1.
Early Scots
–
Early Scots was the emerging literary language of the Northern Middle English speaking parts of Scotland in the period before 1450. The northern forms of Middle English descended from Northumbrian Old English, during this period, speakers referred to the language as English. Political developments in the 12th century facilitated the spread of the English language, institutions such as the burghs first established by David I, mostly in the south and east of Scotland, brought new communities into the areas in which they were established. Incoming burghers were mainly English, Dutch and French, the increasing economic influence of the burghs attracted further English, Fleming and Scandinavian immigration. As the economic power of the burghs grew, Gaelic-speakers from the found it advantageous to acquire a working knowledge of English. The institutional language of the burghs consisted of vocabulary that was Germanic in origin, such English terms as toft, croft, ruid, guild, bow, wynd, multi-lingualism and cultural diversity became increasingly the norm after David I. People in one part of the realm could be addressed as Franci, Angli, the end of the House of Dunkeld led to the throne being passed to three families of Anglo-French origin, the Balliols, Bruces and Stewarts. After the death of King Robert I, the kings of Scotland increasingly identified themselves with the English-speaking part of the kingdom, by this time differentiation into Southern, Central and Northern dialects had perhaps occurred. Scots was also beginning to replace Latin as a language for records, in Caithness, it came into contact with both Norn and Gaelic. Scots also retained many words which became obsolete farther south, during this period a number of words of Anglo-Saxon origin, such as anerly, berynes, clenge, halfindall, scathful, sturting, thyrllage and umbeset, were now almost or completely unique to Scots. The vocabulary of Scots was augmented by the speech of Scandinavians, Flemings, Dutch and Middle Low German speakers through trade with, and immigration from, the low countries. From Scandinavian came at, byg, bak, bla, bra, ferlie, flyt remove, fra, gar, gowk, harnis, ithand, low, lug, man, neve, sark, spe, þa, til, tinsell, wycht and wyll. The Flemings introduced bonspell, bowcht, cavie, crame, furisine, grotkyn, howff, kesart, lunt, much, muchkin, skaff, wapinschaw, wyssill and the coins plak, stek and doyt. A number of Gaelic words such as breive, cane, couthal, davach, duniwassal, kenkynolle, mare and toschachdor occurred in early legal documents but most became obsolete early in the period. Gaelic words for topographical features have endured, such as bogg, carn, corrie, crag, inch, knok, loch and strath. The reduced set of verb agreement endings in particular give the language an uncannily modern appearance when compared to the writing of English contemporaries such as Geoffrey Chaucer, another hypothesis proposes a possible path of developments from the reduction of verbal affixes followed by originally enclitic postverbal pronouns. The forms of the third person plural pronoun they/their/them which later moved southwards to replace the older Southern he/here/hem forms, one reason why the Northern forms were ultimately successful is that they got rid of the ambiguity of early Southern Middle English he and hir, her. The reduced set of verb agreement endings originating in the 9th or 10th centuries, whereas the Old English and Southern and Midlands Middle English pattern had –e, -s, -th in the three persons of the singular and –th in all persons of the plural
2.
John Barbour (poet)
–
John Barbour was a Scottish poet and the first major named literary figure to write in Scots. He is known to have written a number of other works, Barbour was latterly Archdeacon of the Kirk of St Machar in Aberdeen. He also studied in Oxford and Paris, although he was a man of the church, his surviving writing is strongly secular in both tone and themes. His principal patron was Robert II and evidence of his promotion and he died in 1395, probably in Aberdeen. John Barbour may have been born around 1320 if the record of his age in 1375 as 55 is correct and his birthplace is not known, though Aberdeenshire and Galloway have made rival claims. Barbours first appearance in the record comes in 1356 with promotion to the archdeaconry of Aberdeen from a post he had held for less than a year in Dunkeld Cathedral. It is inferred from this that he was present in Avignon in 1355. In 1357, when David II returned to Scotland from exile and was restored to active kingship and he subsequently appears to have left the country in other years coincidental with periods when David II was active king. After the death of David II in 1371, Barbour served in the court of Robert II in a number of capacities. It was during this time that he composed, The Brus, receiving for this in 1377 the gift of ten pounds Scots and he held various posts in the kings household. In 1372 he was one of the auditors of exchequer and in 1373 a clerk of audit, the only biographical evidence for his closing years is his signature as a witness to sindry deeds in the Register of Aberdeen in 1392. According to the obit-book of St Machars Cathedral, Aberdeen he died on 13 March 1395, Barbour made provision for a mass to be sung for himself and his parents, an instruction that was observed in the Kirk of St Machar until the Reformation. The Brus, Barbours major surviving work, is a narrative poem written while he was a member of the kings household in the 1370s. Its subject is the success of the prosecution of the First War of Scottish Independence. Its principal focus is Robert the Bruce and Sir James Douglas, Barbours purpose in the poem was partly historical and partly patriotic. He celebrates The Bruce and Douglas throughout as the flowers of Scottish chivalry, the poem opens with a description of the state of Scotland at the death of Alexander III and concludes with the death of Douglas and the burial of the Bruces heart. Its central episode is the Battle of Bannockburn, patriotic as the sentiment is, this is expressed in more general terms than is found in later Scottish literature. Barbours style in the poem is vigorous, his line generally fluid and quick, the most quoted part is Book 1, lines 225-228, A. fredome is a noble thing
3.
Chivalry
–
Chivalry, or the chivalric code, is a code of conduct associated with the medieval institution of knighthood which developed between 1170 and 1220. The code of chivalry that developed in medieval Europe had its roots in earlier centuries, the term chivalry derives from the Old French term chevalerie, which can be translated to horse soldiery. Gautier states that emerged from the Moors as well as the Teutonic forests and was nurtured into civilization. Over time, its meaning in Europe has been refined to emphasise social and moral virtues more generally, in origin, the term chivalry means horsemanship, formed in Old French, in the 11th century, from chevalier, from Medieval Latin caballārius. In English, the term appears from 1292, thus, chivalry has hierarchical meanings from simply a heavily armed horseman to a code of conduct. Based on the three treatises, initially chivalry was defined as a way of life in which three essential aspects fused together, the military, the nobility, the religion. Gautiers Ten Commandments of chivalry are, Thou shalt believe all that the Church teaches, Thou shalt respect all weaknesses, and shalt constitute thyself the defender of them. Thou shalt love the country in which thou wast born, Thou shalt not recoil before thine enemy. Thou shalt make war against the infidel without cessation and without mercy, Thou shalt perform scrupulously thy feudal duties, if they be not contrary to the laws of God. Thou shalt never lie, and shalt remain faithful to thy pledged word, Thou shalt be generous, and give largesse to everyone. Thou shalt be everywhere and always the champion of the Right, though these ten commandments are often accepted to be what knights would use, these would not necessarily be what a knight actually followed in the medieval era. This code was created by Leon Gautier in 1883, long after the knight had ceased to exist in its traditional form. Chivalry in a sense was more of a subjective term. It is a version of the myth of the Golden Age, from Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi, We must not confound chivalry with the feudal system. The feudal system may be called the life of the period of which we are treating, possessing its advantages and inconveniences, its virtues. Chivalry, on the contrary, is the world, such as it existed in the imaginations of the Romance writers. Its essential character is devotion to woman and to honour, Sismondi alludes to the fictitious Arthurian romances about the imaginary Court of King Arthur, which were usually taken as factual presentations of a historical age of chivalry. He continues, The more closely we look into history, the more clearly shall we perceive that the system of chivalry is an invention almost entirely poetical and it is impossible to distinguish the countries in which it is said to have prevailed
4.
Robert the Bruce
–
Robert I, popularly known as Robert the Bruce, was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329. Robert was one of the most famous warriors of his generation and he fought successfully during his reign to regain Scotlands place as an independent country and is today revered in Scotland as a national hero. As Earl of Carrick, Robert the Bruce supported his familys claim to the Scottish throne, after submitting to Edward I in 1302 and returning to the kings peace, Robert inherited his familys claim to the Scottish throne upon his fathers death. In February 1306, Robert the Bruce killed Comyn following an argument, Bruce moved quickly to seize the throne and was crowned king of Scots on 25 March 1306. Bruce defeated his other Scots enemies, destroying their strongholds and devastating their lands, despite Bannockburn and the capture of the final English stronghold at Berwick in 1318, Edward II refused to renounce his claim to the overlordship of Scotland. In 1320, the Scottish nobility submitted the Declaration of Arbroath to Pope John XXII, declaring Robert as their rightful monarch and asserting Scotlands status as an independent kingdom. In 1324, the Pope recognised Robert I as king of an independent Scotland, and in 1326, Robert I died in June 1329. His body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart was interred in Melrose Abbey. Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale, the first of the Bruce, or de Brus, line arrived in Scotland with David I in 1124 and was given the lands of Annandale in Dumfries and Galloway. His mother was by all accounts a formidable woman who, legend would have it, from his mother, he inherited the Earldom of Carrick, and through his father, a royal lineage that would give him a claim to the Scottish throne. The Bruces also held estates in Aberdeenshire, County Antrim, County Durham, Essex, Middlesex. Although Robert the Bruces date of birth is known, his place of birth is less certain, although it is most likely to have been Turnberry Castle in Ayrshire, very little is known of his youth. Annandale was thoroughly feudalised and the form of Northern Middle English that would develop into the Scots language was spoken throughout the region. Robert the Bruce would most probably have become trilingual at an early age and he would have been schooled to speak, read and possibly write in the Anglo-Norman language of his Scots-Norman peers and his fathers family. He would also have both the Gaelic language of his Carrick birthplace and his mothers family, and the early Scots language. As the heir to an estate and a pious layman, Robert would also have been given working knowledge of Latin. This would have afforded Robert and his brothers access to education in the law, politics, scripture, saints Lives, philosophy, history and chivalric instruction. That Robert took personal pleasure in such learning and leisure is suggested in a number of ways, as king, Robert certainly commissioned verse to commemorate Bannockburn and his subjects military deeds
5.
James Douglas, Lord of Douglas
–
Sir James Douglas was a Scottish knight and feudal lord. He was one of the commanders during the Wars of Scottish Independence. He was the eldest son of Sir William Douglas, known as le Hardi or the bold and his mother was Elizabeth Stewart, the daughter of Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland, who died circa 1287 or early 1288. His father remarried in late 1288 so Douglas birth had to be prior to that, however, Douglas was sent to France for safety in the early days of the Wars of Independence, and was educated in Paris. There he met William Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews and he returned to Scotland with Lamberton. His lands had seized and awarded to Robert Clifford. The English, since he slew that man, Are keen to him if they can. Now, therefore, if it be your will, With him will I take good or ill, through him I hope my land to win Despite the Clifford and his kin. This was a dramatic moment in Scottish history, Robert Bruce, earl of Carrick had slain John Comyn. Bruce immediately claimed the crown of Scotland, in defiance of the English king, less than seven weeks after the killing in Dumfries, Bruce was crowned King on 25 March. It was while he was on his way to Glasgow to meet with Bishop Wishart, and then to Scone, the site of Scottish coronations. Riding on a horse borrowed from Bishop Lamberton, the site is traditionally believed to be the summit of a hill in Dumfries and Galloway, that is now known as the Crown of Scotland. Douglas explained his circumstances and immediately offered his services, And thus began their friendship true That no mischance could eer undo Nor lessen while they were alive and their friendship more and more would thrive. Douglas was set to share in Bruces early misfortunes, being present at the defeats at Methven and he soon created a formidable reputation for himself as a soldier and a tactician. While Bruce was campaigning in the north against his domestic enemies and he also showed himself to be utterly ruthless, particularly in his relentless attacks on the English garrison in his own Douglas Castle, the most famous of which quickly passed into popular history. Barbour dates this incident to Palm Sunday 1307, which fell on 19 March, some question whether this date is too early as Bruce and his small army were not yet established in south-west Scotland, suggesting Palm Sunday 1308 –17 April – as a more accurate date. Barbour says that the Larder was the first act toward becoming established in part of Scotland. Gathering local support he entered the church and the war-cry Douglas, went up for the first time
6.
Wars of Scottish Independence
–
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The First War began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, the Second War began with the English-supported invasion by Edward Balliol and the Disinherited in 1332, and ended in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining times in its history. At the end of wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent state. The wars were important for reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in medieval warfare. King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, leaving his three-year-old granddaughter Margaret as his heir. In 1290, the Guardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Birgham agreeing to the marriage of the Maid of Norway and Edward of Caernarvon, the son of Edward I, who was Margarets great-uncle. However, Margaret, travelling to her new kingdom, died shortly after landing on the Orkney Islands around 26 September 1290, with her death, there were 13 rivals for succession. The two leading competitors for the Scottish crown were Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale and John Balliol, Edward agreed to meet the guardians at Norham in 1291. Before the process got underway Edward insisted that he be recognised as Lord Paramount of Scotland, when they refused, he gave the claimants three weeks to agree to his terms, knowing that by then his armies would have arrived and the Scots would have no choice. Edwards ploy worked, and the claimants to the crown were forced to acknowledge Edward as their Lord Paramount and accept his arbitration. Their decision was influenced in part by the fact that most of the claimants had large estates in England and, therefore, however, many involved were churchmen such as Bishop Wishart for whom such mitigation cannot be claimed. Two days later, in Upsettlington, the Guardians of the Realm, all Scots were also required to pay homage to Edward I, either in person or at one of the designated centres by 27 July 1291. There were thirteen meetings from May to August 1291 at Berwick, on 3 August, Edward asked Balliol and Bruce to choose 40 arbiters each, while he chose 24, to decide the case. On 12 August, he signed a writ that required the collection of all documents that concern the competitors rights or his own title to the superiority of Scotland. Balliol was named king by a majority on 17 November 1292, on 26 December, at Newcastle upon Tyne, King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state, Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edwards demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to appear before him, on his return to Scotland, John held a meeting with his council and after a few days of heated debate, plans were made to defy the orders of Edward I
7.
Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray
–
Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray was an important soldier and diplomat in the Wars of Scottish Independence, who later served as regent of Scotland. Thomas was the son of another Thomas, who was Chamberlain of Scotland and Sheriff of Roxburgh, and it is known that the younger Thomas was the nephew of King Robert the Bruce, but it is uncertain which of Roberts sisters was his mother. The traditional view is that she was of the first marriage of Marjorie, Countess of Carrick, however it is now believed that the Kings father Robert married again after Marjories death and had with his second wife a daughter, Isabel, who married the elder Thomas. Thomas supported Robert in his attempt to take the throne, and was present at his uncles coronation in 1306 and he was probably knighted by the king then or shortly after. After the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Methven, he was prisoner by the English, coming first under the custody of Sir Adam Gordon. During his confinement he joined the English cause, and remained attached to them until he was captured by Sir James Douglas in 1308 and his defection came to the attention of Edward II of England, who forfeited all his lands, bestowing them on his favourite Hugh le Despencer. In 1312 Robert created him Earl of Moray, and he became ruler of a swathe of land in the north of Scotland. He was also lord of the Isle of Man, in exchange for a reddendo of six ships of 26 oars and 100 silver marks. Around this time he became one of Roberts most trusted lieutenants and his most famous achievement took place on 14 March 1314 when he carried out a daring attack on Edinburgh Castle. This was one of a handful of castles in Scotland still in English hands, amongst Morays men was William Francis, the son of a former governor of the castle, who knew of a secret path up the rock. Moray used this path to reach the castle, and successfully retook it for the Scots, in 1315 Moray accompanied Edward Bruce, the kings brother, during his invasion of Ireland. He was one of the leaders in the war against the English settlers in Ireland. He returned twice to Scotland during the war to obtain reinforcements, Morays name appears directly after Roberts on the famous Declaration of Arbroath, which was sent to the Pope by the nobles of Scotland to persuade him to recognise Scotland as an independent nation. Later, in 1324, he was sent to meet the Pope in person at his court in Avignon, at this meeting he successfully persuaded the Pope to recognise Robert as King of Scots. The next year the Pope wrote to Moray declaring his hope, Moray was again sent to France in 1325, this time to persuade King Louis X to sign the Treaty of Corbeil renewing the Franco-Scottish alliance, which he did successfully. After his return to Scotland he had a role in the Battle of Stanhope Park against the English. The English suffered a defeat, and were forced to sign the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. During the Kings final years, Moray had been a constant companion, before his death, Robert decreed that Moray would serve as regent for David, who was only five years old when he succeeded as king
