1.
Armando Iannucci
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Armando Giovanni Iannucci, OBE is a Scottish satirist, writer, television director, and radio producer. Born in Glasgow, Iannucci studied at Oxford University and left work on a PhD about John Milton to pursue a career in comedy. Starting on BBC Scotland and BBC Radio 4, his work with Chris Morris on the radio series On the Hour was transferred to television as The Day Today. A character from series, Alan Partridge, went on to feature in a number of Iannuccis television and radio programmes including Knowing Me, Knowing You. In the meantime, Iannucci also fronted the satirical Armistice review shows and in 2001 created his most personal work, The Armando Iannucci Shows, for Channel 4. Moving back to the BBC in 2005, Iannucci created the political sitcom The Thick of It as well as the spoof documentary Time Trumpet in 2006. Winning funding from the UK Film Council, he directed an acclaimed feature film, In the Loop. As a result of works, he has been described by The Daily Telegraph as the hardman of political satire. Iannucci created the HBO political satire Veep, and was its showrunner for four seasons from 2012 to 2015, other works during this period include an operetta libretto, Skin Deep, and his radio series Charm Offensive. In March 2012, it was announced that he is working on his first novel, Tongue International and his father, also called Armando, is from Naples, while his mother was born in Glasgow to an Italian family. His father, who came to Scotland in 1950, ran a pizza factory, Iannucci has two brothers and a sister. He was educated at St Peters Primary School, St. Aloysius College, Glasgow, the University of Glasgow, and University College, Oxford, in his teens, he thought seriously about becoming a Roman Catholic priest. He abandoned graduate work on 17th-century religious language, with reference to Miltons Paradise Lost. Iannucci first received fame as the producer for On the Hour on Radio 4. Baynham was closely involved with both Morriss and Lee & Herrings work – simultaneously at one point, between 1995 and 1999, Iannucci produced and hosted The Saturday Night Armistice. In 2000, he created two pilot episodes for Channel 4, which became The Armando Iannucci Shows and this was an eight-part series for Channel 4 broadcast in 2001, written with Andy Riley and Kevin Cecil. The series consisted of Iannucci pondering pseudo-philosophical and jocular ideas and fantasies in between surreal sketches, Iannucci has been quoted as saying it is the comedy series he is most proud of making. He told The Metro in April 2007 The Armando Iannucci Show on Channel 4 came out around 9/11, people had other things on their minds
2.
Channel 4
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Channel 4 is a British public-service television broadcaster that began transmission on 2 November 1982. With the conversion of the Wenvoe transmitter group in Wales to digital on 31 March 2010, before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services, BBC1, BBC2, and ITV. The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth, after some months of test broadcasts, it began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982. Indeed, television sets throughout the 1970s and early 1980s had a spare channel called ITV/IBA2. It was most likely politics which had the biggest impact in leading to a delay of almost three decades before the commercial channel became a reality. The campaign was taken so seriously by Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru, the result was that Channel 4 as seen by the rest of the United Kingdom would be replaced in Wales by Sianel Pedwar Cymru. Operated by a specially created authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh made by HTV, since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial has introduced Channel 4 to Welsh homes where it is now universally available. The first programme to air on the channel was the game show Countdown. The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley with Ted Moult being the second, the first woman on the channel, contrary to popular belief, was not Carol Vorderman and was a lexicographer only ever identified as Mary. Whiteley opened the show with the words, On its first day, Channel 4 also broadcast controversial soap opera Brookside, which ran until 2003. On its launch, Channel 4 committed itself to providing an alternative to the existing channels, Channel 4 co-commissioned Robert Ashleys ground-breaking television opera Perfect Lives, which it premiered over several episodes in 1984. The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of period, however. Channel 4 for many years had a poorer quality signal compared to other channels, Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant-Ivory docudrama The Courtesans of Bombay, during this time. In 1992, Channel 4 also faced its first libel case by Jani Allan, a South African journalist, who objected to her representation in the documentary The Leader, His Driver and the Drivers Wife. After control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993, instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time and it gave such shows as Friends and ER their UK premières. In the early 2000s, Channel 4 began broadcasting reality formats such as Big Brother and obtained the rights to broadcast mass appeal sporting events like cricket and this new direction increased ratings and revenues. In addition, the corporation launched a number of new channels through its new 4Ventures offshoot, including Film4, At the Races, E4
3.
Time Trumpet
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Time Trumpet is a six-episode satirical television comedy series which aired on BBC Two in 2006. The series was written by Armando Iannucci, Roger Drew and Will Smith in a manner to Iannuccis earlier one-off programmes 2004, The Stupid Version and Clinton. One sketch was later spun off by Irish network RTÉ into the cult TV series Soupy Norman in 2007, Time Trumpet is set in the year 2031 and is a retrospective documentary on the first thirty years of the 21st century. Actors and actresses played the parts of todays stars thirty years on, the show also included interviews with comedians, billed in the show as top cultural commentators slash TV pundits, speaking about the events of the past. These included Stewart Lee, Richard Ayoade, Jo Enright, Matthew Holness, Adam Buxton, Mark Watson, Iannucci himself is seen once per episode interviewing guests, but at an oblique angle and with a different physical appearance. Series co-creator Will Smith also appears in the series, as the host of a TV show My Name is Phil, each episode had a main theme running throughout, such as The Olympics or the War in Iraq. The cancelled episode was shown a week later, without the footage of an assassinated Blair. However, a sketch was aired, involving a play on the events of 9/11. A DVD of the series was released on 27 April 2009, the assassination of Tony Blair sketch was also removed from this, as was some sketches that included footage of the Olympic Games. This ended up forming the basis of the cult TV show Soupy Norman on RTÉ, alan Moores final issue of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen includes a reference to Rape An Ape, as well as several references to Iannuccis The Thick of It. In December 2011, US network Comedy Central announced they would be remaking the series, ultimately the series was not picked up by the network, and Iannucci has since moved on to other projects. Time Trumpet website Time Trumpet at BBC Programmes Time Trumpet at the Internet Movie Database Iannucci profiled on BBC News Faces of the Week with reference to Time Trumpet BBC comedy blog
4.
Existentialism
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While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
5.
East End of London
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The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is an area of Central and East London, England, east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, and north of the River Thames. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, the area was notorious for its deep poverty, overcrowding and associated social problems. This has led to the East End’s history of political activism. Another major theme of East End history has been that of migration, Irish weavers, Ashkenazi Jews and, in the 20th century, Bangladeshis. The East End lies east of the Roman and medieval walls of the City of London, Aldgate Pump on the edge of the City is the symbolic start of the East End and, on the river, Tower Bridge is also sometimes also described in these terms. Beyond these references though, the East End has no official or popularly accepted boundaries, a common preference is to include the modern borough of Tower Hamlets, together with the former parish and borough of Shoreditch. This version makes the East End conterminous with the Tower Division of Middlesex under the borders that area had in the 19th century when the East End completed the process of urbanisation, an alternative definition is based solely on the modern borough of Tower Hamlets. Parts of the old parish and borough of Hackney are sometimes included, while others include areas east of the Lea such as West Ham, East Ham, Leyton, knew not the way to the East End. The East End began with the growth of London beyond the walls, along the Roman Roads leading from Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Building accelerated in the 16th century, and the area that would become known East End began to take shape. The relevance of Strypes reference to the Tower was more than geographical, the East End was the major part of an area called the Tower Division, which had its roots in the Bishop of Londons historic Manor of Stepney and owed military service to the Tower of London. Later, as the East End grew and the Tower Division contracted, for a very long time the East End was physically separated from the Londons western growth by the open spaces known as Moorfields. Shoreditchs boundary with the parish of St Lukes ran through the Moorfields countryside becoming, on urbanisation and that line, with very slight modifications, has also become the boundary of the modern London Boroughs of Hackney and Islington. From the beginning, the East End has always contained some of the poorest areas of London, the main reasons for this include the following, the medieval system of copyhold, which prevailed throughout the East End, into the 19th century. Essentially, there was little point in developing land that was held on short leases, the siting of noxious industries, such as tanning and fulling downwind outside the boundaries of the City, and therefore beyond complaints and official controls. Historically, the East End is arguably conterminous with the Manor of Stepney and this manor was held by the Bishop of London, in compensation for his duties in maintaining and garrisoning the Tower of London. Further ecclesiastic holdings came about from the need to enclose the marshes, Edward VI passed the land to the Wentworth family, and thence to their descendants, the Earls of Cleveland
6.
Italians in the United Kingdom
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Italians in the United Kingdom, also known as British Italians or colloquially Britalians, are citizens or residents of the United Kingdom of Italian heritage. More specific terms used to describe Italians in the United Kingdom include, Italian English, Italian Scots, the Romans from Italy were the first Italians to settle in the British Isles along with other people from various parts of the Roman Empire. Historian Theodore Mommsen calculated that in the five centuries of Roman presence in the British isles, one of the first Italian communities in England started from the merchants and sailors living in Southampton. The famous Lombard Street in London took its name from the small but powerful community from northern Italy, living there as bankers, in 1303, Edward I negotiated an agreement with the Lombard merchant community that secured custom duties and certain rights and privileges. The revenues from the duty were handled by the Riccardi. This was in return for their service as money lenders to the crown, when the war with France broke out, the French king confiscated the Riccardis assets, and the bank went bankrupt. After this, the Frescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the English crown, historian Alwyn Ruddock claimed to have found evidence that Giovanni Cabot received backing from the Italian community in London for his voyage to North America. In particular, she suggested he found a patron in the form of Fr, Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis, an Augustinian friar who was also the deputy to the papal tax collector Adriano Castellesi. Beyond this, Ruddock claimed that Cabot received a loan from an Italian banking house in London to go, the fifteenth century also saw the birth of a pivotal Italo-Englishman in the form of John Florio, a famed language teacher, lexicographer, and translator. The Titus family is another significant group that settled in England in the time of the Renaissance, in recent years there have been several news outlets that have covered the possibility that William Shakespeare was born in Messina, Sicily. The arts flourished under the Hanoverian dynasty and this attracted many more Italian artists, all of this developed in the United Kingdom a moderate Italophilia during the late Italian Renaissance. From the 1820s to 1851. accounts for 4000 Italian immigrants in England, the regional origins of most were the valleys around Como, and Lucca. The people from Como were skilled artisans, making barometers and other precision instruments, a railway network had been started by this time and this helped the people from the Liri valley to migrate to the North of Italy, and then on to Britain. Dickens’ Oliver Twist and Gustave Dores prints of London at that time fill in the images, as numbers increased and competition grew fiercer, so Italians spread to the north of England, Wales and Scotland. They were never in great numbers in the northern cities, and that the 500-600 Italians in Manchester included mostly Terrazzo specialists, plasterers and modellers working on the prestigious, new town hall. While in Sheffield 100-150 Italians made cutlery. and most of the rest worked in the coal mines. In 1861. there were 119 Italians in Scotland, by 1901 the Italian population was 4051. By this time the Italian communities were becoming more affluent, the Italian Scottish community was …almost all engaged in small food shops – either ice cream shops or fish restaurants. The Risorgimento hero Mazzini also created an Italian school for poor people, by the time WWI started, the Italian community was well established in London and other areas of the British isles
7.
Cockney
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The term cockney has had several distinct geographical, social, and linguistic associations. More recently, it is used to refer to those in Londons East End. Linguistically, cockney English refers to the accent or dialect of English traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners, in recent years, many aspects of cockney English have become part of general South East English speech, producing a variant known as Estuary English. The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in passus VI of William Langlands Piers Plowman, concurrently, the mythical land of luxury Cockaigne appeared under a variety of spellings—including Cockayne, Cocknay, and Cockney—and became humorously associated with the English capital London. This may have developed from the sources above or separately, alongside such terms as cock, by 1600, this meaning of cockney was being particularly associated with the Bow Bells area. In 1617, the travel writer Fynes Moryson stated in his Itinerary that Londoners, the same year, John Minsheu included the term in this newly restricted sense in his dictionary Ductor in Linguas. The use of the term to describe all Londoners generally, however, survived into the 19th century before becoming restricted to the working class, the term is now used loosely to describe all East Londoners, although some distinguish the areas that were added to London in 1964. The region in which cockneys are thought to reside is not clearly defined, a common view is that in order to be a cockney, one must have been born within earshot of Bow Bells, the bells of St Mary-le-Bow. However, the church of St Mary-le-Bow was destroyed in 1666 by the Great Fire of London, although the bells were destroyed again in 1941 in the Blitz, they had fallen silent on 13 June 1940 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations of World War II. Before they were replaced in 1961, there was a period when, by the within earshot definition, the East London Maternity Hospital in Stepney, which was 2.5 miles from St Mary-le-Bow, was in use from 1884 to 1968. There is a maternity unit still in use at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, Home births were very common until the late 1960s. According to the legend of Dick Whittington the bells could once be heard from as far away as the Highgate Archway, thus while all East Enders are cockneys, not all cockneys are East Enders. The area north of the Thames gradually expanded to include East Ham, Stratford, West Ham, loach has a reputation for using genuine dialect speakers in films,3 Clear Sundays Up the Junction Cathy Come Home Poor Cow Bronco Bullfrog The Long Good Friday. The DVD of this film has a feature that explains the rhyming slang used. Nevertheless, the stop, double negatives, and the vocalisation of the dark L. The study, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, said that the accent, conversely, migration of cockney speakers has led to migration of the dialect. In Essex, planned towns that grew from post-war migration out of London often have a strong influence on local speech. In recent years the dialect has moved out of inner-city London towards the outskirts of suburban London, today cockney-speaking areas include parts of Dagenham, Barking, Billericay, Brentwood, Romford, Chigwell, Loughton, Harlow, Basildon, Thurrock
8.
Tony Gardner
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Dr. Tony Gardner is an English actor and doctor. He qualified as a doctor at Guys Hospital in 1987, then as a practitioner in 1993. He combined medicine and comedy during the 1990s as half of the comedy duo Struck Off. He eventually left medicine to become an actor, starring in a number of TV commercials and he reached prominence playing Brian Johnson in CITVs My Parents Are Aliens and Michael, the café owner in Jack Dees BBC sitcom Lead Balloon. In 2009–10 he starred in three plays directed by Sir Peter Hall, in 2011 he played Professor Tony Shales in the Channel 4 series Fresh Meat. Between 2012–2016 he played John in four series of the critically acclaimed drama series Last Tango In Halifax. The programme attracted impressive ratings for BBC One, with the third series posting an average of 7.8 million viewers. Between 2013–2015 he appeared as Lieutenant Colonel Phillip Smith in three series of the wartime comedy Bluestone 42, about a British bomb disposal detachment in Afghanistan during Operation Herrick and he appeared as Dan Miller MP in the BBC political comedy The Thick of It. He was a character of the music video Giant peach by Wolf Alice. He appeared in a variety of roles in Tracey Ullmans Show from 2016, Tony Gardner at the Internet Movie Database Profile
9.
Stephen Mangan
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Stephen James Mangan is a British actor, best known for his roles as Guy Secretan in Green Wing, Dan Moody in Im Alan Partridge, Sean Lincoln in Episodes and Postman Pat in Postman Pat, The Movie. As a stage actor, he was Tony-nominated for his portrayal of Norman in The Norman Conquests on Broadway and he also starred as Bertie Wooster in Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense at the Duke of Yorks Theatre, which won the 2014 Olivier Award for Best New Comedy. Mangan was born in Ponders End, north London, to Irish parents and he has two sisters, Anita and Lisa. He was in a school rock band called Aragon, who recorded an album called The Wizards Dream. After earning a Bachelor of Arts in Law at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, Mangan took a year out to nurse his mother, Mary, weeks after her death, he auditioned for the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and went on to study there for three years. His father, James, died of a brain tumour at age 63, after graduating from RADA in 1994, Mangan did not pursue lead roles on-screen, preferring to take what he saw as the less limited opportunities on the stage. He worked again for director Declan Donnellan at the Royal Shakespeare Company in School for Scandal, in 2008 he played the title role in The Norman Conquests, directed by Matthew Warchus, at The Old Vic and then at the Circle in the Square on Broadway. The production was a critical success earning several Tony Award nominations, including one for Mangan himself. In 2012 he appeared at the Royal Court in a Joe Penhall play, Birthday, directed by Roger Michell, the production won the 2014 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Comedy. Mangans breakthrough television performance was as Adrian Mole in the six-part BBC TV show series Adrian Mole and that same year he appeared in Sword of Honour on Channel 4, alongside Daniel Craig. In 2002 he appeared as Dan Moody in the Im Alan Partridge episode Bravealan, shouted at him by passers-by almost every day. Mangan played the narcissistic Guy Secretan in the BAFTA-winning British sitcom Green Wing, in Channel 4s The Worlds Greatest Comedy Characters, Guy was voted 34th. He starred as Keith in Never Better, a British television sitcom on BBC Two and he plays a recovering alcoholic Keith Merchant and Kate Ashfield is his long-suffering wife Anita. The series was written by Fintan Ryan for World Productions, in 2009, Free Agents, a romantic black comedy starred Mangan, Sharon Horgan and Anthony Head. Originally a pilot for Channel 4 in November 2007, the series began on 13 February 2009 and it spawned a short lived US remake, which was cancelled after just 4 episodes aired, although 4 more were later released on Hulu. He played the role in Dirk Gently, a British comedy detective drama TV series based on characters from the Dirk Gently novels by Douglas Adams. The series was created by Howard Overman and co-starred Darren Boyd as his sidekick Richard MacDuff, recurring actors included Helen Baxendale as MacDuffs girlfriend Susan Harmison, Jason Watkins as Dirks nemesis DI Gilks and Lisa Jackson as Dirks receptionist Janice Pearce. Unlike most detective series Dirk Gently featured broadly comic touches and even science fiction themes such as time travel
10.
Conga
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The conga, also known as tumbadora, is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified three types, quinto, tres dos or tres golpes, and tumba or salidor. Most modern congas have a wooden or fiberglass shell. They are usually played in sets of two to four with the fingers and palms of the hand, typical congas stand approximately 75 centimetres from the bottom of the shell to the head. The drums may be played while seated, alternatively, the drums may be mounted on a rack or stand to permit the player to play while standing. While they originated in Cuba, their incorporation into the popular and folk music of countries has resulted in diversification of terminology for the instruments. In Cuba, congas are called tumbadoras, Conga players are called congueros, while rumberos refers to those who dance following the path of the players. The term conga was popularized in the 1930s, when Latin music swept the United States, Cuban son and New York jazz fused together to create what was then termed mambo, but later became known as salsa. In that same period, the popularity of the Conga Line helped to spread this new term, desi Arnaz also played a role in the popularization of conga drums. However, the drum he played was similar to the type of known as bokú used in his hometown. The word conga came from the rhythm la conga used during carnaval in Cuba, the drums used in carnaval could have been referred to as tambores de conga since they played the rhythm la conga, and thus translated into English as conga drums. There are five basic strokes, Open tone is played with the four fingers near the rim of the head, producing a clear resonant tone with a distinct pitch. Muffled or mute tone, like the tone, is made by striking the drum with the four fingers. Bass tone, played with the palm on the head. It produces a low muted sound, slap tone, the most difficult technique producing a loud clear popping sound. Touch tone, as implied by the name, this tone is produced by just touching the fingers or heel of the palm to the drum head. It is possible to alternate a touch of the palm with a touch of the fingers in a maneuver called heel-toe, the moose call or glissando is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva or sweat, and sometimes a little coat of beeswax is put on the surface of the head to help make the sound
11.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
12.
Detection dog
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The sense most used by detection dogs is smell. Hunting dogs that search for game, and search dogs that work to find missing humans are not considered detection dogs. There is some overlap, as in the case of cadaver dogs, a police dog is essentially a detection dog that is used as a resource for police in specific scenarios such as conducting drug raids, finding missing criminals, and locating stashed currency. Frequently, detection dogs are thought to be used for law enforcement purposes, however, a lot of the items listed above can be disguised when covered by multiple smells. Detection dogs help uncover these items, in 2002, a detection dog foiled a womans attempt to smuggle marijuana into an Australian prison in Brisbane. The marijuana had been inserted into a balloon, which was smeared with coffee, pepper and petroleum jelly, detection dogs are often specially trained by handlers to identify the scent of bed bugs. With the increased focus on green pest management and integrated pest management, as well as the increase in travel and shared living accommodations. Detecting bed bugs is a process because insects have the ability to hide almost anywhere. Detection dogs help solve this problem because of their size, speed, from eggs to adults, detection dogs use their unique ability to smell in parts per trillion in order to track bed bugs in every phase of their life cycle. They can find bugs in places humans cannot such as voids, crevices. Dogs are also an alternative to pesticide use. If detection dogs can find out exactly where bed bugs are located and they also successfully differentiated live bed bugs and viable bed bug eggs from dead bed bugs, cast skins, and feces with a 95% correct positive indication rate. Scat is abundant in the wild and contains valuable data, wildlife scat detection represents a fairly non-invasive method of study for many species where previous live-capture once predominated. Compared with other methods of collection, dogs are able to survey larger areas in less time at decreased costs. Research shows that dogs can find laboratory rats and mice in a large rodent-free area of 32 hectares which is extremely large in size. Some specific types of feces that detection dogs have had success in identifying include killer whale feces, northern spotted owl pellets, in 2011, the Chicago Tribune claimed that detection dogs responses are influenced by the biases and behaviors of their handlers, which can hinder accuracy. Another factor that effects accuracy is residual orders, residual orders can linger even after illegal materials have been removed from a particular area, and can lead to negative detection alerts. Additionally, very few states have mandatory training, testing, or certification standards for detection dogs and this leaves people to question whether theyre truly equipped to carry out searches
13.
Bangkok
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Bangkok is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres in the Chao Phraya River delta in Central Thailand, over 14 million people live within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, significantly dwarfing Thailands other urban centres in terms of importance. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam—later renamed Thailand—during the late 19th century, the city grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailands politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is a hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a regional centre for the arts, fashion. The city is known for its vibrant street life and cultural landmarks. The historic Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the scenes of Khaosan Road. Bangkok is among the top tourist destinations. It is named the most visited city in MasterCards Global Destination Cities Index, Bangkoks rapid growth amidst little urban planning and regulation has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure systems. The city has turned to public transport in an attempt to solve this major problem. Five rapid transit lines are now in operation, with more systems under construction or planned by the national government and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and became the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Empire in 1767, the newly declared King Taksin established his capital at the town, in 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern banks Rattanakosin Island, thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom. The City Pillar was erected on 21 April, which is regarded as the date of foundation of the present city, Bangkoks economy gradually expanded through busy international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siams modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late 19th century, Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932
14.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
15.
Mounted police
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Mounted police are police who patrol on horseback or camelback. Some mounted police units are trained in search and rescue due to the ability to travel where vehicles cannot. Poor roads and extensive rural areas made horse-mounted police a necessity in European states until the early 20th century, notable examples included the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Mexican Rurales, the British South African Police, the Turkish/Cypriot Zapiteh and the caballeria of the Spanish Civil Guard. Tack used by mounted police is similar to standard riding tack, high-traction horseshoes made of speciality metals or fitted with rubber soles are typically used in urban areas in place of standard steel horseshoes, which are prone to slip on pavement. Rubber soled shoes also produce less noise than steel shoes and jar the hoof less, horses working in riot control wear facial armor, made of perspex so that the animals can still see. The New South Wales Mounted Police is a section of the New South Wales Police Force. Currently they have a strength of 36 officers and around 38 mounts and their duties include traffic and crowd management, patrols, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is a well-known mounted police force, although horses are no longer in use operationally. However, horses are used in the Musical Ride as well as by several provincial and municipal police detachments. The Royal Oman Police have both horse and camel mounted troopers, the United States Border Patrol had 200 horses in 2005. Most of these are employed along the U. S. -Mexico border, in Arizona, these animals are fed special processed feed pellets so that their wastes do not spread non-native plants in the national parks and wildlife areas they patrol. Philadelphias mounted police unit was disbanded in 2004, but reinstated in 2011 with four horses from the unit of Newark. List of mounted police forces Mounted search and rescue Police dog Police paddock Informational site for mounted police officers List of mounted search and rescue units Mounted Police in France
16.
Indian people
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Indian people are citizens of India, the second most populous nation containing 17. 50% of the worlds population. Indian refers to nationality, but not ethnicity or language, the Indian nationality consists of many regional ethno-linguistic groups, reflecting the rich and complex history of India. India hosts all major ethnic groups found in the Indian Subcontinent, population estimates vary from a conservative 12 million to 20 million diaspora. The name Bhārata has been used as a name by people of the Indian subcontinent. The designation Bhārata appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, the name is derived from the ancient Vedic and Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as Bhārata varṣam and uses this term to distinguish it from other varṣas or continents. The Bhāratas were a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings. India is named after legendary Emperor Bharata who was a descendant of the Bhāratas tribe, in early Vedic literature, the term Āryāvarta was in popular use before Bhārata. The Manusmṛti gives the name Āryāvarta to the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern to the Western Sea, while the word Indian and India is derived from Greek Ἰνδία, via Latin India. The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river Indus, the next great ancient Empire of the Indian people was the Gupta Empire. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, the ancient Indian mathematicians Aryabhata, Bhāskara I and Brahmagupta invented the concept of zero and the Hindu decimal system during this period. During this period Indian cultural influence spread over parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia. During the early period the great Rashtrakuta dynasty dominated the major part of the Indian subcontinent. From the 8th to 10th century and the Indian Emperor Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was described by the Arab traveller Sulaiman as one of the four kings of the world. The greatest maritime Empire of the medieval Indians was the Chola dynasty, under the great Indian Emperors Rajaraja Chola I and his successor Rajendra Chola I the Chola dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. The Mughal Empire unified much of Indian sub-continent under one realm, under the Mughals India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. This marked a huge influence in the Indian society, the Mughal Empire balanced and pacified local societies through new administrative practices and had diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. The Marathas and Sikhs emerged in the 17th century and established the Maratha Empire, the Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and Bengal, India is one of the worlds oldest civilisations
17.
Cats (musical)
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Cats is a musical composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, based on Old Possums Book of Practical Cats by T. S. Eliot, and produced by Cameron Mackintosh. Cats introduced the song standard Memory, the first performance of Cats was in 1981. Directed by Trevor Nunn and choreographed by Gillian Lynne, Cats first opened in the West End in 1981 and it won numerous awards, including Best Musical at both the Laurence Olivier Awards and the Tony Awards. The London production ran for years and the Broadway production ran for eighteen years. Actresses Elaine Paige and Betty Buckley became particularly associated with the musical, One actress, Marlene Danielle, performed in the Broadway production for its entire run. As of 2016, Cats is the show in Broadway history. Cats is the sixth-longest-running West End musical and it has been performed around the world many times and has been translated into more than 20 languages. In 1998, Cats was turned into a made-for-television film, composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, the production of Cats is based on T. S. Eliots Old Possums Book of Practical Cats, which the composer recalled as having been a childhood favorite. Also, a song entitled The Moments of Happiness was taken from a passage in Eliots Four Quartets. Andrew Lloyd Webber began composing the songs in late 1977 and premiered the compositions at the Sydmonton Festival in 1980, the concert was attended by T. S. Eliots wife, Valerie Eliot and she loved the songs that Webber had composed. She gave her blessing for the songs to be adapted into a stage play. Rehearsals for the musical began in early 1981 at the New London Theatre, an unusual musical in terms of its construction, the overture incorporates a fugue and there are occasions when the music accompanies spoken verse. The show is told through music with virtually no spoken dialogue in between the songs. Dance is also a key element in the musical especially during the 10-minute Jellicle Ball dance sequence, the set, consisting of an oversized junk yard, remains the same throughout the show without any scene changes. Lloyd Webbers eclecticism is very strong here, musical genres range from classical to pop, music hall, jazz, rock, Cats premiered in the West End at the New London Theatre on May 11,1981. There was trouble initially as Judi Dench, cast in the role of Grizabella and she was replaced by Elaine Paige. It played a total of 8,949 performances in London and it held the record as Londons longest running musical until 8 October 2006, when it was surpassed by Les Misérables. The show made its debut on Broadway on 7 October 1982, on 19 June 1997, Cats became the longest-running musical in Broadway history with 6,138 performances
18.
Suicide note
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A suicide note or death note is a message left behind before a person has committed suicide, or who intends to commit suicide. It is estimated that 25–30% of suicides are accompanied by a note, according to Gelder, Mayou and Geddes one in six leaves a suicide note. The content can be a plea for absolution or blaming family, however, incidence rates may depend on ethnicity, method of suicide, and cultural differences, and may reach rates as high as 50% in certain demographics. A suicide message can be a note, an audio message. Some fields of study, such as sociology, psychiatry and graphology, have investigated the reasons why people who commit suicide leave a note, to increase the pain of survivors by attempting to create guilt. To set out the reason for suicide, to express thoughts and feelings that the person felt unable to express in life. To give instructions for disposal of the remains, occasionally, to confess acts of murder or some other offence. He left a note denouncing them and his own nephew and heir to the leadership of his party, korechika Anami—I-with my death-humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime. Historians are divided as to what crime he was referring to and it is possibly a reference to his part in the aborted coup against the Emperor Hirohito in the hours following Japans decision to surrender at the end of World War II. Roger Angleton—murderer and brother of famous bookmaker Robert Angleton, clara Blandick—American film actress, most famous for playing Aunt Em in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. Her note began, I am now about to make the great adventure, eustace Budgell—English writer, What Cato did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong. Leslie Cheung—Hong Kong actor and musician who suffered from clinical depression, christine Chubbuck—American anchor of WXLT TV who committed suicide during a newscast. The note is addressed to his imaginary friend, and gives his reasons for leaving Nirvana, followed by a message to his wife, Courtney Love. The note made reference to Freddie Mercury and famously quoted Hey Hey, ida Craddock—Facing prison in 1902 for sending through the U. S. Ian Curtis—Lead singer of Joy Division. In the early hours of 18 May 1980, Curtis hanged himself in the kitchen of his house at 77 Barton Street and he had just viewed Werner Herzogs film Stroszek and listened to Iggy Pops The Idiot. Adam Czerniaków—head of the Judenrat in the Warsaw Ghetto and he refused to help round up Jews and committed suicide on July 23,1942 by swallowing a cyanide pill, a day after the commencement of mass extermination of Jews known as the Grossaktion Warsaw. He left his wife a note read, They are demanding that I kill the children of my people with my own hands. There is nothing for me to do but to die and his other note to one to his fellow members of the Judenrat, explained, I can no longer bear all this
19.
Eddie Izzard
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Edward John Eddie Izzard is an English stand-up comedian, actor, writer and political activist. His comedic style takes the form of rambling, whimsical monologue and he has also worked as a voice actor in The Wild, Igor, The Chronicles of Narnia, Prince Caspian, and Cars 2. Izzard has cited his main role model as Monty Python. In 2009, he completed 43 marathons in 51 days for Sport Relief despite having no history of long-distance running. He has won awards including a Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program for his comedy special Dress to Kill. Izzards website won the Yahoo Peoples Choice Award and earned the Webby Award, Izzard was born on 7 February 1962, in the Colony of Aden, the younger son of English parents. His mother, Dorothy Ella, was a midwife and nurse, his father, a year after Izzards birth, the family moved to Bangor, County Down, and lived there until he was five. The family then moved to Skewen, West Glamorgan, where his mother died of cancer when Izzard was six and his brother, Izzard and his brother built a model railway to occupy their time while their mother was ill, it was donated to the Bexhill Museum in 2016. The Izzard family name is of French Huguenot descent, following his mothers death, Izzard attended boarding schools such as St Johns School in Porthcawl, Mid Glamorgan, as well as St Bedes Prep School and Eastbourne College in East Sussex. He said that he knew he was a person at the age of four, after watching another boy being forced to wear a dress by his sisters. Izzard began to toy with comedy at the University of Sheffield, after leaving his accountancy degree course, he and Ballard took their act to the streets, often in Covent Garden. After his split with Ballard, Izzard spent a deal of the early 1980s working as a street performer in Europe. He then moved his act into the stand-up comedy venues of Britain and his first gig was at the Banana Cabaret in Balham, London. In 1987, he made his first stage appearance at the Comedy Store in London and he refined his material throughout the 1980s, and in the early 1990s he finally began earning some measure of recognition through his improvisation, in part at his own club Raging Bull in Soho. Izzard has performed stand-up in French, as well as German, Spanish, Russian and Arabic, in 1994, Izzard made his West End drama debut as the lead in the world premiere of David Mamets The Cryptogram with Lindsay Duncan, in the production at Londons Comedy Theatre. The success of that led to his second starring role in David Beairds black comedy 900 Oneonta. In 1995, he portrayed the character in Christopher Marlowes Edward II. In 1998 Izzard appeared briefly on stage with the Monty Python team in The American Film Institutes Tribute to Monty Python
20.
Mass (liturgy)
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Mass often refers to the entire church service in general, but is specifically the sacrament of the Eucharist. The term mass is called in the Catholic Church, Western Rite Orthodox churches and many Old Catholic, Anglican, as well as some Lutheran churches. Some Protestants employ terms such as Divine Service or service of worship, the English noun mass is derived from Middle Latin missa. The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse, and was sometimes glossed as sendnes, the Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century. It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est, historically, however, there have been other explanations of the noun missa, i. e. as not derived from the formula ite, missa est. Already Du Cange reports various opinions on the origin of the noun missa mass, including the derivation from Hebrew matzah, here attributed to Caesar Baronius. The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology, medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere, but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est. Thus, De divinis officiis explains the word as a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo, the Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, to which the other sacraments are oriented. The Catholic Church believes that the Mass is exactly the same sacrifice that Jesus Christ offered on the Cross at Calvary, after making the sign of the cross and greeting the people liturgically, he begins the Act of Penitence. This concludes with the prayer of absolution, which, however. The Kyrie, eleison, is sung or said, followed by the Gloria in excelsis Deo, the Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer. On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given, on other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament, or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide, the first reading is followed by a psalm, either sung responsorially or recited. The second reading is from the New Testament, typically one of the Pauline epistles. A Gospel Acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, the final reading and high point of the Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. At least on Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation, a homily, finally, the Creed is professed on Sundays and solemnities, and it is desirable that in Masses celebrated with the people the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful should usually follow. The congregation responds, May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of his name, for our good, the priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts. The Eucharistic Prayer, the centre and high point of the entire celebration, the priest continues with one of many Eucharistic Prayer thanksgiving prefaces, which lead to the reciting of the Sanctus acclamation
21.
Skip (container)
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A skip or dumpster is a large open-topped waste container designed for loading onto a special type of lorry. Instead of being emptied into a truck on site, as a wheelie bin is, a skip is removed, or replaced by an empty skip. Typically skip bins have a shape, the longitudinal cross-section of the skip bin is either a trapezoid or two stacked trapezoids. The lower trapezoid has the edge at the bottom of the skip bin. Where there is a trapezoid, it has the smaller edge at the top. At either end of the skip bin there is a floor or wall. There are usually two lugs at the ends of the bin onto which chains can be attached, permitting the heavy skip bin to be lifted onto, a special skip-carrying lorry or crane is used. One end of the skip sometimes has a door that hinges down to allow manual loading and unloading. Skips are usually durable and tough, made to withstand use by tradesmen. The size of skip bins can vary depending on their use. Even though these large bins can store many tonnes of waste, a typical small skip, when empty, weighs about 250 kilograms. There are several types of skip contains, majority of them can be classified in three groups, open skips allow easier loading of waste materials and are commonly found on construction sites. Closed skips are more secure and prevent unauthorized use of the skip, moreover, they ensure that the volume of waste does not exceed the maximum limit. Roll-on and roll-off skips are similar to open skips, but instead of being lifted onto a skip loader wagon by chains and they are more common as industrial containers and are not suitable for domestic uses. Skips are commonly used to hold open-topped loads of construction and demolition waste or other waste, the construction debris may originate from a building, renovation, or demolition site, building supplies can be delivered to a site in a skip that is later used to remove waste. Skips are also used for various jobs that need much material to be taken away. The material in the skip may be taken to a landfill, skip hire companies typically print Level fill on the sides of skips to instruct users that the contents should not fill or have contents showing above the height of the sides of the skip. This is in part for safety so that contents do not fall out posing a risk to passers-by, the origins of calling a rubbish cart a skip come from the word skep, used to refer to a basket
22.
John Adams (composer)
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John Coolidge Adams is an American composer of classical music and opera, with strong roots in minimalism. The opera has drawn controversy, including allegations by some that the opera is antisemitic, the works creators and others have disputed these criticisms. John Coolidge Adams was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1947 and he was raised in various New England states, where he was greatly influenced by New Englands musical culture. He graduated from Concord High School in Concord, New Hampshire, Adams began composing at the age of ten and first heard his music performed around the age of 13 or 14. After he matriculated at Harvard University in 1965 he studied composition under Leon Kirchner, Roger Sessions, Earl Kim and his piece American Standard was recorded and released on Obscure Records in 1975. He taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music from 1972 until 1984 and he served as musical producer for a number of series for the Public Broadcasting System including the award-winning series, The Adams Chronicles in 1976 and 1977. Shaker Loops, A modular composition for three violins, one viola, two cellos, and one bass, with a conductor and it is divided into four movements. Harmonium for large orchestra and chorus, The piece starts with quietly insistent repetitions of one note – D –, Harmonielehre, Inspired by a dream of an oil tanker taking flight out of San Francisco Bay and also by Arnold Schoenbergs book, Harmonielehre. This piece is also about harmony of the mind, the Chairman Dances, This is a by-product of Nixon in China, set in the three days of President Nixons visit to Beijing in February 1972. Short Ride in a Fast Machine, This piece is joyfully exuberant and it begins with a marking of half-notes and eighths, the woodblock is fortissimo and the other instruments play forte. Nixon in China, The opera, in three acts, is based on Richard Nixons visit to China on February 21–25,1972, main characters in the opera are, the Nixons, Mao Tse-tung, Chou En-lai, Chiang Ching and Henry Kissinger. It was directed by Peter Sellars and this piece is John Adamss second major composition on a text, after Harmonium for chorus and orchestra. In October 2008, Adams told BBC Radio 3 that he had been blacklisted by the U. S, homeland Security department and immigration services. The Wound-Dresser, John Adamss setting of Walt Whitmans 1865 poem of the same title, the piece is scored for baritone voice, two flutes, two oboes, clarinet, bass clarinet, two bassoons, two horns, trumpet, timpani, synthesizer, and strings. Chamber Symphony, This piece was commissioned by the Gerbode Foundation of San Francisco for the San Francisco Contemporary Chamber Players, I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky, A stage piece with libretto by June Jordan and staging by Peter Sellars. The main characters are seven young Americans from different social and ethnic backgrounds, the story takes place in the aftermath of the earthquake in Los Angeles in 1994. Hallelujah Junction, This piece for two pianos employs variations of a two note rhythm. The intervals between the notes remain the same through much of the piece, on the Transmigration of Souls, This piece commemorates those who lost their lives in the September 11,2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York
23.
London Symphony Orchestra
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The London Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1904, is the oldest of Londons symphony orchestras. It was set up by a group of players who left Henry Woods Queens Hall Orchestra because of a new rule requiring players to give the orchestra their exclusive services, the LSO itself later introduced a similar rule for its members. From the outset, the LSO was organised on co-operative lines and this practice continued for the orchestras first four decades. The profit-sharing principle was abandoned in the era as a condition of receiving public subsidy for the first time. In the 1950s the orchestra debated whether to concentrate on work at the expense of symphony concerts. By the 1960s the LSO had recovered its position, which it has retained subsequently. In 1966, to perform alongside it in works, the orchestra established the LSO Chorus, originally a mix of professional and amateur singers. As a self-governing body, the orchestra selects the conductors with whom it works, at some stages in its history, it has dispensed with a principal conductor and worked only with guests. Since 1982, the LSO has been based in the Barbican Centre in the City of London, among its programmes there have been large-scale festivals celebrating composers as diverse as Berlioz, Mahler and Bernstein. At the turn of the century there were no permanent salaried orchestras in London. The main orchestras were those of Covent Garden, the Philharmonic Society and he would then engage another player to deputise at him for the original concert and the rehearsals for it. The treasurer of the Philharmonic Society described the system thus, A and he sends B to the first rehearsal. B, without knowledge or consent, sends C to the second rehearsal. Not being able to play at the concert, C sends D, in 1904, the manager of the Queens Hall, Robert Newman and the conductor of his promenade concerts, Henry Wood, agreed that they could no longer tolerate the deputy system. After a rehearsal in which Wood was faced with dozens of unfamiliar faces in his own orchestra, Newman came to the platform and announced, Gentlemen, in future there will be no deputies. Orchestral musicians were not highly paid, and removing their chances of better-paid engagements permitted by the deputy system was a financial blow to many of them. The principal movers were three players and a trumpeter, John Solomon. Busby organised a meeting at St. Andrews Hall, not far from the Queens Hall, invitations were sent to present and former members of the Queens Hall Orchestra
24.
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
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Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, was a Pakistani musician, primarily a singer of Qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis. He possessed a range of vocal abilities and could perform at a high level of intensity for several hours. Extending the 600-year old Qawwali tradition of his family, Khan is widely credited with introducing Qawwali music to international audiences and he is popularly known as Shahenshah-e-Qawwali, meaning The King of Kings of Qawwali. Born in Faisalabad, Khan had his first public performance at the age of 16 and he became the head of the family qawwali party in 1971. He was signed by Oriental Star Agencies, Birmingham, England, Khan went on to release movie scores and albums in Europe, India, Japan, Pakistan and the US. He engaged in collaborations and experiments with Western artists, becoming a world music artist. He toured extensively, performing in over 40 countries, before partition, his family lived in their ancestral house at Basti Sheikh, Jalandhar. He was the child and first son of Fateh Ali Khan, a musicologist, vocalist, instrumentalist. Khans family, which included four sisters and a younger brother, Farrukh Fateh Ali Khan. The tradition of qawwali in the family had passed down through generations for almost 600 years. Initially, his father did not want Khan to follow the familys vocation and he had his heart set on Nusrat choosing a much more respectable career path and becoming a doctor or engineer, because he felt Qawwali artists had low social status. However, Khan showed such an aptitude for and interest in Qawwali and he began by learning the tabla before moving on to vocals. In 1964, Khans father died, leaving his musical education under the supervision of his uncles, Mubarak Ali Khan. He is the uncle of singer Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, Khans first public performance as the leader of the Qawwali party was at a studio recording broadcast as part of an annual music festival organised by Radio Pakistan, known as Jashn-e-Baharan. Khan sang mainly in Urdu and Punjabi and occasionally in Persian, Braj Bhasha and his first major hit in Pakistan was the song Haq Ali Ali, which was performed in a traditional style and with traditional instrumentation. The song featured restrained use of Khans sargam improvisations, in the summer of 1985, Khan performed at the World of Music, Arts and Dance festival in London. He performed in Paris in 1985 and 1988 and he first visited Japan in 1987, at the invitation of the Japan Foundation. He performed at the 5th Asian Traditional Performing Art Festival in Japan and he also performed at Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York in 1989, earning him admiration from the American audience
25.
Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten
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Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten is a short canon in A minor, written in 1977 by the Estonian composer Arvo Pärt, for string orchestra and bell. The work is an example of Pärts tintinnabuli style, which he based on his reactions to early chant music. Its appeal is often ascribed to its simplicity, a single melodic motif dominates. However, as the critic Ivan Hewett observes, while it may be simple in concept. the concept produces a tangle of lines which is hard for the ear to unravel. And even where the music really is simple in its audible features, a typical performance lasts about six and a half minutes. The cantus was composed as an elegy to mourn the December 1976 death of the English composer Benjamin Britten, Pärt described Britten as possessing the unusual purity that he himself sought as a composer. Pärt viewed the Englishman as a spirit, however, he gained access to the latters music only in 1980, after emigrating from Soviet Estonia to Austria. When Britten died, Pärt felt that he had lost hope of meeting the only composer whose musical outlook. It is perhaps Pärts most popular piece, and a 1997 recording by the Hungarian State Opera Orchestra conducted by Tamas Benedek has been widely distributed, due to its evocative and cinematic feel, the piece has been used extensively as background accompaniment in both film and television documentaries. Scored for string orchestra and bell, Cantus exemplifies Pärts tintinnabuli style, the work is based on a simple idea, a descending A-minor scale, and is in the form of a prolation canon, an old technique which Pärt also uses in the work Festina Lente. It is in 6/4 meter and alternates long and short notes, Pärt has said of tintinnabulation, The complex and many-faceted only confuses me, and I must search for unity. What is it, this one thing, and how do I find my way to it, traces of this perfect thing appear in many guises – and everything that is unimportant falls away. Here I am alone with silence, I have discovered that it is enough when a single note is beautifully played. This one note, or a silent beat, or a moment of silence, each part except the viola is split into two, with one playing notes from the A minor scale, and the other playing only notes from an A minor chord. These choices have a definite symbolism for Pärt, the latter always signifies the subjective world, the daily egoistic life of sin and suffering, meanwhile, is the objective realm of forgiveness. For Pärt, there is only an apparent dualism here, he believes all is one. The A natural minor scale has some historical connections, before major and minor scales became prevalent in Western art music, music, especially the early liturgical music that has been so influential on Pärt, used a system of modes. The idea of musical modes was known to the ancient Greeks, the church modes are formed by using the notes of the C major scale but starting at different notes in each mode
26.
The Carnival of the Animals
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The Carnival of the Animals is a humorous musical suite of fourteen movements by the French Romantic composer Camille Saint-Saëns. The work was written for performance by an ad hoc ensemble of two pianos and other instruments, and lasts around 25 minutes. Following a disastrous tour of Germany in 1885–86, Saint-Saëns withdrew to a small Austrian village. It is scored for two pianos, two violins, viola, cello, double bass, flute, clarinet, glass harmonica, from the beginning, Saint-Saëns regarded the work as a piece of fun. A second performance was given on 2 April at the home of Pauline Viardot with an audience including Franz Liszt, a friend of the composer, who had expressed a wish to hear the work. He relented only for the cello solo The Swan, which forms the penultimate movement of the work. Saint-Saëns did specify in his will that the work should be published posthumously, following his death in December 1921, the work was published by Durand in Paris in April 1922 and the first public performance was given on 25 February 1922 by Concerts Colonne. Carnival has since become one of Saint-Saënss best-known works, played by the original eleven instrumentalists, normally a glockenspiel substitutes for the rare glass harmonica. Ever popular with music teachers and young children, it is recorded in combination with Prokofievs Peter. The pianos play a pair of scales going in opposite directions to conclude the first part of the movement, the pianos then introduce a march theme that they carry through most of the rest of the introduction. The strings provide the melody, with the pianos occasionally taking low runs of octaves which suggest the roar of a lion, the two groups of instruments switch places, with the pianos playing a higher, softer version of the melody. The movement ends with a note from all the instruments used in this movement. The clarinet plays small solos above the rest of the players at intervals, the piano plays a very fast theme based on the crowing of a roosters Cock a Doodle Doo. Two pianos, the animals depicted here are quite obviously running and these are dziggetai, asses that come from Tibet and are known for their great speed. Strings and piano, a movement which opens with a piano playing a pulsing triplet figure in the higher register. The strings play a rendition of the famous Galop infernal from Offenbachs operetta Orpheus in the Underworld. Double bass and piano, this section is marked Allegro pomposo, the piano plays a waltz-like triplet figure while the bass hums the melody beneath it. Two pianos, the figure here is a pattern of hopping fifths preceded by grace notes
27.
Serenade to Music
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Serenade to Music is a work by Ralph Vaughan Williams for 16 vocal soloists and orchestra, composed in 1938. The text is an adaptation of the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, Vaughan Williams later arranged the piece into versions for chorus and orchestra and solo violin and orchestra. It is approximately 13 minutes in duration, Vaughan Williams wrote the piece as a tribute to the conductor Sir Henry Wood to mark the fiftieth anniversary of Woods first concert. The solo parts were composed specifically for the voices of sixteen eminent British singers chosen by Wood, in some parts of the work, the soloists sing together as a choir, sometimes in as many as twelve parts, in others, each soloist is allotted a solo. The published score places the initials of each soloist next to his or her lines, Wood conducted the first performance at his jubilee concert at the Royal Albert Hall on 5 October 1938. The orchestra comprised players from three London orchestras – the London Symphony Orchestra, the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra, on 15 October 1938, Wood made the first recording at the HMV Abbey Road Studio No.1. Wood premiered the orchestral version in February 1940, the orchestral version has since been recorded by the London Philharmonic under Vernon Handley and the Northern Sinfonia of England under Richard Hickox. The orchestra consists of two flutes, oboe, cor anglais, two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, tuba, timpani, percussion, harp, and strings. Vaughan Williams conducted a performance of the version of the Serenade during the inaugural concerts at the new Royal Festival Hall in 1951. The performance was recorded and has released on CD. For the opening of the Avery Fisher Hall, New York, on 23 September 1962, Leonard Bernstein conducted the New York Philharmonic, the performance was recorded live and has been issued on CD by Sony Classical. With sweetest touches pierce your mistress ear, And draw her home with music. ES I am never merry when I hear sweet music, soft stillness and the nightBecome the touches IB of sweet harmony. The recordings of the version, for sixteen singers and orchestra, are conducted by Sir Henry Wood. In the table below, each row shows the original singer, the Serenade to Music figures prominently in No Distance Left to Run, a 2010 documentary film about the British rock band Blur. The film also features Vaughan Williamss The Lark Ascending
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Ralph Vaughan Williams
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Ralph Vaughan Williams OM was an English composer. His works include operas, ballets, chamber music, secular and religious pieces and orchestral compositions including nine symphonies. Strongly influenced by Tudor music and English folk-song, his output marked a break in British music from its German-dominated style of the 19th century. Vaughan Williams was born to a family with strong moral views. Throughout his life he sought to be of service to his fellow citizens and he wrote many works for amateur and student performance. He was musically a late developer, not finding his voice until his late thirties. Vaughan Williams is among the best-known British symphonists, noted for his wide range of moods, from stormy and impassioned to tranquil. Among the most familiar of his concert works are Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis. His vocal works include hymns, folk-song arrangements and large-scale choral pieces and he wrote eight works for stage performance between 1919 and 1951. Although none of his operas became popular repertoire pieces, his ballet Job, Two episodes made notably deep impressions in Vaughan Williamss personal life. The First World War, in which he served in the army, had an emotional effect. Twenty years later, though in his sixties and devotedly married, he was reinvigorated by an affair with a much younger woman. He went on composing through his seventies and eighties, producing his last symphony months before his death at the age of eighty-five. His works have continued to be a staple of the British concert repertoire, Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, the third child and younger son of the vicar, the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams and his wife, Margaret, née Wedgwood. His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent, many of them went into the law or the Church, the judges Sir Edward and Sir Roland Vaughan Williams were respectively Arthurs father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great-granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and niece of Charles Darwin, Arthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875, and his widow took the children to live in her family home, Leith Hill Place, Wotton, Surrey. The children were under the care of a nurse, Sara Wager, such views were consistent with the progressive-minded tradition of both sides of the family. When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwins controversial book On the Origin of Species, she answered, great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer, but we need not worry about it, for it is equally wonderful either way
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Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140
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Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV140, also known as Sleepers Wake, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach, regarded as one of his most mature and popular sacred cantatas. He composed the cantata in Leipzig for the 27th Sunday after Trinity. Bach composed this cantata to complete his second cycle of chorale cantatas. The cantata is based on the hymn in three stanzas Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme by Philipp Nicolai, which covers the prescribed reading for the Sunday, the text and tune of the hymn appears unchanged in movements 1,4 and 7. An unknown author supplied poetry for the inner movements as sequences of recitative and duet, Bach structured the cantata in seven movements, setting the first stanza as a chorale fantasia, the second in the style of a chorale prelude, and the third as a four-part chorale. He set the new texts as dramatic recitatives and love-duets, similar to contemporary opera, Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists, a four-part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn, two oboes, taille, violino piccolo, strings and basso continuo including bassoon. Bach used movement 4 of the cantata as the basis for the first of his Schübler Chorales, Bach composed the cantata in Leipzig for the 27th Sunday after Trinity. This Sunday occurs only when Easter is early, the prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, be prepared for the day of the Lord, and from the Gospel of Matthew, the parable of the Ten Virgins. Bach composed this cantata to complete his second cycle of cantatas of 1724/25. It is based on Philipp Nicolais Lutheran hymn in three stanzas, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, which is based on the Gospel and he refers to the love poetry of the Song of Songs, showing Jesus as the bridegroom of the Soul. According to the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff, the text was available when Bach composed his cycle of chorale cantatas. Bach performed the only once, in Leipzigs main church Nikolaikirche on 25 November 1731. According to Wolff, Bach performed it only one time, although the 27th Sunday after Trinity occurred one more time during his tenure in Leipzig. He used movement 4 of the cantata as the base for the first of his Schübler Chorales, as the text and its eschatological themes are also associated with the season of Advent, the cantata is commonly performed during that season. Bach structured the cantata in seven movements, the heading of the original parts reads, Dominica 27. / Wachet auf, rufft uns die Stime / â /4, the duration is given as 31 minutes. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe, the keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time. The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown, the first movement, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, is a chorale fantasia based on the first verse of the chorale, a common feature of Bachs earlier chorale cantatas
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Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
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St John Passion
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The Passio secundum Joannem or St John Passion, BWV245, is a Passion or oratorio by Johann Sebastian Bach, the older of two surviving Passions by Bach. It was written during Bachs first year as director of music in Leipzig and was first performed on April 7,1724. The structure of the falls in two halves, intended to flank a sermon. Compared with the St Matthew Passion, the St John Passion has been described as extravagant, with an expressive immediacy, at times more unbridled. The work is most often today in the 1724 version although Bach revised it in 1725,1732. Bach quickly agreed to their desire to move the service to St. Nicholas Church and he also asked that the harpsichord be repaired. The council agreed and sent a flyer announcing the new location to all the people around Leipzig, the council made the arrangements requested by Bach regarding the harpsichord and space needed for the choir. Bach followed chapters 18 and 19 of the Gospel of John in the Luther Bible, the compiler of the additional poetry is unknown. Models are the Brockes Passion and a Johannes-Passion by Christian Heinrich Postel, the first scene is in the Kidron Valley, and the second in the palace of the high priest Kaiphas. Part Two shows three scenes, one with Pontius Pilate, one at Golgatha, and the third finally at the burial site, the dramatic argument between Pilate, Jesus, and the crowd is not interrupted by reflective elements but a single central chorale, #22. Part One Part Two Bach followed the Gospel of John but added two lines from the Gospel of Matthew, the crying of Peter and the tearing of the curtain in the temple. For the words of the aria Ach, mein Sinn, Bach used an adaptation of a 1675 poem by Christian Weise, #21b Sei gegrüßet, lieber Jüdenkönig reappears as #25b Schreibe nicht, der Jüden König. The St John Passion is written for an ensemble of soloists, four-part choir, strings and basso continuo and pairs of flauti traversi and oboes. For special colours Bach also used lute, viola damore and viola da gamba, in present day performances the part of Jesus is given to one bass soloist, Pilate and the bass arias to another. Some tenors sing the Evangelist – a very demanding part –, the smaller parts are sometimes performed by choir members. Researchers have discovered that Bach revised his St John Passion several times before producing a version in the 1740s. Alternate numbers that Bach introduced in 1725 but later removed can be found in the appendix to scores of the work, the St John Passion was not Bachs first passion. While he was working as organist in 1708 and Konzertmeister in 1714 in Weimar, Bach possibly wrote a Passion, known as the Weimarer Passion, but it is now lost
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Metro (British newspaper)
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Metro is a free newspaper published in tabloid format in the United Kingdom by DMG Media. It is distributed from Monday to Friday on many services and stations in cities. Distributors have also employed to hand out copies to pedestrians. The paper was launched in London on 16 March 1999, and can now be found in many towns, the Metro concept comes from Sweden. After battling alongside the Associated Newspapers version with the same name, however, Morning News was short-lived, being discontinued shortly afterwards. Metro International have had plans to launch a free evening newspaper in London. Similarly, Rupert Murdoch is said to have regretted missing the opportunity of launching his own London paper, however, News International, a UK subsidiary of Murdochs News Corporation, launched a London-based newspaper in 2006 called The London Paper, using funding from Liam McDonald. This was closed on 18 September 2009, the newspaper is divided into three main sections - news, features and sport. The features section contains a mix of articles on travel, homes, style, the puzzles page currently features a crossword and Sudoku. On 8 July 2009, the version of Metro was merged with London Lite. In its first five years, it achieved a readership of over 1 million daily readers, making it the UKs fourth largest daily newspaper, after The Sun, the Daily Mail, and the Daily Mirror. In October 2008, its total certified distribution for that month was 1,361,306 and it now prints approximately 1. 3m copies daily, and officially has some 3. 5m readers, as of March 2010. The WAN-IFRA reported its 2009 circulation as 1,335,000, in October 2016 circulation was increased to nearly 1.5 million. In the West Midlands, it is distributed on Network West Midlands buses, the Dublin freesheet Metro Herald was similar in layout and content to its British counterpart, as Associated Metro provides much of the content. Metro Herald was formed by the merging of Metro Ireland with its main competitor, Metro Ireland was launched on 10 October 2005, as was Herald AM. Both titles were loss-making, despite a circulation of 145,000 between them in the Greater Dublin Area, the merger of the two titles faced scrutiny by the Competition Authority as the resulting match up drew together IN&M and The Irish Times. On 2 July 2009, it was announced that the two freesheets were to merge, and by 2010 this merger was complete, GameCentral was founded on 10 March 2003 to replace Digitiser as the video game section of Channel 4s analogue Teletext service. Its contents page was found on page 690 of Channel 4 analogue Teletext
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September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
