of the Old Testament are found in the ancient Greek Septuagint, Luther left the translating of them largely to Philipp Melanchthon and Justus Jonas. See also Biblical canon, Development of the Christian Biblical canon, the Luther Bible was not the first German Bible translation, but it was the most influential. It is also considered a landmark in German literature, with Luthers vernacular style often praised by modern German sources for the forceful vigor with which he translated the Holy Scripture, a large part of Luthers significance was his influence on the emergence of the German language and national identity. This stemmed predominantly from his translation of the Bible into the vernacular, which was potentially as revolutionary as canon law, although Luther was not the first to attempt such a translation, his was superior to all its predecessors. Previous translations had contained poor German, and had been from the Vulgate Latin translation, i. e. translations of a translation rather than a direct translation into German from the originals
6.
William Tyndale
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William Tyndale was an English scholar who became a leading figure in Protestant reform in the years leading up to his execution. He is well known for his translation of the Bible into English and he was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus, who made the Greek New Testament available in Europe, and by Martin Luther. It was taken to be a challenge to the hegemony of both the Roman Catholic Church and the laws of England maintaining the churchs position. In 1530, Tyndale also wrote The Practyse of Prelates, opposing Henry VIIIs annulment from Catherine of Aragon on the grounds that it contravened Scripture, reuchlins Hebrew grammar was published in 1506. Tyndale worked in an age in which Greek was available to the European scholarly community for the first time in centuries, Erasmus compiled and edited Greek Scriptures following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantinoples fall helped to fuel the Renaissance and led to the dispersion of Greek-speaking intellectuals and texts into a Europe which previously had no access to them. A copy of The Obedience of a Christian Man fell into the hands of Henry VIII, in 1535, Tyndale was arrested and jailed in the castle of Vilvoorde outside Brussels for over a year. In 1536, he was convicted of heresy and executed by strangulation, hence, the Tyndale Bible, as it was known, continued to play a key role in spreading Reformation ideas across the English-speaking world and, eventually, to the British Empire. In 1611, the 54 scholars who produced the King James Bible drew significantly from Tyndale, one estimate suggests that the New Testament in the King James Version is 83% Tyndales and the Old Testament 76%. Tyndale was born at around the year 1485 in Melksham Court, Stinchcombe, the Tyndale family also went by the name Hychyns, and it was as William Hychyns that Tyndale was enrolled at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. Tyndales family had moved to Gloucestershire at some point in the 15th century, the family emigrated from Northumberland via East Anglia. Tyndales brother Edward was receiver to the lands of Lord Berkeley, Tyndale began a Bachelor of Arts degree at Magdalen Hall of Oxford University in 1506 and received his B. A. in 1512, the same year becoming a subdeacon. He was made Master of Arts in July 1515 and was held to be a man of virtuous disposition, the M. A. allowed him to start studying theology, but the official course did not include the systematic study of Scripture. He was a gifted linguist and became fluent over the years in French, Greek, Hebrew, German, Italian, Latin, between 1517 and 1521, he went to the University of Cambridge. Erasmus had been the teacher of Greek there from August 1511 to January 1512. Tyndale became chaplain at the home of Sir John Walsh at Little Sodbury, the clergyman asserted to Tyndale, We had better be without Gods laws than the Popes. Tyndale responded, I defy the Pope, and all his laws, Tyndale left for London in 1523 to seek permission to translate the Bible into English. He requested help from Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall, a well-known classicist who had praised Erasmus after working together with him on a Greek New Testament, the bishop, however, declined to extend his patronage, telling Tyndale that he had no room for him in his household
7.
King James Version
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The King James Version, also known as Authorized Version or simply King James Bible, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha. It was first printed by the Kings Printer Robert Barker and was the translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII, the translation is noted for its majesty of style, and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. Today the unqualified title King James Version usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant, the title page carries the words Appointed to be read in Churches, and F. F. For many years it was not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. Similarly, a History of England, whose edition was published in 1775, writes merely that new translation of the Bible, viz. that now in Use, was begun in 1607. King Jamess Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation in Charles Butlers Horae Biblicae and this name was also found as King James Bible, for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase King Jamess Bible is used as far back as 1715, the use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as our present, and only publicly authorised version, our Authorised version, the Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is known as the Authorised Version today. As early as 1814, we find King James version, evidently a descriptive phrase, the King James Version is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source, in the United States, the 1611 translation is generally known as the King James Version today. The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century and these translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards
8.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
9.
Reina-Valera
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The Reina-Valera is a Spanish translation of the Bible originally published in 1602 when Cipriano de Valera revised the earlier translation produced in 1569 by Casiodoro de Reina. This translation was known as the Biblia del Oso because the illustration on the page showed a bear trying to reach a container of honeycombs hanging from a tree. Since that date, it has undergone various revisions notably those of 1909,1960,1995, the Reina-Valera Bible is as central to the perception of the Bible in Spanish as the King James Version is in English. It was first published on September 28,1569, in Basel, the translation was based on the Hebrew Masoretic Text and the Greek Textus Receptus. As secondary sources, de Reina used the Ferrara Bible for the Old Testament, for the New Testament, he was greatly aided by the translations of Francisco de Enzinas and Juan Pérez de Pineda. The 1569 version included the books within the Old Testament. Among the reasons for the revision was the fact that in the intervening period words had changed their meanings or gone out of use, for a time, it was known simply by de Valeras name. Modern editions often omit the Apocrypha, the principle behind these revisions has been to remain as close to the original Reina-Valera as possible without causing confusion or misunderstanding. Even the 1995 New Testament is based on the traditional Textus Receptus despite the fact that the United Bible Societies use modern critical Greek texts as the basis for other translations and it retains the traditional form of the name of God, Jehová. In addition, it uses for the plural the pronoun vosotros. Since resurgence of the King James Only movement in the United States, however, the 1960 revision became the common Bible of many millions of Spanish-speaking protestants around the world, surpassing the 1909 in its reception. Almost all Hispanic churches use it, despite attempts to revise it. The 1602 Purified Bible done in Monterrey, Mexico, by advocates of King James Onlyism, the Reina-Valera 1865, made by Dr. Ángel H. de Mora of Spain, and subsequently printed by the American Bible Society. The ABS continued to reprint this Valera edition until the 1950s and it was reprinted again in the year 2000 by the Local Church Bible Publishers of Lansing, Michigan, and the Valera Bible Society of Miami, Florida. The Reina-Valera-Gómez Bible, a revision of the 1909, done in Matamoros, Mexico, the Trinitarian Bible Society, itself advocating a mild form of King James Onlyism, has been writing on a revision of the Valera 1909. Bible translations Bible translations into Spanish Raymond S. Rosales, Casiodoro de Reina, patriarca del Protestantismo hispano, in Serie de monografías Publicaciones del Seminario Concordia, no.5. Saint Louis, Mo. Concordia Seminary Publications,2002
10.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
11.
Western Europe
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Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
12.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
13.
Basel
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Basel is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerlands third-most-populous city with about 175,000 inhabitants, located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland, the official language of Basel is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Basel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, the city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century. It hosts the oldest university of the Swiss Confederation, There are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period. The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an Oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul. In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the administrative centre. The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle, the name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym Basilia, first recorded in the 3rd century. It is presumably derived from the personal name Basilius, the Old French form Basle was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French Bâle. The Icelandic name Buslaraborg goes back to the 12th century Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan, Basel was incorporated into Germania Superior in AD83. Roman control over the area deteriorated in 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian, the Alamanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled. In a great invasion of AD406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace, from this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement. The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription Basilia fit, Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century. Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, at the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870. The city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917, the rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. Since the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, in 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor Heinrich II. In 1225–1226, the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun, the bridge was largely funded by Basels Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river between Lake Constance and the sea, the Bishop also allowed the furriers to found a guild in 1226
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Dutch people
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The Dutch, occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, Nederlanders—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a culture and speak the Dutch language. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at an early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place, despite the small size of the Netherlands, the Dutch left behind a legacy in excess of their mere numbers. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of music, dances, architectural styles and clothing. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard, the dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, although in modern times the majority is no longer religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality, as with all ethnic groups the ethnogenesis of the Dutch has been a lengthy and complex process. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group, for Dutch national history, for Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire. Following the end of the period in the West around 500, with large federations settling the decaying Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, this began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance settled the areas Southern lands as foederati, Roman allies in charge of border defense. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, however, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part of the Empire, the current Dutch-French language border has remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks. The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th century, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism, as they became increasingly powerful, they used their economical strength to influence the politics of their nobility. While the cities were of political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards in the Dutch delta and it is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural, despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people. However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this
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Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
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Erasmus
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Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, known as Erasmus or Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch/Netherlandish Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed the sobriquet Prince of the Humanists, and has called the crowning glory of the Christian humanists. He also wrote On Free Will, The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia, Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Erasmus remained a member of the Roman Catholic Church all his life, remaining committed to reforming the Church and he also held to the Catholic doctrine of free will, which some Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road approach disappointed and even angered scholars in both camps, Erasmus died suddenly in Basel in 1536 while preparing to return to Brabant, and was buried in Basel Minster, the former cathedral of the city. A bronze statue of him was erected in his city of birth in 1622, Desiderius Erasmus is reported to have been born in Rotterdam on 28 October in the late 1460s. He was named after Saint Erasmus of Formiae, whom Erasmuss father Gerard personally favored, a 17th-century legend has it that Erasmus was first named Geert Geerts, but this is unfounded. He was born in Rotterdam, but there are insufficient records to confirm that, a well-known wooden picture indicates, Goudæ conceptus, Roterodami natus. According to an article by historian Renier Snooy, Erasmus was born in Gouda, the exact year of his birth is debated, with most biographers citing the year as 1466. Some evidence confirming 1466 can be found in Erasmuss own words, of twenty-three statements Erasmus made about his age, all and he was christened Erasmus after the saint of that name. Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for four years. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings and his parents were not legally married. His father, Gerard, was a Catholic priest and curate in Gouda, little is known of his mother other than that her name was Margaretha Rogerius and she was the daughter of a physician from Zevenbergen, she may have been Gerards housekeeper. Erasmus was given the highest education available to a man of his day. During his stay there the curriculum was renewed by the principal of the school, for the first time ever Greek was taught at a lower level than a university in Europe, and this is where he began learning it. He also gleaned there the importance of a relationship with God but eschewed the harsh rules. His education there ended when plague struck the city about 1483, and his mother, in 1492, poverty forced Erasmus into the consecrated life
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Textual variants in the New Testament
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Textual variants in the New testament are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text being reproduced, if their eye skips to an earlier word, they may create a repetition. If their eye skips to a word, they may create an omission. In other instances, the copyist may add text from memory from a similar or parallel text in another location, otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun, Origen, writing in the 3rd century, was one of the first who made remarks about differences between manuscripts of texts that were eventually collected as the New Testament. He declared his preferences among variant readings, for example, in Matthew 27, 16–17, he favored Barabbas against Jesus Barabbas. In John 1,28, he preferred Bethabara over Bethany as the location where John was baptizing, gergeza was preferred over Geraza or Gadara. At Hebrews 2,9, Origen noticed two different readings, apart from God and by the grace of God, John Mills 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatus which was based on nearly 100 manuscripts. Eberhard Nestle estimated this number in 1897 as 150, 000–200,000 variants. Bart D. Ehrman has estimated there are between 200, 000–400,000 variants several million pages of manuscripts, and in 2014 Eldon J. Epp raised the estimate as high as 750,000. The most recent estimate puts the number of non-spelling variants among New Testament manuscripts around 500,000, an abbreviated list of textual variants in the New Testament is given in this article. the light that appeared on the water. αμην —157225418 οτι σου εστιν η βασιλλεια του πατρος και του υιου και του αγιου πνευματος εις τους αιωνας, αμην —1253 quoniam est tibi virtus in saecula saeculorum — itk οτι σου εστιν η δυναμις και η δοξα εις τους αιωνας. αμην — copsa, fay οτι σου εστιν η βασιλλεια και η δοξα εις τους αιωνας, αμην —1342 syrc οτι σου εστιν η βασιλλεια και η δυναμις εις τους αιωνας. Oxy. But if you sit down in the place, and one inferior to you come in, then he that invited you will say to you, Go up higher. Τη αυτη ημερα θεασαμενος τινα εργαζομενον τω σαββατω ειπεν αυτω ανθρωπε, ει μεν οιδας τι ποιεις, μακαριος ει ει δε μη οιδας, επικαταρατος και παραβατης ει του νομου. — D Eodem die videns quendam operantem sabbato et dixit illi, Homo, siquidem scis, quod facis, beatus es, si autem nescis, maledictus et trabaricator legis. — d On that same day, seeing someone working on the Sabbath, he said to him, Man, if you know what you do, blessed are you, but if you do not know, you are cursed and a transgressor of the law. Mss John 1,4 εν αυτῳ ζωη εστιν — א D it vgmss Irenaeuslat Heracleon Clementpt Origenpt text omitted — Wsupp εν αυτῳ ζωη ῃν — All other mss
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Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
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Constantin von Tischendorf
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Lobegott Friedrich Constantin Tischendorf was a world leading biblical scholar in his time. In 1844 he discovered the worlds oldest and most complete Bible dating from 325 and this Bible is called Codex Sinaiticus, after the St. Catherines Monastery at Mt. Sinai, where Tischendorf discovered it. The codex can be either in the British Library in London. Textual disputes are resolved when the two oldest books, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, agree with each other. Tischendorf was made an Honorary Doctor by Oxford University on 16 March 1865, while a student gaining his academic degree in the 1840s, he earned international recognition when he deciphered the Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, a 5th-century Greek manuscript of the New Testament. The Codex Sinaiticus contains a 4th-century New Testament manuscript and co-exists with two other Bibles of similar age, though they are less complete, Codex Vaticanus is now with the Vatican and Codex Alexandrinus currently owned by the British Library. The Codex Sinaiticus is deemed todays most authoritative New Testament manuscript, the content of the oldest Bible of the world has been digitalised and can be found at Codex Sinaiticus. He intended to be as close as possible to the original References, Tischendorfs greatest discovery was in the monastery Saint Catherine on the Sinai-Peninsula, which he visited in May 1844, and again in 1853 and 1859. Tischendorf pursued a constant course of editorial labours, mainly on the New Testament and his motive, as explained in a publication on Tischendorfs Letter by Prof. Christfried Boettrich, was to prove scientifically that the words of the Bible were trustfully transmitted over centuries. Tischendorf was born in Lengenfeld, Saxony, near Plauen, the son of a physician, beginning in 1834, he spent his scholarly career at the University of Leipzig where he was mainly influenced by JGB Winer, and he began to take special interest in New Testament criticism. Winers influence gave him the desire to use the oldest manuscripts in order to compile the text of the New Testament as close to the original as possible, in 1838 he took the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, then became master at a school near Leipzig. After a journey through southern Germany and Switzerland, and a visit to Strassburg, he returned to Leipzig and these early textual studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and more exact collations of manuscripts. His second edition retracted the more precarious readings of the first and he now became professor extraordinarius at Leipzig, and became married in 1845. He also began to publish Reise in den Orient, an account of his travels in the east. Even though he was an expert in reading the text of a palimpsest, he was not able to identify the value or meaning of the Archemedes Palimpsest, from Paris, he had paid short visits to the Netherlands and England. In 1843 he visited Italy, and after a stay of thirteen months, went on to Egypt, Sinai, in 1844 Tischendorf travelled the first time to Saint Catherines Monastery at the foot of Mount Sinai in Egypt, where he found the oldest complete known Bible. Of the many pages which were contained in an old wicker basket he was given 43 pages as a present and he donated those 43 pages to King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, to honour him and to recognise his patronage as the funder of Tischenforfs journey. Leipzig University put 2 of the leaves on display in 2011, and Tischendorf, horrified, asked if he could have them
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Westcott-Hort
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The New Testament in the Original Greek is a Greek-language version of the New Testament published in 1881. It is also known as the Westcott and Hort text, after its editors Brooke Foss Westcott and it is a critical text, compiled from some of the oldest New Testament fragments and texts that had been discovered at the time. The two editors worked together for 28 years, according to Hort, Knowledge of Documents should precede Final Judgments upon Readings. The two editors favoured two manuscripts, Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, Westcott and Hort distinguished four text types in their studies. The most recent is the Syrian, or Byzantine text-type, of which the newest example is the Textus Receptus, the Western text-type is much older, but tends to paraphrase, so according to them also lacks dependability. The Alexandrian text-type, exemplified in the Codex Ephraemi, exhibits a polished Greek style and this text has only a few changes of the original. This edition is based on the critical works especially of Tischendorf, the minuscules play a minimal role in this edition. Westcott and Hort worked on their Testament from 1853 until its completion in 1881 and it was followed by an Introduction and Appendix by Hort appearing in a second volume in 1882. In 1892, an edition was released by F. C. The edition of Westcott and Hort began a new epoch in the history of textual criticism, all critical editions published after Westcott and Hort closely follow the text of The New Testament in the Original Greek, with the exception of the text edited by Hermann von Soden. Sodens edition stands much closer to the text of Tischendorf than to the text of Westcott, all editions of Nestle-Aland remain close in textual character to the text WH. According to Bruce M. Metzger, the validity of their critical principles and procedures is widely acknowledged by scholars today. Of course, I think they gave too much weight to Codex Vaticanus alone, and this criticism aside, the Westcott and Hort text is extremely reliable. Of course, the discoveries of the past one hundred years have changed things. The texts of Nestle-Aland, and of Bover and Merk, differ very little from the text of the Westcott-Hort, Editio Regia Novum Instrumentum omne Editio Octava Critica Maior Novum Testamentum Graece Bruce M. Metzger. The Text of the New Testament, Its Transmission, Corruption, the Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. The New Testament In The Original Greek Sortable articles Bible Version Verse Comparison Charts Comparison of the Wescott/Hort text with other editions on the Manuscript Comparator
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Alexandrian text-type
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The Alexandrian text-type, associated with Alexandria, is one of several text-types used in New Testament textual criticism to describe and group the textual character of biblical manuscripts. The Alexandrian text-type is the form of the Greek New Testament that predominates in the earliest surviving documents, most modern New Testaments are based on what is called reasoned eclecticism, such as that of the Nestle-Aland 27, in formulating a Greek text. This invariably results in a text that is strongly Alexandrian in character, up until the 9th century, Greek texts were written entirely in upper case letters, referred to as Uncials. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the new lower-case writing hand of Minuscules came gradually to replace the older style, most Greek Uncial manuscripts were recopied in this period and their parchment leaves typically scraped clean for re-use. Consequently, surviving Greek New Testament manuscripts from before the 9th century are relatively rare and these include the oldest near-complete manuscripts of the New Testament Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and Codex Sinaiticus. It was used by Clement, Athanasius, and Cyril of Alexandria, according to the present critics codices P75 and B are the best Alexandrian witnesses, which present the pure Alexandrian text. All other witnesses are classified according to whether they preserve the excellent P 75-B line of text, with the primary Alexandrian witnesses are included P66 and citations of Origen. With the secondary witnesses are included manuscripts C, L,33, all extant manuscripts of all text-types are at least 85% identical and most of the variations are not translatable into English, such as word order or spelling. When compared to witnesses of the Western text-type, Alexandrian readings tend to be shorter, and are commonly regarded as having a lower tendency to expand or paraphrase. Some of the representing the Alexandrian text-type have the Byzantine corrections made by later hands.46,11,26,15,28, Luke 17,36. In Matthew 15,6 omitted η την μητερα — א B D copsa, In Mark 10,7 omitted phrase και προσκολληθησεται προς την γυναικα αυτου, in codices Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Athous Lavrensis,892, ℓ48, syrs, goth. Mark 10,37 αριστερων instead of ευωνυμων, in phrase εξ αριστερων or σου εξ αριστερων, In Luke 11,4 phrase αλλα ρυσαι ημας απο του πονηρου omitted. Omission is supported by the manuscripts, Sinaiticus, B, L, f1,700, vg, syrs, copsa, bo, arm, the above comparisons are tendencies, rather than consistent differences. Hence there are a number of passages in the Gospel of Luke where the Western text-type witnesses a shorter text — the Western non-interpolations. in Mark 15,34, but as Eli, Eli. in Matthew 27,46. Most textual critics of the New Testament favor the Alexandrian text-type as the closest representative of the autographs for many reasons, one reason is that Alexandrian manuscripts are the oldest found, some of the earliest church fathers used readings found in the Alexandrian text. Another is that the Alexandrian readings are adjudged more often to be the ones that can best explain the origin of all the variant readings found in other text-types, nevertheless, there are some dissenting voices to this consensus. A few textual critics, especially those in France, argue that the Western text-type, in the United States, some critics have a dissenting view that prefers the Byzantine text-type, such as Maurice Arthur Robinson and William Grover Pierpont. Thus, it is not surprising that ancient Biblical manuscripts that are found would come mostly from the Alexandrian geographical area and not from the Byzantine geographical area
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Biblical criticism
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Biblical criticism is the scholarly study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. It will vary depending on whether the focus is on the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament. It also plays an important role in the quest for a historical Jesus and it also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies. Biblical criticism, defined as the treatment of biblical texts as natural rather than supernatural artifacts, a division is still sometimes made between historical criticism and literary criticism. Literary criticism asks what audience the authors wrote for, their purpose. In the 18th century Jean Astruc, a French physician, set out to refute these critics, borrowing methods of textual criticism already in use to investigate Greek and Roman texts, he discovered what he believed were two distinct documents within Genesis. These, he felt, were the original written by Moses, much as the four Gospel writers had produced four separate but complementary accounts of the life. Later generations, he believed, had conflated these original documents to produce the book of Genesis, producing the inconsistencies and contradictions noted by Hobbes. The implications of higher criticism were not welcomed by many religious scholars, quite rightly employed in the case of the Sacred Books. For the fact is that truth is presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts. Reimaruss conclusions appealed to the rationalism of 18th century intellectuals, but were deeply troubling to contemporary believers, baron dHolbach - Ecce Homo -The History of Jesus of Nazareth, a Critical Inquiry, the first Life of Jesus described as a mere historical man, published anonymously in Amsterdam. George Houston translated the work into English—published in Edinburgh,1799, London,1813, the questions they addressed were, What was Jesus’s key message. How was that message related to Judaism, does that message speak to our reality today. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948 revitalised interest in the possible contribution archaeology could make to the understanding of the New Testament, contemporary New Testament criticism continues to follow the synthesising trend set during the latter half of the 20th century. The critical methods and perspectives now to be found are numerous, Textual criticism refers to the examination of the text itself to identify its provenance or to trace its history. It takes as its basis the fact that errors crept into texts as generations of scribes reproduced each others manuscripts. For example, Josephus employed scribes to copy his Antiquities of the Jews, as the scribes copied the Antiquities, they made mistakes
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Byzantine text-type
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The Byzantine text-type is one of several text-types used in textual criticism to describe the textual character of Greek New Testament manuscripts. It is the form found in the largest number of surviving manuscripts, the New Testament text of the Greek Orthodox Church, the Patriarchal Text, is based on this text-type. While considerably varying, it underlies the Textus Receptus Greek text used for most Reformation-era translations of the New Testament into vernacular languages. Modern translations mainly use Eclectic editions that conform more often to the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text is also found in a few modern Greek Orthodox editions, as the Byzantine textual tradition has continued in the Eastern Orthodox Church into the present time. The text used by the Greek Orthodox Church is supported by late minuscule manuscripts and it is commonly accepted as standard Byzantine text. The Byzantine textform is often marked with the abbreviations M or Byz, for some time following the fourth century different types of text were current in the East, but at the end the Byzantine text almost wholly displaced the rest. Amongst the earliest surviving manuscripts, the position is reversed, by comparison, the Alexandrian text-type is witnessed by nine surviving uncials earlier than the ninth century, and is also usually considered to be demonstrated in three earlier papyri. Modern critical editions of the New Testament tend to conform most often to Alexandrian witnesses — especially Codex Sinaiticus, chrysostom and Asterius used text only in 75% agreed with the standard Byzantine text. The form of the Byzantine text found in the earliest witnesses is not a monolithic whole, Hodges and Arthur L. Farstad, although this text does not correspond to any one particular manuscript. Papyri
24.
Novum Instrumentum omne
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Novum Instrumentum omne was the first published New Testament in Greek. It was prepared by Desiderius Erasmus and printed by Johann Froben of Basel, although the first printed Greek New Testament was the Complutensian Polyglot, it was the second to be published. Erasmus used several Greek manuscripts housed in Basel, but some a few verses in Revelation he translated from the Latin Vulgate, five editions of Novum Instrumentum omne were published, though its title was changed to Novum Testamentum omne with the second edition, and the name continued. Erasmus issued editions in 1516,1519,1522,1527, with the third edition, the Comma Johanneum was included. The Erasmian edition was the basis for the majority of translations of New Testament in the 16–19th centuries. In 1512 Erasmus had been in negotiation with Badius Ascensius of Paris to publish the Vulgate of Jerome and it did not happen, and Erasmus did not continue contacts with Badius. At that time Erasmus did not think about a Greek New Testament and it is uncertain when Erasmus decided to prepare his edition of the Greek New Testament, but on a visit to Basel in August 1514 he contacted Johann Froben. Many scholars believe that Froben had heard about the forthcoming Spanish Polyglot Bible, some scholars doubt this motivation of Froben, because there is no evidence to support it. Most likely he included the Greek text to prove the superiority of his Latin version, the next meeting took the place in April 1515 at the University of Cambridge. As a result, in July 1515 Erasmus came to Basel, Johannes Oecolampadius served as his editorial assistant and Hebrew consultant. Erasmus did not take any Greek manuscripts to Basel, hoping to find some there and he borrowed some manuscripts from the Dominican Library at the Basel. He used seven manuscripts, they were identified, Manuscripts 1eap, the rest of the manuscripts he borrowed from Dominicans. It is significant that he did not use the Codex Basilensis, which was held at the Basel University Library, Erasmus had three manuscripts of the Gospels and Acts, four manuscripts of the Pauline epistles, but only one manuscript with the Book of Revelation. In every book of the New Testament he compared three or four manuscripts, except the last book, Book of Revelation, unfortunately, this manuscript was not complete, it lacked the final leaf, which contained the last six verses of the book. Instead of delaying the publication, on account of the search for another manuscript and he used a corrupted manuscript of Vulgate with textual variant libro vitae instead ligno vitae in Rev 22,19. Even in other parts of the Book of Revelation and other books of the New Testament Erasmus occasionally introduced self-created Greek text material taken from the Vulgate, F. H. A. Scrivener remarked, that in Rev 17,4 he created a new Greek word, ἀκαθαρτητος. There is no word in Greek language as ακαθαρτητος. In Rev 17,8 he used καιπερ εστιν instead of και παρεσται, in Acts 9,6 the question that Paul asks at the time of his conversion on the Damascus road, Τρέμων τε καὶ θαμβὣν εἲπεν κύριε τί μέ θέλεις ποιῆσαι was incorporated from the Vulgate
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Editio Regia
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Editio Regia is the third and the most important edition of the Greek New Testament of Robert Estienne. It is one of the most important printed editions of the Greek New Testament in history and it was named Editio Regia because of the beautiful and elegant Greek font it uses. It was edited by Estienne in 1550 at Paris and it is the first Greek Testament that has a critical apparatus. Estienne entered on the margins of the variant readings from 15 Greek manuscripts as well as many readings from the Complutensian Polyglot. He designated all these sources by symbols from α to ιϛ, the Complutensian Polyglot was signified by α. The critical collation was the new subject, and although Estienne omitted hundreds important variants from used witnesses, the oldest manuscript used in this edition was the Codex Bezae, which had been collated for him, by friends in Italy. The majority of manuscripts are held in National Library of France to the present day. Estienne made only a few changes in Erasmian text and he added to the Erasmian text verse Luke 17,36. He took it from Codex Bezae, the text of the editions of 1546 and 1549 was a composition of the Complutesian and Erasmian Novum Testamentum. The third edition approaches more closely to the Erasmian fourth and fifth editions, according to John Mill first and second editions differ in 67 places, and the third in 284 places. The third edition became for many scholars, especially in England and it maintained this position until 1880. It was used for the Geneva Bible, in his preface Estienne said that he had used sixteen manuscripts as his sources. Manuscripts γ, δ, ε, ϛ, ζ, η, ι and it was suggested by Wettstein that θ means Codex Coislinianus. Complutensian Polyglot Bible Novum Instrumentum omne Textus Receptus J. J. Griesbach, Novum Testamentum Graece S. P. Tregelles, The Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, London 1854. Bruce M. Metzger, Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament, Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration, Oxford University Press,2005. Scrivener, Textus Stefanici A. D.1550 Text of Editio Regia 1550 Editio Regia 1550 The New Testament in the original Greek –1881 The Critical Editions of the New Testament
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Complutensian Polyglot Bible
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It includes the first printed editions of the Greek New Testament, the complete Septuagint, and the Targum Onkelos. Of the 600 printed six-volume sets, only 123 are known to have survived to date, with the rise of the printing press in the 1450s, the Bible could be distributed much more efficiently. The scholars met in the city of Complutum, a city near Madrid, work on the project began in 1502 under the direction of Diego Lopez de Zúñiga, and continued there for fifteen years. Zúñigas team of editors included for Greek Demetrius Ducas of Crete and his students Hernán Núñez and Juan de Vergara, for Hebrew the conversos Alfonso de Zamora and Pablo de Coronel. The New Testament was completed and printed in 1514, but its publication was delayed while work on the Old Testament continued, in the meantime, word of the Complutensian project reached Desiderius Erasmus in Rotterdam, who produced his own printed edition of the Greek New Testament. Erasmus obtained an exclusive four-year publishing privilege from Emperor Maximilian and Pope Leo X in 1516, the Complutensian Polyglot Bible was a tertiary source for the 1611 King James Version. The Complutensian Old Testament was completed in 1517, because of Erasmus exclusive privilege, publication of the Polyglot was delayed until Pope Leo X could sanction it in 1520. It is believed to have not been distributed widely before 1522, cardinal Cisneros died in July 1517, five months after the Polyglots completion, and never saw its publication. The Complutensian Polyglot Bible was published as a six-volume set, the first four volumes contain the Old Testament. Each page consists of three columns of text, Hebrew on the outside, the Latin Vulgate in the middle. On each page of the Pentateuch, the Aramaic text and its own Latin translation are added at the bottom, the fifth volume, the New Testament, consists of parallel columns of Greek and the Latin Vulgate. The sixth volume contains various Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek dictionaries, for the Greek text, the minuscules 140,234, and 432 were probably used. Jeromes Latin version of the Old Testament was placed between the Greek and Hebrew versions, symbolizing the Roman Church of Christ being surrounded and crucified by the Greek Church, a magnificent full size facsimile edition was published in Valencia 1984-87. Proctor based his 1903 Otter Greek typeface on the Polyglot, the Greek Font Societys GFS Complutensian Greek is likewise based on the Polyglot, jiménez de Cisneros, On the Threshold of Spain’s Golden Age. Tempe, Arizona, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies,1999,6, pp. 358-360 Blog entry on Complutensian typography https, //www. wdl. org/en/item/10636/
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Johann Froben
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Johann Froben, in Latin, Johannes Frobenius, was a famous printer, publisher and learned Renaissance humanist in Basel. He was a friend of Erasmus and cooperated closely with Hans Holbein the Younger. He made Basel one of the leading centres of the book trade. He passed his business on to his son, Hieronymus. Froben was born in Hammelburg, Franconia, in 1500, he married the daughter of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into a partnership with him. His printing of Erasmus Novum Testamentum was used by Martin Luther for his translation, Froben employed Hans Holbein the Younger to illustrate his texts as It was part of Frobens plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers. He also employed the formschneiders Jakob Faber and Hans Lützelburger, Holbein painted a portrait of Froben, probably as a pair with one of Erasmus, the original has not survived but a number of copies have. Dying in October 1527, Froben did not, however, live to carry out this work, Froben died in October 1527 in Basel. His Hebrew - Greek - Latin tombstone is located in the Basel Peterskirche Peterskirche which has used as a reformed church since 1529. Frobens work in Basel made that city in the 16th century the center of the Swiss book trade. The epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek and Latin, johann Froben marks caduceus This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Froben, Joannes
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Codex Basilensis A. N. IV. 2
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It is written on 297 parchment leaves and contains the entire New Testament except the Book of Revelation. The codex was prepared for use with marginalia, and has almost completely survived. The codex is housed at the Basel University Library, with shelf number A. N. IV,2, the codex contains the entire New Testament in the following order, the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and the General and Pauline epistles. The text is written in one column per page,38 lines per page and it was originally accompanied by miniatures, which were stolen before 1860–1862. The dimensions of the text are 13.6 cm by 6.8 cm and it was written on parchment continuously and without separation in elegant minuscule, furnished with breathings and accents, in Iota adscript. The initial letters are gilt, and on the first page of each Gospel the full stop is a gilt ball. The text is divided according to chapters whose numbers are given at the margin, the text of the Gospels is divided according to the smaller Ammonian Sections, but references to the Eusebian Canons are absent. The Book of Acts and the epistles have the Euthalian Apparatus and it contains prolegomena, synaxaria, two types of lectionary markings at the margin and pictures. The later type of notes, so called αναγνωσεις were added by a later hand. The Gospel of Matthew has 116 αναγνωσεις, the Gospel of Mark –70, the Gospel of Luke –114, in the 15th century, the later hand added Prolegomena. The codex contains a scholion questioning the authenticity of Mark 16, the Pericope Adulterae is placed after John 21,25. In Alands Profile, Kurt and Barbara Aland placed the codexs Gospels in Category III, meaning it has importance, with the profile of 1191,802, 601/2. This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 119 times, with the text against the Byzantine 80 times. There are 69 independent or distinctive readings in the Gospels and it belongs to the textual Family 1 with manuscripts 118,131 and 209. Classification in this family was supported by the Claremont Profile Method. Johann Jakob Griesbach was the first who noted its similarities to the text of Origens commentary to the Gospel of Matthew, according to Hort, its text preceded the byzantine text-type. In Matthew 27,16, it has the textual variant Ιησουν τον Βαραββαν. This variant also appears in the Codex Koridethi, Minuscule 700, Textual critics and palaeographers like Johann Jakob Wettstein, Constantin von Tischendorf, Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener and Caspar René Gregory dated the manuscript to the 10th century
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Minuscule 2814
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The codex contains the Book of Revelation with a commentary of Andreas from Caesarea. The text is written on a parchment in minuscule, in 1 column per page,20 lines per page, the Greek text of the Gospels is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V and it was the only Greek manuscript of the Book of Revelation used by Erasmus. Erasmus translated the missing last six verses from the Vulgate back to Greek for his editions, as a result its readings and his translation became a basis for the Textus Receptus. Erasmus borrowed the manuscript from Reuchlin, but it was lost for years until rediscovered in 1861 by Franz Delitzsch. The manuscript was included to an apparatus by Kurt Aland in his 25th edition of Novum Testamentum Graece. The codex was located in Harburg, and was transferred together with the library to the library of University of Augsburg. List of New Testament minuscules Novum Instrumentum omne Textual criticism F, minuscule 2814 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism
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Codex Basiliensis A. N. IV. 1
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1, known as Minuscule 2, ε1214, is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, dated palaeographically to the 11th or 12th century. It was used by Erasmus in his edition of Greek text of the New Testament, the codex contains a complete text of the four Gospels on 248 parchment leaves with size 19.5 cm by 15.2 cm. The text is written in 1 column per page,20 lines per page, in letters and contains ornaments in colour. The text is divided according to the κεφαλαια, whose numbers are given at the margin, there is also another division according to the smaller Ammonian Sections. Matthew is divided into 359, Mark –240, Luke –342, there is no references to the Eusebian Canons. The tables of the κεφαλαια are place before each Gospel and subscriptions at the end of each Gospel, some leaves of the codex were lost, but the text of the Gospels has survived in complete condition. The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type, Hermann von Soden classified it to the textual family Kx. Aland placed it in Category V. Hermann von Soden classified it to the textual family Family Kx, according to the Claremont Profile Method it has mixed Byzantine text in Luke 1. In Luke 10 and Luke 20 it represents Kx, in Luke 6,28 it lacks phrase προσευχεσθε υπερ των επηρεαζοντων υμας. It was added by one of correctors in the lower margin, in John 8,6 it used textual variant μη προσποιουμενος, erased by corrector. Τhis variant have also the manuscripts 07,011,017,028,041, and majority of the Byzantine manuscripts. It is not included by the manuscripts 021,028,030,036,045,047,7,8,9,196, 461c2,1203,1216,1243,1514, Erasmus did not use this phrase in his Novum Testamentum. The early story of the manuscript and its provenance is unknown, the codex was bought by monks at Basel for two Rhenish florins. Since 1559 it was held in the University of Basel and its later story is the same as that of Codex Basilensis and Codex Basilensis A. N. IV. Robert Estienne did not directly consult this manuscript in his Editio Regia, martin Crusius used this manuscript in 1577. The manuscript was examined by Bengel, Wettstein, Burgon, Hoskier, according to Bruce M. Metzger it is one of the inferior manuscripts used by Erasmus. Wettstein gave for it number 2 on his list and this siglum is still in use. The codex is located now at the Basel University Library at Basel, list of New Testament minuscules Textus Receptus Textual criticism C. C
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Minuscule 2816
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The codex contains a complete text of the Acts of the Apostles, Pauline epistles, and General epistles, on 287 parchment leaves in elegant minuscule. The text is written in one column per page, 17-19 lines per page and it contains Hardly written by several hands, and full of contractions. The order of books, Acts of the Apostles, Pauline epistles, the Greek text of the Gospels is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V, in James 1,12 it has textual variant ο θεος along with the manuscripts 33vid,323,945,1739, vf, syrp, against the Byzantine ο κυριος. In Hebrews 3,3 it reads μεχρι τελους κατασχωμεν βεβαιαν for κατασχωμεν, the reading is supported only by itc. The manuscript belonged to the monastery of the Preaching Friars and it was borrowed by Desiderius Erasmus and used by him in his edition of the Novum Testamentum. Sometimes he used some of its marginal readings instead of main text readings, in result some of its readings became a part of the Textus Receptus. It was examined by Battier, Wettstein, currently the codex is located at the Basel University Library, at Basel. Tarelli, Erasmus’s Manuscripts of the Gospels, JTS XLIV, 155-162, münster, Institute for New Testament Textual Research
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Minuscule 817 (Gregory-Aland)
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Minuscule 817, Θε52, is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament written on paper, with a commentary. Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 15th century, the codex contains the complete text of the four Gospels, on 255 paper leaves. The text is written in one column per page, 34–46 lines per page and it contains Prolegomena, tables of the κεφαλαια before each of the Gospels, and a commentary of Theophylact. The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type, aland did not place it in any category. It was not examined according to the Claremont Profile Method, the manuscript was dated by Gregory to the 15th century. The manuscript is dated by the INTF to the 15th century. The early story of the manuscript and its provenance is unknown and it was held at the Dominican monastery in Basel in the beginning of the 16th century. Since 1559 it was held at the University of Basel, desiderius Erasmus received this codex from the Dominican monks in Basel, and used it for the first edition of his Novum Instrumentum omne. Robert Estienne did not use this manuscript in his Editio Regia, as a result some of its readings appear in the Textus Receptus. It was added to the list of New Testament manuscripts by Gregory, the manuscript is now housed at the Basel University Library with the shelf number A. N. III,15. List of New Testament minuscules Biblical manuscript Textual criticism Minuscule 2 Gregory, Caspar René
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Revelation
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In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Some religions have religious texts which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired, for instance, Orthodox Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that the Torah was received from Yahweh on biblical Mount Sinai. Most Christians believe that both the Old Testament and the New Testament were inspired by God, Muslims believe the Quran was revealed by God to Muhammad word by word through the angel Gabriel. In Hinduism, some Vedas are considered apauruṣeya, not human compositions, and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti, what is heard. The 15,000 handwritten pages produced by the mystic Maria Valtorta were represented as direct dictations from Jesus, aleister Crowley stated that The Book of the Law had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself Aiwass. A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a vision, direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity, or physical marks such as stigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint Juan Diego, the Roman Catholic concept of interior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient. In the Abrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by which God reveals knowledge of himself, his will, in secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, prophecy, and other divine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays an important role in some other religious traditions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Revelation may be defined as the communication of truth by God to a rational creature through means which are beyond the ordinary course of nature. George Joyce draws a distinction between revelation and inspiration, with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, beginning about the mid-17th century, the development of rationalism, materialism and atheism, the concept of supernatural revelation itself faced skepticism. In The Age of Reason, Thomas Paine develops the theology of deism, rejecting the possibility of miracles, Thomas Aquinas believed in two types of individual revelation from God, general revelation and special revelation. In general revelation, God reveals himself through his creation, such that at least some truths about God can be learned by the study of nature, physics, cosmology. Special revelation is the knowledge of God and spiritual matters which can be discovered through supernatural means, such as scripture or miracles, direct revelation refers to communication from God to someone in particular. Though one may deduce the existence of God and some of Gods attributes through general revelation, Aquinas believed that special revelation is equivalent to the revelation of God in Jesus. The major theological components of Christianity, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings of the church, special revelation and natural revelation are complementary rather than contradictory in nature. Continuous revelation is a term for the position that God continues to reveal divine principles or commandments to humanity. In the 20th century, religious existentialists proposed that revelation held no content in and of itself, Revelation is a human response that records how we respond to God
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Vulgate
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The Vulgate is a late fourth-century Latin translation of the Bible that became, during the 16th century, the Catholic Churchs officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible. The translation was largely the work of St. Jerome, who, in 382 AD, was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina collection of biblical texts in Latin then in use by the Church. Once published, it was adopted and eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina and, by the 13th century, was known as the versio vulgata or, more simply. The Catholic Church affirmed it as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent, the Vulgate has a compound text that is not entirely the work of Jerome. Its components include, Jeromes independent translation from the Hebrew, the books of the Hebrew Bible, usually not including his translation of the Psalms. Translation from the Greek of Theodotion by Jerome, The three additions to the Book of Daniel, Song of the Three Children, Story of Susanna, and The Idol Bel and the Dragon. The Song of the Three Children was retained within the narrative of Daniel, translation from the Septuagint by Jerome, the Rest of Esther. Jerome gathered all these additions together at the end of the Book of Esther, translation from the Hexaplar Septuagint by Jerome, his Gallican version of the Book of Psalms. Jeromes Hexaplaric revisions of other books of Old Testament continued to circulate in Italy for several centuries, free translation by Jerome from a secondary Aramaic version, Tobias and Judith. Revision by Jerome of the Old Latin, corrected with reference to the oldest Greek manuscripts available, Old Latin, more or less revised by a person or persons unknown, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah,3 Esdras, Acts, Epistles, and the Apocalypse. Old Latin, wholly unrevised, Epistle to the Laodiceans, Prayer of Manasses,4 Esdras, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, how much of the rest of the New Testament he then revised is difficult to judge today, but little of his work survived in the Vulgate text. Jerome first embarked on a revision of the Psalms, translated from the revised Septuagint Greek column of the Hexapla and he also appears to have undertaken further new translations into Latin from the Hexaplar Septuagint column for other books. But from 390 to 405, Jerome translated anew from the Hebrew all 39 books in the Hebrew Bible, including a further version of the Psalms. This new translation of the Psalms was labelled by him as iuxta Hebraeos, the Vulgate is usually credited as being the first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh, rather than the Greek Septuagint. Moreover, Augustine in that passage demonstrates his own preference for the Greek thus eliminating any possibility that Saint Jerome translated the OT from Greek. In these letters, Jerome described those books or portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical, Jeromes views did not, however, prevail, and all complete manuscripts and editions of the Vulgate include some or all of these books. Their style is markedly distinguishable from Jeromes
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Church Fathers
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The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are ancient and generally influential Christian theologians, some of whom were eminent teachers and great bishops. The era of these scholars who set the theological and scholarly foundations of Christianity largely ended by 700 AD, the earliest Church Fathers, are usually called the Apostolic Fathers since tradition describes them as having been taught by the twelve. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna and his epistle,1 Clement, was copied and widely read in the Early Church. Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order and it is the earliest Christian epistle aside from the New Testament. Ignatius of Antioch was the bishop or Patriarch of Antioch. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved, important topics addressed in these letters include ecclesiology, the sacraments, the role of bishops, and the Incarnation of Christ. He is the second after Clement to mention Pauls epistles, Polycarp of Smyrna was a Christian bishop of Smyrna. It is recorded that he had been a disciple of John, the options for this John are John, the son of Zebedee, traditionally viewed as the author of the Gospel of John, or John the Presbyter. Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the connection of Polycarp was with John the Evangelist, and that he was the author of the Gospel of John. Polycarp tried and failed to persuade Pope Anicetus to have the West celebrate Passover on 14 Nisan, around 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarps execution as a Christian, and he died a martyr. Polycarp is recognized as a saint in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, very little is known of Papias apart from what can be inferred from his own writings. He is described as an ancient man who was a hearer of John, Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch. In this office Papias was presumably succeeded by Abercius of Hierapolis, the name Papias was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area. The work of Papias is dated by most modern scholars to about 95–120. Despite indications that the work of Papias was still extant in the late Middle Ages, extracts, however, appear in a number of other writings, some of which cite a book number Those who wrote in Greek are called the Greek Fathers. Justin Martyr is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of the Logos in the 2nd century, Irenaeus was bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, which is now Lyon, France. His writings were formative in the development of Christian theology. He was a notable early Christian apologist and he was also a disciple of Polycarp. His best-known book, Against Heresies enumerated heresies and attacked them, Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils
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Comma Johanneum
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The Comma Johanneum, also called the Johannine Comma or the Heavenly Witnesses, is a comma found in Latin manuscripts of the First Epistle of John at 5, 7–8. The comma first appeared in the Vulgate manuscripts of the 9th century, the first Greek manuscript that contains the comma dates from the 15th century. The comma is absent from the Ethiopiac, Aramaic, Syriac, Slavic, Armenian, Georgian, the scholarly consensus is that that passage is a Latin corruption that entered the Greek manuscript tradition in some subsequent copies. As the comma does not appear in the tradition of other languages. The text of the Comma, distinguished from the text in italics, reads, In 1516, Desiderius Erasmus published the first modern Greek critical text. He subsequently produced four more editions, the first two lacked the Comma, which was first included in the 1522 edition of his Greek New Testament. It subsequently appeared in every edition of the Greek New Testament that came to be called Textus Receptus. Versions from this period which contain it include the Geneva Bible, in the Roman Catholic tradition, the Latin Nova Vulgata, published in 1979 following the Second Vatican Council, based on the Critical Text and approved for liturgical use, omits the Comma. Nor does the New American Bible include it, the Comma is retained in recent translations based on the Textus Receptus such as the New King James. Those who believe the Johannine Comma is authentic attribute authorship to the apostle John and they have diverse theories as to why the Comma dropped out of the Greek manuscript line and why most of the evidence is in Latin manuscripts and church writings. Often these proposed textual histories include scribal error as the cause of the early variant. In 1699 Louis Ellies Dupin discussed the possibility, anthony Kohlmann asked and answered the question, what reason can you assign for so notable an omission in some old manuscripts. Kohlmann pointed to homoeoteleuton and doctrinal motivations and included an analogy to another verse which some attempted to excise, also those asserting authenticity of the Comma often claim that heretics doctored all of the extant early Greek manuscripts and removed doctrinally offensive passages. Such claims have made by Donald A. Waite, Thomas Strouse, Thomas Holland, Frederick Nolan. Hugo Grotius contended that the verse had been added into the Johannine text by the Arians, about the Grotius view, Richard Simon wrote. Luthers pastor, John Bugenhagen, like Grotius, wrote of a conjectured Arian origin, Isaac Newton took a similar approach as Erasmus, looking to Jerome as the principal figure in placing the Comma in the Bible. Newton also thought that the Athanasius Disputation with Arius had been influential on the subsequent attitude to the authenticity of the passage. Newtons comment that from Matthew 28,19 they tried at first to derive the Trinity implies that for the conjectured interpolation, Richard Simon believed the verse began in a Greek scholium, while Herbert Marsh posited the origin as a Latin scholium
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Robert Estienne
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Robert I Estienne, known as Robertus Stephanus in Latin and also referred to as Robert Stephens by 18th and 19th-century English writers, was a 16th-century printer and classical scholar in Paris. He was a former Catholic who became a Protestant late in his life, Robert was born in Paris, the second son of the famous humanist printer Henri Estienne. He became acquainted early on with ancient languages, after Henris death in 1520, the printing establishment was maintained by his former partner Simon de Colines who also married Roberts mother, the widow Estienne. In 1526 Robert assumed control of his fathers printing shop while de Colines established his own firm nearby, the latter was called the olive of the Stephens family. In 1539 he received the title of Printer in Greek to the king. But the official recognition and the approval to his undertaking could not save him from the censure. In 1550, to escape the violence of his persecutors, he emigrated to Geneva, many of these, especially the Greek editions, were famous for their typographical elegance. The last was completed, after Roberts departure from Paris, by his brother Charles and these editions, all in folio, except the Moschopulus, which is in quarto, are unrivalled for beauty. Robert also printed editions of Latin classics, of which perhaps the folio Virgil of 1532 is the most noteworthy. He printed a large quantity of Latin grammars and other works, many of which were written by Maturin Cordier, his friend. In 1532 he published the remarkable Thesaurus linguae latinae and twice he published the entire Hebrew Bible—one with the Commentary of Kimchi on the minor prophets, both of these editions are rare. Of more importance are his four editions of the Greek New Testament,1546,1549,1550, and 1551, the first two are among the neatest Greek texts known, called O mirificam. The third, a masterpiece of typographical skill, is known as the Editio Regia. The 1551 edition contains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vulgate, is not nearly as fine as the three, and is exceedingly rare. It was in this edition that the division of the New Testament into verses was for the first time introduced, a number of editions of the Vulgate also appeared from his presses, of which the principal are those of 1528,1532,1540, and 1546. His editions, especially that of 1546, containing a new translation at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp, on his arrival at Geneva, he published a defense against the attacks of the Sorbonne. He issued the French Bible in 1553 and many of John Calvins writings and his fine edition of the Latin Bible with glosses contained the translation of the Old Testament by Santes Pagninus and the first edition of Theodore Bezas Latin edition of the New Testament. Three of Roberts sons, Henri, Robert, and François, François printed on his own account in Geneva from 1562–1582, issuing a number of editions of the Bible in Latin and French, and some of Calvins works
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Codex Bezae
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The Codex Bezae Cantabrigensis, designated by siglum Dea or 05, δ5, is a codex of the New Testament dating from the 5th century written in an uncial hand on vellum. It contains, in both Greek and Latin, most of the four Gospels and Acts, with a fragment of 3 John. Written one column per page, the codex contains 406 extant parchment leaves measuring 26 x 21.5 cm, with the Greek text on the left face, a digital facsimile of the codex is available from Cambridge University Library, which holds the manuscript. The first three lines of each book are in red letters, and black and red ink alternate the title of books, as many as eleven people have corrected the manuscript between the sixth and twelfth centuries. The text is written colometrically and is full of hiatus, the Greek text of the codex has some copying errors, e. g. errors of metathesis, in John 1,3, ΕΓΕΝΕΤΟ was changed into ΕΝΕΓΕΤΟ, in Acts 1,9, ΥΠΕΛΑΒΕΝ into ΥΠΕΒΑΛΕΝ. Some from the nomina sacra are written in a form, ΙΗΣ, ΧΡΣ, ΠΑΡ, ΣΤΗ, but not for μητερ, υιος, σωτηρ, ανθρωπος, ουρανος, δαυιδ, Ισραηλ, Ιηρουσαλημ. The place of origin of the codex is still disputed, both France and southern Italy have been suggested, the manuscript is believed to have been repaired at Lyon in the ninth century, as revealed by a distinctive ink used for supplementary pages. It was closely guarded for many centuries in the library of St Irenaeus at Lyon. The manuscript was consulted, perhaps in Italy, for disputed readings at the Council of Trent and it remains in the Cambridge University Library. John Mill collated and Wettstein transcribed the text of the codex, both did their editions of the Greek Testament, but they both did their work carelessly. A much better collation was made about 1732 by John Dickinson, frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener edited the text of the codex in 1864 and in 1899. The importance of the Codex Bezae is such that a colloquium held at Lunel, Herault, papers discussed the many questions it poses to our understanding of the use of the Gospels and Acts in early Christianity, and of the text of the New Testament. Aside from this one Greek manuscript it is found in Old Latin versions — as seen in the Latin here — and in Syriac, Bezae is the principal Greek representative of the Western text-type. The manuscript demonstrates the latitude in the tradition that could still be found in the 5th and 6th centuries. There is no consensus on the problems the Greek text presents. Issues of conformity have dogged the usage of the Codex Bezae in biblical scholarship, some of the outstanding features, Matthew 16, 2b–3 is present and not marked as doubtful or spurious. One of the endings of Mark is given. Luke 22, 43f and Pericope de adultera are present and not marked as spurious or doubtful, John 5,4 is omitted, and the text of Acts is nearly 8% longer than the generally received text
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Codex Regius (New Testament)
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Codex Regius designated by siglum Le or 019, ε56, is a Greek uncial manuscript of the New Testament, dated paleographically to the 8th century. The codex contains 257 thick parchment leaves, with an almost complete text of the four Gospels, the text is written in two columns per page,25 lines per page, in large, not round uncial letters. It has breathings, and accents often added wrongly and it is carelessly written by an ignorant scribe. The letter phi is enormously large, the letter alpha presents the last stage of the uncial script, the text is divided according to the κεφαλαια, whose numbers are given at the margin, and their τιτλοι at the top of the pages. It contains also the tables of the κεφαλαια before each Gospel, there is also another division according to the Ammonian sections, with references to the Eusebian Canons at the margin. It contains lectionary markings at the margin and it was badly written by the scribe, who was more probably Egyptian than Greek, with a tendency for writing Coptic rather than Greek. It has two endings to the Gospel of Mark, while John 7, 53-8,11 is omitted, Mark 7,16,9,44.46,11,26, Luke 17,36, and John 5,4 are omitted. It contains Luke 22, 43-44 omitted by other Alexandrian witnesses, Matthew 20,23 και το βαπτισμα ο εγω βαπτιζομαι βαπτισθησεσθε, as in codices Sinaiticus, B, D, Z, Θ,085, f1, f13, it, syrs, c, copsa. Omission is supported by the manuscripts, P75, Sinaiticus, B, f1,700, vg, syrs, copsa, bo, additions In Matthew 10,12 it reads λεγοντες ειρηνη τω οικω τουτω instead of αυτην. The reading is used by manuscripts, Sinaiticus*,2, Bezae, Washingtonianus, Koridethi, f 11010,27,49 codex contains added text, ἄλλος δὲ λαβὼν λόγχην ἒνυξεν αὐτοῦ τὴν πλευράν, καὶ ἐξῆλθεν ὖδορ καὶ αἳμα. This reading was derived from John 19,34 and occurs in other manuscripts of the Alexandrian text-type, the Greek text of this codex is representative of the Alexandrian text-type in its late stadium. It contains a number of Byzantine readings in the Gospel of Matthew. Aland placed it in Category II, which means it has a number of non-Alexandrian readings, according to Wisse, who examined Luke 1,10,20, their text is a core member of the Alexandrian text. It is probably the fourth-best manuscript of the Gospels, inferior only to P75, Codex Vaticanus and it is much closer to Vaticanus than to Sinaiticus. In some cases it supports Sinaiticus and Vaticanus against almost all of the rest of manuscripts, in Matt 23,38 word ερημος omitted like in B and ℓ184. In Matt 19,29 instead εκατονπλασιονα it has πολλαπλασιονα like in codices B and 1010, probably it was written in Egypt. The text of the codex was cited by Robert Estienne as η in his Editio Regia and it was loosely collated by Wettstein. Griesbach set a high value on the codex
