1.
Newspaper
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A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
2.
Tabloid (newspaper format)
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A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet. There is no standard size for this newspaper format, the term tabloid journalism refers to an emphasis on such topics as sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip and television, and is not a reference to newspapers printed in this format. Some small-format papers with a standard of journalism refer to themselves as compact newspapers. Larger newspapers, traditionally associated with higher-quality journalism, are called broadsheets, in common usage, tabloid and broadsheet are frequently more descriptive of a newspapers market position than physical format. The Berliner format used by many prominent European newspapers is sized between the tabloid and the broadsheet, in a newspaper context, the term Berliner is generally used only to describe size, not to refer to other qualities of the publication. The word tabloid comes from the name given by the London-based pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to the compressed tablets they marketed as Tabloid pills in the late 1880s, the connotation of tabloid was soon applied to other small compressed items. A1902 item in Londons Westminister Gazette noted, The proprietor intends to give in tabloid form all the news printed by other journals, thus tabloid journalism in 1901 originally meant a paper that condensed stories into a simplified, easily absorbed format. The term preceded the 1918 reference to smaller sheet newspapers that contained the condensed stories, a tabloid is defined as roughly 17 by 11 inches and commonly half the size of a broadsheet. Tabloid newspapers, especially in the United Kingdom, boast a very high degree of variation as far as target market, political alignment, editorial style, thus, various terms have been coined to describe the subtypes of this versatile paper format. There are, broadly, two types of tabloid newspaper, red top and compact. The distinction is largely of editorial style, both red top and compact tabloids span the width of the spectrum from socialism to capitalist conservatism. The red top tabloid is, for many, the example of the format. Red tops tend to be written with a simplistic, straightforward vocabulary and grammar, their layout, more often than not, in the extreme case, red top tabloids have been accused of lying or misrepresenting the truth to increase circulation. Poll results are often predicted by red top papers, examples of British red top newspapers include The Sun, the Daily Star, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Sport. In contrast to red top tabloids, compacts use a style more closely associated with broadsheet newspapers. In fact, most compact tabloids formerly used the paper size. The term compact was coined in the 1970s by the Daily Mail, one of the newspapers to make the change. The purpose behind this was to avoid the association of the word tabloid with the flamboyant, the early converts from broadsheet format made the change in the 1970s, two notable British papers that took this step at the time were the Daily Mail and the Daily Express
3.
Gannett Company
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Gannett Company, Inc. is a publicly traded American media holding company headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia, near McLean in Greater Washington DC. It is the largest U. S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation and its assets include the national newspaper USA Today and the erstwhile weekly USA Weekend. Its largest non-national newspaper is The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona, in 2015, Gannett Co. Inc. spun off its publishing business into a separate publicly traded entity, while retaining the internet media divisions. Immediately following the spin off, the former parent Company renamed itself Tegna, the spun off publishing business renamed itself Gannett. Gannett Company, Inc. was formed in 1923 by Frank Gannett in Rochester, New York as an outgrowth of the Elmira Gazette, by 1979, the chain had grown to 79 newspapers. In 1979, Gannett acquired Combined Communications Corp. operator of 17 television stations, as well as an advertising division. The company was headquartered in Rochester until 1986, when it moved to Arlington County and its former headquarters building, the Gannett Building, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. Gannetts oldest newspaper still in circulation is the Leaf-Chronicle located in Clarksville, in 2001, the company moved to its current headquarters in Tysons Corner, a suburb of Washington, D. C. The practice has spread throughout the chain, on March 7,2011, Gannett replaced the stylized G logo in use since the 1970s, and adopted a new company tagline, Its all within reach. In 2010, Gannett increased executive salaries and bonuses, for example, Bob Dickey, Gannetts U. S. newspapers division president, was paid $3.4 million in 2010, the next year, the company laid off 700 U. S. employees to cut costs. In the memo announcing the layoffs, Dickey wrote, While we have many ways to reduce costs. The USA Today website became the one to allow unrestricted access. On August 21,2012, Gannett acquired Blinq Media, around the first week of October 2012, Gannett entered a dispute against Dish Network regarding compensation fees and Dishs AutoHop commercial-skip feature on its Hopper digital video recorders. Gannett ordered that Dish discontinue AutoHop on the account that it is affecting advertising revenues for Gannetts television station, Gannett threatened to pull all of its stations should the skirmish continue beyond October 7 and Dish and Gannett fail to reach an agreement. The two parties reached an agreement after extending the deadline for a few hours. On June 13,2013, Gannett announced plans to buy Dallas-based Belo Corporation for $1.5 billion, the purchase would add 20 additional stations to Gannetts portfolio and make the company the fourth largest television broadcaster in the U. S. with 43 stations. On December 16,2013, the United States Department of Justice announced that Gannett, Belo, the deal was approved by the FCC on December 20, and it was completed on December 23. On February 28,2014, Meredith Corporation officially took over control of KMOV
4.
Burlington, Vermont
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Burlington is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Vermont and the seat of Chittenden County. It is located 45 miles south of the Canada–United States border and 94 miles south of Montreal and its population was 42,452 according to a 2015 U. S. census estimate. Burlington is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state, a regional college town, the municipality is home to the University of Vermont and Champlain College, a small private college. Vermonts largest hospital, the UVM Medical Center, is located within the city limits, in 2015, Burlington became the first city in the U. S. to run completely on renewable energy. Two theories have been put forward regarding the origin of Burlingtons name, the first is that it was named after Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, and the second is that the name honors the politically prominent and wealthy Burling family of New York. While no Burling family members are listed as grantees of the town, one of the New Hampshire grants, the land that was developed as Burlington was awarded by New Hampshire colonial governor Benning Wentworth on June 7,1763 to Samuel Willis and 63 others. In the summer of 1775, settlers began clearing land and built two or three log huts, but the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War delayed permanent settlement until after its conclusion, in 1783, Stephen Lawrence arrived with his family. The town was organized in 1785, the War of 1812 was unpopular in Vermont and New England, which had numerous trading ties with Canada. Neither Vermont nor other New England states provided militia units or financial support, Vermont voters supported the Federalist Party, which opposed the war. At one point during the war, the U. S. had 5,000 troops stationed in Burlington, outnumbering residents, about 500 soldiers died of disease, which was always a problem due to poor sanitation in army camps. Some soldiers were quartered in the building at the University of Vermont. In a skirmish on August 2,1813, British forces from Canada shelled Burlington and this is described as either a bold stroke by the British with an ineffectual response from the Americans, or a weak sally by the British, which was rightfully ignored by the Americans. The cannonade lasted about 10 minutes and caused no casualties, the American troops involved were commanded by Naval Lieutenant Thomas Macdonough, later hero of the Battle of Lake Champlain. Wharves allowed steamboats to connect freight and passengers with the Rutland & Burlington Railroad, Burlington became a bustling lumbering and manufacturing center and was incorporated as a city in 1865. Its Victorian era prosperity left behind fine architecture, including buildings by Ammi B. Young, H. H. Richardson, and McKim, Mead & White, in 1870, the waterfront was extended by construction of the Pine Street Barge Canal. This became polluted over the years and was a focus for cleanup in 2009 under the U. S. Environmental Protection Agencys Superfund program, in 1978, the ice cream enterprise Ben & Jerrys was founded in Burlington in a renovated gas station. It became a brand, with retail outlets in numerous cities
5.
Vermont
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Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U. S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermonts western border with the state of New York, Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U. S. states, with nearly 50,000 more residents than Wyoming. The capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the U. S, the most populous municipality, Burlington, is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state. As of 2015, Vermont continued to be the producer of maple syrup in the U. S. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in January 2016, for thousands of years inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk, much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by Frances colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years War, for many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area. Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years, aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U. S. states that were previously sovereign states. Vermont was also the first state to join the U. S. as its 14th member state after the original 13, while still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U. S. state to partially abolish slavery. It played an important geographic role in the Underground Railroad, Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles, making it the 45th-largest state. It is the state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet. Land comprises 9,250 square miles and water comprises 365 square miles, making it the 43rd-largest in land area, in total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the eastern border with New Hampshire. 41% of Vermonts land area is part of the Connecticut Rivers watershed, Lake Champlain, the major lake in Vermont, is the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States and separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles long and its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles at the Canada–U. S. Border, the narrowest width is 37 miles at the Massachusetts line, the states geographic center is approximately three miles east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U. S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada, the origin of the name Vermont is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning the Green Mountains
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
8.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
9.
Gannett Company, Inc.
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Gannett Company, Inc. is a publicly traded American media holding company headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia, near McLean in Greater Washington DC. It is the largest U. S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation and its assets include the national newspaper USA Today and the erstwhile weekly USA Weekend. Its largest non-national newspaper is The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona, in 2015, Gannett Co. Inc. spun off its publishing business into a separate publicly traded entity, while retaining the internet media divisions. Immediately following the spin off, the former parent Company renamed itself Tegna, the spun off publishing business renamed itself Gannett. Gannett Company, Inc. was formed in 1923 by Frank Gannett in Rochester, New York as an outgrowth of the Elmira Gazette, by 1979, the chain had grown to 79 newspapers. In 1979, Gannett acquired Combined Communications Corp. operator of 17 television stations, as well as an advertising division. The company was headquartered in Rochester until 1986, when it moved to Arlington County and its former headquarters building, the Gannett Building, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. Gannetts oldest newspaper still in circulation is the Leaf-Chronicle located in Clarksville, in 2001, the company moved to its current headquarters in Tysons Corner, a suburb of Washington, D. C. The practice has spread throughout the chain, on March 7,2011, Gannett replaced the stylized G logo in use since the 1970s, and adopted a new company tagline, Its all within reach. In 2010, Gannett increased executive salaries and bonuses, for example, Bob Dickey, Gannetts U. S. newspapers division president, was paid $3.4 million in 2010, the next year, the company laid off 700 U. S. employees to cut costs. In the memo announcing the layoffs, Dickey wrote, While we have many ways to reduce costs. The USA Today website became the one to allow unrestricted access. On August 21,2012, Gannett acquired Blinq Media, around the first week of October 2012, Gannett entered a dispute against Dish Network regarding compensation fees and Dishs AutoHop commercial-skip feature on its Hopper digital video recorders. Gannett ordered that Dish discontinue AutoHop on the account that it is affecting advertising revenues for Gannetts television station, Gannett threatened to pull all of its stations should the skirmish continue beyond October 7 and Dish and Gannett fail to reach an agreement. The two parties reached an agreement after extending the deadline for a few hours. On June 13,2013, Gannett announced plans to buy Dallas-based Belo Corporation for $1.5 billion, the purchase would add 20 additional stations to Gannetts portfolio and make the company the fourth largest television broadcaster in the U. S. with 43 stations. On December 16,2013, the United States Department of Justice announced that Gannett, Belo, the deal was approved by the FCC on December 20, and it was completed on December 23. On February 28,2014, Meredith Corporation officially took over control of KMOV
10.
USA Today
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USA Today is an internationally distributed American daily middle-market newspaper that serves as the flagship publication of its owner, the Gannett Company. Founded by Al Neuharth on September 15,1982, it operates from Gannetts corporate headquarters on Jones Branch Drive in McLean, Virginia and it is printed at 37 sites across the United States and at five additional sites internationally. USA Today is distributed in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, with an international edition distributed in Canada, Asia and the Pacific Islands, Gannett formally announced the launch of the paper on April 20,1982. USA Today began publishing on September 15,1982, initially launching in the Baltimore and Washington, on July 2,1984, the newspaper switched from a largely black-and-white to a color publication, featuring full color photography and graphics in all four sections. On April 8,1985, the paper published its first special bonus section, a 12-page section called Baseball 85, on May 6,1986, USA Today began printing production of its international edition in Switzerland. On April 15, USA Today launched an international printing site. On August 28,1995, an international publishing site was launched in Frankfurt, Germany, to print. On October 4,1999, USA Today began running advertisements on its front page for the first time. The paper launched a sixth printing site for its international edition on May 15,2000, in Milan, Italy, followed on July 10 by the launch of a printing facility in Charleroi. That November, USA Today migrated its operations from Gannetts previous corporate headquarters in Arlington, in 2010, USA Today launched the USA Today API for sharing data with partners of all types. On August 27,2010, USA Today announced that it would undergo a reorganization of its newsroom and it also announced that the paper would shift its focus away from print and place more emphasis on its digital platforms and launch of a new publication called USA Today Sports. On September 14,2012, USA Today underwent the first major redesign in its history, to accomplish this goal, Gannett migrated its newspaper and television station websites to the Presto platform and the USA Today site design throughout 2013 and 2014. On January 4,2014, USA Today acquired the book and film review website, on September 3,2014, USA Today announced that it would lay off roughly 70 employees in a restructuring of its newsroom and business operations. In October 2014, USA Today and OpenWager Inc. entered into a partnership to release a Bingo app called USA TODAY Bingo Cruise, USA Today is known for synthesizing news down to easy-to-read-and-comprehend stories. In the main edition circulated in the United States and some Canadian cities, each consists of four sections, News, Money, Sports. The international edition of the paper features two sections, News and Money in one, with Sports and Life in the other, atypical of most daily newspapers, the paper does not print on Saturdays and Sundays, the Friday edition serves as the weekend edition. USA Today prints each complete story on the front page of the section with the exception of the cover story. The cover story is a story that requires a jump
11.
Chittenden County, Vermont
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Chittenden County /ˈtʃɪtəndən/ is the most populous county in the U. S. state of Vermont. As of the 2010 census, the population was 156,545, the countys population estimate for 2015 was 161,382. Its shire town is Vermonts most populous municipality, the city of Burlington, the county has over a quarter of the states population and more than twice the population of to Vermonts second most populous county of Rutland. The county also has more than twice the density of Vermonts second most dense county of Washington. The county is named for Vermonts first governor and one of the framers of its Constitution as a Republic and state, the county has most of Vermonts fastest growing municipalities. It is one of the three counties that comprise the Burlington metropolitan area, along with the counties of Franklin and Grand Isle to the north and northwest, respectively. The University of Vermont, Vermonts largest university, is located in the county, as well as its affiliated hospital, Vermonts largest private employer and largest airport are in the localities of Essex Junction and South Burlington, respectively. The Vermont National Guard is based at Camp Johnson in the town of Colchester while their Air Guard is based at the Burlington International Airport. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 619 square miles. It is the third-smallest county in Vermont by area, originally, Chittenden County contained parts of other counties. It included all of todays Franklin, Grand Isle, and Lamoille counties, and parts of todays Orleans, Washington, and Addison counties. The town of Underhill in Chittenden County is home to the highest summit within the state, Mount Mansfield, Census Estimates In 2014, there were 160,531 people, and 67,271 households. 24. 31% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 72% had someone living alone who was age 65 or older, average household size was 2.67 and average family size was 3.13. Hispanic or Latino of any race made up 2. 2% of the population. In the county, age distribution was as follows,18. 7% under the age of 18,15. 23% from 18 to 24,32. 05% from 25 to 44,20. 82% from 45 to 64, the median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 94.06 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.30 males. In 2007, census department estimates that Chittenden had the youngest average age in the state,37.5 and this compares with the actual census in 2000 of 34.2 years. In 2008, about 29% of the population lives alone, 59% of households consist of families
12.
Essex, Vermont
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Essex is a town in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. With an estimated population of 20,946 in 2015, Essex is the most populous town in Vermont and it is home to the village of Essex Junction, which includes the state of Vermonts busiest Amtrak station and largest private employer, GlobalFoundries. Vermont Route 289 crosses the town from east to west, the town was incorporated on June 7,1763, named after the Earl of Essex. The village of Essex Junction was formed—within the town of Essex—on November 15,1892, the village was formed to provide services to the villagers that the rest of the, mostly rural, town citizens did not want, and did not want to pay for. As the town outside the developed, they gradually added similar services for themselves, and by 1958. Since then a series of votes had defeated or passed merger in each community and this temporarily changed on November 7,2006, when merger passed in the town as a whole, and in the village. The town as a whole got to vote once on the merger, and this was confusing enough that the regional paper misreported the results as a defeat of the merger, based solely on the vote results outside the village. The next day the results were reported in both the towns paper, and as a correction in the regional paper. On December 6,2006, a petition to reconsider the merger was submitted to the town, the petition contained signatures totaling more than 5 percent of registered voters, which is the threshold required to force a re-vote. The revote was held on January 23,2007, with a result that overturned the merger by 191 votes, rejecting the current merger proposal. If the results had stood, a merger process would have resulted in a new Town of Essex Junction replacing the current governments of the town of Essex. Essex is located in central Chittenden County, bordered on the south by the Winooski River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Essex has an area of 39.3 square miles, of which 38.8 square miles is land and 0.50 square miles. The village of Essex Junction is located in the part of the town. As of the census of 2010, there were 19,587 people and 7,322 households in the town. The racial makeup of the town was 91. 6% non-Hispanic White,1. 5% Black or African American,3. 2% Asian,0. 3% Native American,0. 1% other races, and 1. 8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race made up 1. 7% of the population, the population density was 534 people per square mile. There were 7,170 housing units at a density of 183.8 per square mile
13.
South Burlington, Vermont
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South Burlington is a city in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. It is the 2nd-largest city in the state of Vermont and is home to the headquarters of Ben & Jerrys and Vermonts largest mall and it is also one of the principal municipalities of the Burlington, Vermont metropolitan area. The city includes a central hub called City Center, which serves as the business district. Residential neighborhoods surround City Center to the east and south, a mix of strip commercial and residential neighborhoods border Lake Champlain to the southwest. The city is in the planning and design phase of a redevelopment project to revitalize the City Center core, Vermonts largest airport, the Burlington International Airport, is located within the city limits, although it is owned by the neighboring city of Burlington–Vermonts most populous municipality. The airport serves as the base of the Vermont Air National Guard, the area of South Burlington was first granted by the Province of New Hampshire as part of Burlington township on June 7,1763. The town of Burlington was organized around 1785, in 1865, the unincorporated village of Burlington was chartered as a city. The remaining area of the came to be organized as a separate town with the name South Burlington in the same year,1865. The town of South Burlington was later incorporated as a city in 1971, the city government is a council-manager form of government. Budgets must be approved by voters, the city budget for 2016 was $21,153,145. A large portion of Lake Champlain west of Burlington, extending west to the New York state line, is part of South Burlington. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 29.6 square miles, of which 16.5 square miles is land and 13.1 square miles. U. S. Census population estimate for 2015 was 18,791, as of the census of 2010, The population density was 1,121.2 people per square mile. There were 8,429 housing units at a density of 507.8 per square mile. Race and ethnicity as of the 2010 Census, South Burlington has a largely service-based economy, there are 191 businesses in retail trade, mainly concentrated around City Center near Dorset Street and Williston Road. There are 131 establishments in health care and assistance and 116 in professional, scientific, in 2015, South Burlington was first in the state for gross retail and use sales with $1,888,484,094. Real estate, rental, and leasing operations had a value of $86,976,000 in 2012. Some of the employers in South Burlington are the Vermont National Guard, GE Healthcare, Ben & Jerry’s, Fairpoint Communications
14.
Williston, Vermont
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Williston is a town in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. Originally rural and laid out with many farms, in recent decades it has developed into a suburb of Burlington. The population of Williston was 8,698 at the 2010 census, the estimated population in 2015 estimate was 9,409. The town contains the village of Williston, which is unincorporated, the town was named for Samuel Willis, a landholder. During the night of July 7,1984, an Amtrak train with 287 people aboard hit a landslide and derailed, killing five people, although the accident triggered one of Vermonts most intensive emergency responses, the final victims were not rescued until the end of the day. A private, boarding school, Pine Ridge, was founded in 1968 to serve learning-disabled students. Williston is in central Chittenden County, bordered on the north by the Winooski River, the city of South Burlington is to the west. According to the United States Census Bureau, Williston has an area of 30.6 square miles, of which 30.1 square miles is land and 0.50 square miles. Allen Brook drains the center of the town and it begins and flows from Mud Pond north to the village of Williston, and then in a northwesterly direction where it meets the Winooski River. It has a length of 10 miles and drains a watershed covering 6,900 acres, muddy Brook flows on the western edge of Williston and marks the border between Williston and South Burlington. As of the census of 2010, there were 8,698 people,2,921 households, the population density was 252.1 people per square mile. There were 3,036 housing units at a density of 100.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 95. 6% White,1. 0% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 0% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 10% from other races, and 1. 1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 5% of the population,20. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the family size was 3.02. In the town, the population was out, with 27. 5% under the age of 18,4. 1% from 18 to 24,32. 0% from 25 to 44,24. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $61,467, and the median income for a family was $69,762
15.
Colchester, Vermont
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Colchester is a town in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. The population was 17,067 as of the 2010 census and it is the fourth-most populous municipality and second-most populous town in the state of Vermont by population. Colchester is a suburb of Burlington, Vermonts most populous municipality, the town is directly to Burlingtons north on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain to the west of the Green Mountains. The Vermont National Guard is based in the town, and it is home to the campus of Saint Michaels College. Colchester is located on the shore of Malletts Bay, part of Lake Champlain, the westernmost part of the town touches the New York state border in the middle of the lake. To the northwest across the arm of the lake lies the town of South Hero in Grand Isle County. According to the United States Census Bureau, Colchester has an area of 58.6 square miles, of which 36.3 square miles is land and 22.2 square miles. About 2,000 years ago, during the Early Woodland period, chartered June 7,1763, the town was named for the Earl of Colchester. In 1922, the area of Winooski broke away from the town, as of the census of 2000, there were 16,986 people,6,144 households, and 4,184 families residing in the town. The population density was 460.5 people per square mile, there were 6,727 housing units at an average density of 182.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 53% White,0. 63% African American,0. 17% Native American,1. 58% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,0. 25% from other races, and 0. 80% from two or more races. 1. 11% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the family size was 2.96. In the town, the population was out with 22. 6% under the age of 18,16. 2% from 18 to 24,32. 1% from 25 to 44,22. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males, one measure of economic activity is retail sales. Colchester was fourth in the state in 2007 with $245.8 million, in 2015, the town of Colchester made Fortune Magazines list of 100 Best Places to Live, along with Launch a Business and Money Magazines list of 50 Best Places to Live. In 2014, the household income for Colchester was $68,440
16.
Winooski, Vermont
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Winooski /wɪˈnuːski/ is a city in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. Located at the mouth of the Winooski River, as of the 2010 U. S. Census the municipal population was 7,267. The city is the most densely populated municipality in northern New England, an area comprising the states of Maine, New Hampshire and it is the smallest in area of Vermonts nine incorporated cities. As part of the Burlington, Vermont metropolitan area, it is bordered by Burlington, Colchester, and South Burlington. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.5 square miles. As early as 750 AD, the Abenaki tribe lived along the shores of a waterfall in a fertile river valley they called winoskitegw, meaning “land of the wild onion. ”Winooskis southern border is formed by the Winooski River. Five thousand years ago a single family of paleolithic Native Americans came to what is now the city, the prehistoric campground for this transient group is one of Vermonts significant archaeological sites. Other native people came to Winooski in the years that followed, situated on a main road, Winooski most likely started as a rest stop for travelers. With a set of waterfalls to assist the growth of industry, however, in the early 1770s Ira Allen constructed a blockhouse on the Winooski River which served both as a fort and as general store and office for the land-speculating Onion River Company. Fort Frederick was never used for defense, but its presence increased the value of Onion River property, after the Revolutionary War, Ira Allen built a dam across the river with a sawmill at each end. In the late 1830s the Burlington Mill Company used the power for the manufacture of yarns. In 1846, James and Lucinda Stone from Winooski settled in Sheboygan County in the Wisconsin Territory and named their new settlement Winooski, the American Woolen Company purchased the failing Burlington Mills in 1901 restoring a measure of economic growth to the area. This success eventually led Winooski to incorporate as a city in 1922, the mills closed in 1954, resulting in two decades of economic problems for the city. In the 1980s, two old mills were converted into commercial, office, and apartment space, helping to revitalize the area, in 1979, the city researched the construction of a dome over the entire city of Winooski, to reduce heating costs during the winter. The proposed dome would have been 200 feet at the center, though the dome was never built, to this day the citys planner defends the concept, insisting Economically, its a slam dunk, and adding You could have had year-round fly-fishing. In 2008, the city dismissed their city manager of 11 months and his contract had been scheduled for three years. The mayor of the city is Seth Leonard, as of the 2010 U. S. Census, there were 7,267 people and 3,252 households residing in the city. The population density was 5,191 people per square mile, there were 3,393 housing units at an average density of 2,107.5 per square mile
17.
Shelburne, Vermont
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Shelburne is a town in southwestern Chittenden County, Vermont, in the United States. Along the shores of Lake Champlain, Shelburne is a suburb of Burlington, Shelburnes center of town lies approximately 7 miles south of the citys center. The population of Shelburne was 7,144 at the 2010 census, the main settlement of Shelburne in the center of town is a census-designated place, with a population of 592 at the 2010 census. The town is the wealthiest municipality in both Chittenden County and the Burlington metropolitan area, Shelburne was chartered by New Hampshire, August 18,1763, to Jesse Hallock and 64 associates by Governor Benning Wentworth. The name Shelburne or Shelburn was chosen to honor William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, from the beginning, Shelburnes economy was based on farming. With the clearing of land and burning of logs the town experienced a potash boom, a carding and fulling mill, a gristmill, a sawmill, and a blacksmith shop were erected on the La Platte River at Shelburne Falls. In 1811, a few Merino sheep imported from Spain led to an upsurge in sheep raising, orchards and fruit growing became a major source of income for the farmers, with some 17,740 trees in 1880. Following the War of 1812, commerce on the lake expanded rapidly, in 1955, the Ticonderoga was moved overland to the Shelburne Museum, where it is now on display. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 45.1 square miles, of which 24.3 square miles is land and 20.8 square miles. The town had the highest voter turnout in Vermont in the election of 2008 with 89. 4%. It had the highest number of registered voters among the top ten towns with the highest turnout and it also had the second-highest percentage of people voting absentee of any town in Vermont,50. 2%. In the Vermont Democratic Party Presidential primary of 2016, the town was the worst-performing of all municipalities in both Chittenden County and the Burlington metro area for U. S, senator Bernie Sanders of nearby Burlington. Two Democrats represent the town in the Vermont House of Representatives, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,944 people,2,632 households, and 1,845 families residing in the town. The population density was 285.6 people per square mile, there were 2,741 housing units at an average density of 112.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 60% White,0. 23% African American,0. 10% Native American,1. 01% Asian,0. 32% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 86% of the population. 22. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.08. In the town, the population was out with 27. 6% under the age of 18,3. 9% from 18 to 24,25. 9% from 25 to 44,27. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 90.9 males
18.
Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
19.
United States presidential election, 1828
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The United States presidential election of 1828 was the 11th quadrennial presidential election, held from Friday, October 31, to Tuesday, December 2,1828. It featured a re-match between incumbent President John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Jackson, who won a plurality of the electoral vote in the 1824 election. With no other candidates, Jackson and his chief ally Martin Van Buren consolidated their bases in the South and New York. The Democratic Party merged its strength from the supporters of Jackson and their coalition with some of the supporters of William H. Crawford. Jackson was the first president whose home state was neither Massachusetts nor Virginia, the Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, had been signed into law earlier in the year, increasing tariff rates to above 60%. Though it had passed in the House, it was unpopular with the Southern states as they imported materials. Jackson also personally appealed to the Western states, and he carried their electoral votes as well, the election ushered Jacksonian Democracy into prominence, thus marking the transition from the First Party System to the Second Party System. Andrew Jackson won a plurality of votes in the election of 1824. A few days after the election, Adams named Clay his Secretary of State, Jackson and his followers immediately accused Clay and Adams of striking a corrupt bargain, and they continued to lambast the president until the 1828 election. Jackson accepted the incumbent Vice-President John C. Calhoun as his running mate, Jacksons supporters called themselves Democrats, and would formally organize the Democratic Party shortly after his election. President John Quincy Adams was re-nominated on the endorsement of state legislatures, Adams accepted Secretary of the Treasury Richard Rush of Pennsylvania as his vice-presidential running mate. Adams supporters called themselves National Republicans, antecedents of the Whigs, the campaign was marked by large amounts of nasty mudslinging. Jacksons marriage, for example, came in for vicious attack, when Jackson married his wife Rachel in 1791, the couple believed that she was divorced, however the divorce was not yet finalized, so he had to remarry her once the legal papers were complete. In the Adams campaigns hands, this became a scandal, charles Hammond, in his Cincinnati Gazette, asked, Ought a convicted adulteress and her paramour husband be placed in the highest offices of this free and Christian land. Jackson also came under attack as a slave trader who bought and sold slaves. The Coffin Handbills attacked Jackson for his courts-martial, execution of deserters and massacres of Indian villages, for his part, Adams did not escape attack, either. It was charged that Adams, while serving as Minister to Russia, had surrendered an American servant girl to the appetites of the Czar. Adams was also accused of using funds to buy gambling devices for the presidential residence, it turned out that these were a chess set
20.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
21.
John Quincy Adams
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John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives, and was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican and he was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams and thus contributed to the formation of the Adams political family. Adams shaped U. S. foreign policy using his ardently nationalist commitment to U. S. republican values, as a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating key treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with Britain over the United States northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, historians generally concur that he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history. Adams was elected president in a close and controversial four-way contest in 1824, as president he sought to modernize the American economy and promote education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt, however he was stymied time and again by a Congress controlled by opponents, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians sabotage him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson, after leaving office, he was elected as U. S. Representative from Massachusetts in 1830, serving for the last 17 years of his life with greater acclaim than he had achieved as president, animated by his growing revulsion against slavery, Adams became a leading opponent of the Slave Power. Adams predicted the Unions dissolution over slavery, and in such a case, historians have in the aggregate ranked Adams as the 21st most successful president. John Quincy Adams was born on July 11,1767, to John Adams and he was named for his mothers maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his fathers law clerk and he soon began to exhibit his literary skills in 1779, when he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. The diary comprised an unprecedented fifty volumes, representing one of the most extensive, much of Adams youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to France from 1778 until 1779, Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. He matriculated in Leiden on January 10,1781, for nearly three years, beginning at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, during these years overseas, Adams became fluent in French and Dutch and became familiar with German and other European languages. Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and he entered Harvard College, graduated in 1787 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and was elected by Phi Beta Kappa. Adams, mainly with the influence of his father, had excelled in studies and reached fluency in Latin. Upon entering Harvard he had already translated Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, after graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts from 1787 to 1789
22.
Electrical telegraph
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An electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electrical signals, usually conveyed via dedicated telecommunication lines or radio. From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, in 1753 an anonymous writer in the Scots Magazine suggested an electrostatic telegraph. In 1774 Georges-Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph, the telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home. In 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, allowing for a current of electricity for experimentation. Both their designs employed multiple wires to represent almost all Latin letters, thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers, with each of the telegraph receivers wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. The telegraph receivers operator would watch the bubbles and could record the transmitted message. This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire, hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field which will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, in 1824, Peter Barlow said that such a system only worked to a distance of about 200 feet, and so was impractical. In 1825 William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron. During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, in 1835 Joseph Henry and Edward Davy invented the critical electrical relay. Davys relay used a needle which dipped into a mercury contact when an electric current passed through the surrounding coil. This allowed a weak current to switch a larger current to operate a powerful local electromagnet over very long distances, Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regents Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838. He also developed an electric relay, the first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a subterranean system in a 175 yard long trench as well as an eight mile long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages, offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as “wholly unnecessary”. Elements of Ronalds’ design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later, the telegraph invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832 had a transmitting device which consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current, the receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads. Both stations of Shillings telegraph were connected by eight wires, six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current, when at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station
23.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
24.
Women's suffrage in the United States
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The demand for womens suffrage began to gather strength in the 1840s, emerging from the broader movement for womens rights. By the time of the first National Womens Rights Convention in 1850, however, the first national suffrage organizations were established in 1869 when two competing organizations were formed, one led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the other by Lucy Stone, after years of rivalry, they merged in 1890 as the National American Woman Suffrage Association with Anthony as its leading force. Hoping the U. S. Supreme Court would rule that women had a right to vote, suffragists made several attempts to vote in the early 1870s. Anthony actually succeeded in voting in 1872 but was arrested for that act, after the Supreme Court ruled against them in 1875, suffragists began the decades-long campaign for an amendment to the U. S. Much of the energy, however, went toward working for suffrage on a state-by-state basis. In 1916 Alice Paul formed the National Womans Party, a militant group focused on the passage of a national suffrage amendment. Over 200 NWP supporters, the Silent Sentinels, were arrested in 1917 while picketing the White House, some of whom went on hunger strike, under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the two-million-member NAWSA also made a national suffrage amendment its top priority. After a hard-fought series of votes in the U. S. Congress and in state legislatures and it states, The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Lydia Taft, a widow, was allowed to vote in town meetings in Uxbridge. No other women in the era are known to have voted. The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property, laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as he or she, and women regularly voted. A law passed in 1807, however, excluded women from voting in that state, the demand for womens suffrage emerged as part of the broader movement for womens rights. In England in 1792 Mary Wollenstonecraft wrote a book called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In Boston in 1838 Sarah Grimké published The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, significant barriers had to be overcome, however, before a campaign for womens suffrage could develop significant strength. One barrier was strong opposition to involvement in public affairs. Opposition was especially strong against the idea of speaking to audiences of both men and women. Frances Wright, a Scottish woman, was subjected to criticism for delivering public lectures in the U. S. in 1826 and 1827
25.
Prohibition in the United States
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Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%
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Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
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Linotype machine
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The linotype machine is a line casting machine used in printing sold by the Mergenthaler Linotype Company and related companies. It was a hot metal typesetting system that cast blocks of type for individual uses. The linotype machine operator enters text on a 90-character keyboard, the machine assembles matrices, which are molds for the letter forms, in a line. The assembled line is then cast as a piece, called a slug. The matrices are then returned to the magazine from which they came. This allows much faster typesetting and composition than original hand composition in which operators place down one pre-cast glyphs at a time. The machine revolutionized typesetting and with it especially newspaper publishing, making it possible for a small number of operators to set type for many pages on a daily basis. Before Ottmar Mergenthalers invention of the linotype in 1884, daily newspapers were limited to eight pages, the linotype machine consists of four major sections, Magazine Keyboard Casting mechanism Distribution mechanism The operator interacts with the machine via the keyboard, composing lines of text. The other sections are automatic, they start as soon as a line is completely composed, some linotype machines included a paper tape reader. This allowed the text to be typeset to be supplied over a telegraph line, each matrix contains the letter form for a single character of a font of type, i. e. a particular type design in a particular size. The letter form is engraved into one side of the matrix, for sizes up to 14 points, and in some matrices of size 16 to 24 points, the matrix has two letter forms on it, the normal and auxiliary positions. This is the origin of the old typesetting terms upper rail for italic and these terms have persisted in phototypesetting technology even though the mechanics of the auxiliary rail do not exist there. The character on a Linotype matrix, when viewed, is not inverted as a letter for conventional movable type would be, and the letter is incised below the surface rather than raised above it. This is because the matrix is not used directly to print onto the paper—rather, the slug has its features reversed, therefore, the matrix does not. The magazine section is the part of the machine where the matrices are held not in use. The magazine is a box with vertical separators that form channels. Most main magazines have 90 channels, but those for larger fonts carried only 72 or even 55 channels, the auxiliary magazines used on some machines typically contained 34 channels or, for a magazine carrying larger fonts,28 channels. The magazine holds a font of type, i. e. a particular type design in a particular size
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Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
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Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
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Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
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Watergate scandal
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When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U. S. Congress, the Nixon administrations resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. The term Watergate, by metonymy, has come to encompass an array of clandestine and those activities included such dirty tricks as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 48 being found guilty, the affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17,1972. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the Presidents staff, including testimony provided by staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a system in his offices. After a protracted series of court battles, the U. S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to government investigators. The tapes revealed that Nixon had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in, facing virtually certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9,1974. On September 8,1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, the name Watergate and the suffix -gate have since become synonymous with political and non-political scandals in the United States. According to Dean, this marked the scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century. Mitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic, Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, in May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward. McCord testified that he selected Baldwins name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President, Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago, Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the gauchest character Ive ever met. The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man, the room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, two phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. The FBI found no evidence that OBriens phone was bugged, however, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Olivers phone. Despite the success in installing the devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a burglary in order to take care of this
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Rochester, New York
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Rochester is a city on the southern shore of Lake Ontario in the western portion of the U. S. state of New York, and the seat of Monroe County. The citys population was the third largest — after New York City. This area, which is part of the Western New York region, had a population of 1,079,671 at the time of the 2010 Census, a Census estimate of July 1,2012, raised that number to 1,082,284. Rochester was one of Americas first boomtowns, and rose to prominence as the site of many mills along the Genesee River. Several of the universities have renowned research programs. In addition, Rochester is the site of important inventions and innovations in consumer products. Until 2010, the Rochester metropolitan area was the second-largest regional economy in New York State, internal Revenue Service, after the New York City metropolitan area. Rochesters GMP has since ranked just below that of Buffalo, New York, the 25th edition of the Places Rated Almanac rated Rochester as the most livable city in 2007, among 379 U. S. metropolitan areas. In 2010 Forbes rated Rochester as the third-best place to raise a family, in 2012 Kiplinger rated Rochester as the fifth-best city for families, citing low cost of living, top public schools, and a low jobless rate. Of the 19 places in the United States named Rochester at least eight were named directly after Rochester, New York, having been founded or settled by former residents. These include Rochester, Indiana, Rochester, Texas, Rochester, Iowa, Rochester, Kentucky, Rochester, Michigan, Rochester, Minnesota, Rochester, Nevada, and Rochester, Ohio. The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until they lost their claim to most of land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown, development of modern Rochester followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after the defeat of Great Britain. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced from New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a land grant on the Grand River in Canada. Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English-Puritan descended immigrants from New England who were looking for new agricultural land and they would be the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power, beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville, by 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County
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Broadsheet
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A broadsheet is the largest newspaper format and is characterized by long vertical pages. The term derives from types of popular prints usually just of a sheet, sold on the streets and containing various types of material. The first broadsheet newspaper was the Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, other common newspaper formats include the smaller Berliner and tabloid/compact formats. Many broadsheets measure approximately 29 1⁄2 by 23 1⁄2 inches per full broadsheet spread, australian and New Zealand broadsheets always have a paper size of A1 per spread. South African broadsheet newspapers have a spread sheet size of 820 by 578 mm or 32.3 by 22.8 in. Others measure 22 inches or 560 millimetres vertically, in the United States, the traditional dimensions for the front page half of a broadsheet are 15 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long. However, in efforts to save newsprint costs many U. S. newspapers have downsized to 12 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long for a folded page. Many rate cards and specification cards refer to the size with dimensions representing the front page half of a broadsheet size, rather than the full. Some quote actual page size and others quote the area size. The two versions of the broadsheet are, Full broadsheet – The full broadsheet typically is folded vertically in half so that it forms four pages, the four pages are called a spread. Half broadsheet – The half broadsheet is usually a page that is not folded vertically and just includes a front. In uncommon instances, an entire newspaper can be a two-page half broadsheet or four-page full broadsheet, totally self-contained advertising circulars inserted in a newspaper in the same format are referred to as broadsheets. Broadsheets typically are also folded horizontally in half to accommodate newsstand display space, the horizontal fold however does not affect the page numbers and the content remains vertical. The most important newspaper stories are placed above the fold and this contrasts with tabloids which typically do not have a horizontal fold. The broadsheet has since emerged as the most popular format for the dissemination of printed news, historically, broadsheets developed after the British in 1712 placed a tax on newspapers based on the number of their pages. The original purpose of the broadsheet, or broadside, was for the purpose of posting royal proclamations, acts, eventually the people began using the broadsheet as a source for political activism by reprinting speeches, ballads or narrative songs originally performed by bards. With the early mechanization of the 19th century came an increase in production of printed materials including the broadside as well as the penny dreadful. In this period all over Europe began to print their issues on broadsheets
34.
Tegna, Inc.
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Tegna, Inc. is an American publicly traded broadcast and digital media company headquartered in McLean, Virginia. It was created on June 29,2015, when Gannett Company split into two publicly traded companies, Tegna owns or operates 46 television stations, and is the largest group owner of stations affiliated with NBC and CBS, and properties in digital media. Additionally, the announced that it would buy out the remainder of Classified Ventures for $1.8 billion. On April 21,2015, the announced that the broadcasting. The spin-out was structured so that Tegna is the successor to the old Gannett. The split was completed on June 29,2015, Tegna retains old Gannetts stock price history, though it trades under a new ticker symbol, TGNA. The new Gannett inherited old Gannetts longtime ticker symbol, GCI, as of June 2015, Tegna Media currently owns 46 television stations located in 38 markets. 18 of the stations are affiliated with NBC, ten are affiliated with CBS, nine are affiliated with ABC. In addition, the company owns two CW affiliates, three MyNetworkTV affiliates and one independent station and it also provides operational services to KTTU in Tucson through shared services agreements with Tucker Operating Co. Stations are listed alphabetically by state and city of license, notes of prior ownership or current shared services agreement, – Indicates a station owned by Combined Communications prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 1978. – Indicates a station owned by Multimedia, Inc. prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 1995, – Indicates stations involved in the Gannett Companys station trade deal with Argyle Television Holdings II in 1997. – Indicates a station owned by Belo prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 2013, – Indicates a station owned by the London Broadcasting Company prior to its acquisition by Gannett in 2014. – Indicates a station owned by Sander Media from 2013 to 2015 and operated by Gannett/Tegna prior to its acquisition by Tegna, – KMSB is owned by Tegna, KTTU is owned by Tucker Operating Company. Tegna and Raycom Media affiliate KOLD-TV operate these stations through shared services agreements, – KVUE was previously owned by Gannett from 1986 to 1999, when it was traded to Belo in exchange for KXTV. All of these are news networks owned by Belo prior to acquisition by Tegna, in 2015, Tegna Media test-ran a limited-run informative talk show hosted by Dallas-based bishop T. D. Jakes on its owned stations in Dallas, Atlanta, Minneapolis and Cleveland. On December 9, Tegna greenlit the series for a run for the 2016–2017 broadcast season. The series will debut on September 12 on most, if not all Tegna-owned stations, as well as several large markets, including Baltimore, Detroit, Orlando, Chicago, San Antonio, and San Diego. Debmar-Mercury, however is not participating in the run, being replaced by independent company Flow Media Partners
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Gannett Company, Inc
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Gannett Company, Inc. is a publicly traded American media holding company headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia, near McLean in Greater Washington DC. It is the largest U. S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation and its assets include the national newspaper USA Today and the erstwhile weekly USA Weekend. Its largest non-national newspaper is The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona, in 2015, Gannett Co. Inc. spun off its publishing business into a separate publicly traded entity, while retaining the internet media divisions. Immediately following the spin off, the former parent Company renamed itself Tegna, the spun off publishing business renamed itself Gannett. Gannett Company, Inc. was formed in 1923 by Frank Gannett in Rochester, New York as an outgrowth of the Elmira Gazette, by 1979, the chain had grown to 79 newspapers. In 1979, Gannett acquired Combined Communications Corp. operator of 17 television stations, as well as an advertising division. The company was headquartered in Rochester until 1986, when it moved to Arlington County and its former headquarters building, the Gannett Building, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. Gannetts oldest newspaper still in circulation is the Leaf-Chronicle located in Clarksville, in 2001, the company moved to its current headquarters in Tysons Corner, a suburb of Washington, D. C. The practice has spread throughout the chain, on March 7,2011, Gannett replaced the stylized G logo in use since the 1970s, and adopted a new company tagline, Its all within reach. In 2010, Gannett increased executive salaries and bonuses, for example, Bob Dickey, Gannetts U. S. newspapers division president, was paid $3.4 million in 2010, the next year, the company laid off 700 U. S. employees to cut costs. In the memo announcing the layoffs, Dickey wrote, While we have many ways to reduce costs. The USA Today website became the one to allow unrestricted access. On August 21,2012, Gannett acquired Blinq Media, around the first week of October 2012, Gannett entered a dispute against Dish Network regarding compensation fees and Dishs AutoHop commercial-skip feature on its Hopper digital video recorders. Gannett ordered that Dish discontinue AutoHop on the account that it is affecting advertising revenues for Gannetts television station, Gannett threatened to pull all of its stations should the skirmish continue beyond October 7 and Dish and Gannett fail to reach an agreement. The two parties reached an agreement after extending the deadline for a few hours. On June 13,2013, Gannett announced plans to buy Dallas-based Belo Corporation for $1.5 billion, the purchase would add 20 additional stations to Gannetts portfolio and make the company the fourth largest television broadcaster in the U. S. with 43 stations. On December 16,2013, the United States Department of Justice announced that Gannett, Belo, the deal was approved by the FCC on December 20, and it was completed on December 23. On February 28,2014, Meredith Corporation officially took over control of KMOV
36.
Pulitzer Prize
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The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
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AP Stylebook
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It is a guide for grammar, punctuation and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles for capitalization, abbreviation, spelling and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953 and was updated biennially over the next 20 years, today the AP Stylebook is updated annually. On September 28,2009 the Associated Press released the first mobile edition of the Stylebook for the iPhone—the AP Stylebook app, in 2013, Associated Press publishers celebrated the books 60th anniversary. The first Basic Books edition was published in August 1977, modern editions are released in several formats, including trade paperback, flat-lying spiral-bound, an online subscription and an iOS mobile app. Writers in broadcasting, magazine publishing, marketing departments and public relations firms traditionally adopt and apply AP grammar, over the last 50 years, the AP Stylebook has become a leading style for non-journalistic publishers such as corporate marketing and public relations departments. Its simplified grammar, such as dropping the Oxford comma and using figures for all numbers above nine, saves scarce print, for instance, it includes explanations of five different chapters of bankruptcy. Sports Guidelines and Style Includes terminology, statistics, organization rules and guidelines commonly referenced by sports reporters, example, The correct way to spell and use basketball terminology e. g. half-court pass, field goal and goaltending. Guide to Punctuation A specific guide on how to use punctuation in journalistic materials, example, In a series use commas to separate items but no comma before a conjunction e. g. We bought eggs, milk and cheese at the store, Briefing on Media Law An overview of legal issues and ethical expectations for those working in the journalism industry. Example, The difference between slander and libel, slander is spoken, libel is written, to start with. Photo Captions The simple formula of what to include writing a photo outline. Editing Marks A key with editing symbols to assist the journalist with the proofreading process, example, When a word is circled it means that the word should be abbreviated, or that an abbreviation should be unabbreviated. Bibliography This provides second reference materials for information not included in the book, example, Use Websters New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, N. J. as first reference after the AP Stylebook for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names. For many years the AP Stylebook was titled The Associated Press Stylebook, in 2000, the guide was renamed The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. Some editions, such as the 2004 copy, used the shorter title The Associated Press Stylebook on their covers, the Associated Press organization was first created in 1846. Throughout much of its history, the AP maintained a book for member reporters. By the early 1950s the publication was formalized into the AP Stylebook, due to growing demand by both journalistic and non-journalistic editors, the AP published their style book for the general public in 1953. In 1977, prompted by AP Executive News Editor Louis Boccardis request for more of a reference work and that years book was produced jointly with competitor United Press International
38.
Franklin County, Vermont
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Franklin County is a county in the state of Vermont, in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 47,746 and its county seat is the city of St. Albans. It borders the Canadian province of Quebec, the county was created in 1792 and organized in 1796. Franklin County is part of the Burlington metropolitan area, Franklin County is one of several Vermont counties created from land originally ceded by the state of New York on January 15,1777 when Vermont declared itself to be a state distinct from New York. New York assigned the land gained to Albany County, on March 12,1772 Albany County was partitioned to create Charlotte County, and this situation remained until Vermonts independence from New York and Britain. However, this did not end the contest, on September 3,1783, as a result of the signing of the Treaty of Paris the Revolutionary War ended with Great Britain recognizing the independence of the United States. Vermonts border with Quebec was established at 45 degrees north latitude, in 1792, Franklin County was formed from part of Chittenden County. The countys namesake is Benjamin Franklin, in 2008, the federal government declared the county a disaster area after severe storms and flooding June 14–17. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 692 square miles, the population density was 75.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 21,588 housing units at a density of 34.1 per square mile. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 2.97. The median age was 39.6 years, the median income for a household in the county was $53,623 and the median income for a family was $63,009. Males had an income of $43,155 versus $36,940 for females. The per capita income for the county was $24,767, about 7. 2% of families and 10. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 8% of those under age 18 and 8. 7% of those age 65 or over. The median income for a household in the county was $41,659, males had a median income of $32,009 versus $24,078 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,816, about 7. 00% of families and 9. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 40% of those under age 18 and 10. 30% of those age 65 or over. In 2009, the county had the most dairy farms in the state,239 out of 1,078, St. Albans Villages are census divisions, but have no separate corporate existence from the towns they are in
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Addison County, Vermont
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Addison County is a county located in the state of Vermont, in the United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 36,821, iroquois settled in the county before European arrived in 1609. French settlers in Crown Point, New York extended their settlements across Lake Champlain, a few individuals or families came up the lake from Canada and established themselves at Chimney Point in 1730. In 1731, at Cross Point Fort Frederic was erected, in the year 1759, General Amherst occupied Cross Point and British settlers settlers came in. The Battle of Bennington in Bennington, fought on August 16,1777 and this county was established by act of the Legislature October 18,1785. At the period of Vermont Republic, in 1791, Vermont joined the federal union after the original thirteen colonies. The main product of the county was wheat, in addition to wheat, farmers began to raise flocks on the field for manuring around the 1820s. The Champlain Canal was opened on 1823, so the ships could navigate from the Hudson River, in 1840, the county produced more wool than any other county in the United States. When Vermont was admitted into the Union in 1791, in the towns there were totally 9,267 people. In 1830, there were 26,503 people, in 2008, the federal government declared the county a disaster area after severe storms and flooding June 14–17. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 808 square miles. It is the third-largest county in Vermont by total area, the county of Addison is situated on the west line of Vermont state and nearly in the center north and south, between 43° 50′ and 44° 10′ north latitude. The primary stream of the county is Otter Creek, which runs through the county from the south to the north, the population density was 47 per square mile. There were 15,312 housing units at a density of 20 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 96. 86% White,0. 54% Black or African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 73% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 29% from other races, and 1. 29% from two or more races. 1. 10% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,15. 5% were of English,12. 7% American,12. 0% French,10. 8% French Canadian,10. 8% Irish and 6. 7% German ancestry according to Census 2000. 96. 0% spoke English,1. 8% French and 1. 2% Spanish as their first language,23. 40% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.02
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Lamoille County, Vermont
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Lamoille County /ləˈmɔɪl/ is a county located in the state of Vermont, in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 24,475 and its shire town is the municipality of Hyde Park. The county was created in 1835 and organized the following year, the area was buried in a mile of ice during the ice age. When it melted partially, it created Lake Stowe, when it melted completely, the water from the lake ran out through the Lamoille River valley. In 1972, the Lamoille Community College, along with community colleges in Vermont. The state and federal government continues to study this problem, in April 2009 the Vermont Department of health released a revised study which found that all of deaths related to the asbestos mine were caused by occupational exposure. The report also concluded that living near the mines had no increased risk of asbestos related illness than people living anywhere else in Vermont. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 464 square miles. It is the second-smallest county in Vermont by area, Lamoille County is the only county in Vermont that does not have at least one U. S. Route passing through it, although all ten of the Lamoille County towns are served by Vermont state routes. The population density was 50 people per square mile, there were 11,009 housing units at an average density of 24 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 31% White,0. 33% Black or African American,0. 45% Native American,0. 37% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 12% from other races, and 1. 39% from two or more races. 0. 77% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 15. 7% were of English,14. 5% American,11. 9% Irish,11. 4% French,8. 7% French Canadian,7. 0% German and 5. 2% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. 95. 9% spoke English and 2. 4% French at home,25. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the family size was 2.94. In the county, the population was out with 24. 30% under the age of 18,10. 00% from 18 to 24,29. 90% from 25 to 44,24. 50% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 100.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $39,356, and the median income for a family was $44,620
41.
Sierra Nevada Brewing Company
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Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. was established in 1979 by homebrewers Ken Grossman and Paul Camusi in Chico, California, United States. Sierra Nevada Brewing is one of the top breweries operating in the United States, Sierra Nevadas Pale Ale is the second best-selling craft beer in the United States, behind the Boston Beer Companys Samuel Adams Boston Lager. As of 2012, it is the seventh-largest brewing company in the United States, the brewery produced 786,000 barrels of beer in 2010. The brewery was named Green Business of the Year by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 2010 for its practices in sustainability. Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. was founded in 1979, with founders Ken Grossman and Paul Camusi expanding their homebrewing hobby into a brewery in Chico, along with the brewerys location, Grossman claims the companys name comes from his love of hiking in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada. They later were able to acquire second-hand copper brewing kettles from Germany before moving to their larger, the first batch brewed on premises was its Pale Ale, in November 1980. The following year, the brewery introduced Celebration, an IPA, the company sold 950 barrels of beer in its first year, and double that amount in the second. The companys first employee was Steve Harrison, who was put in charge of marketing, the head brewer is Steve Dresler, who has been with the brewery since 1983, when its output was 25 to 30 barrels per week. The company distributed the beer itself in the early 1980s, struggling with financial, by 1987, the brewery was distributing to seven states and production had reached 12,000 barrels per year, causing the company to pursue building a new brewery. In 1988, the moved into a 100-barrel brewhouse, with four open fermenters. A year later, Grossman and Camusi added the Sierra Nevada Taproom and Restaurant, Camusi retired in 1998 and sold his share in the company to Grossman. In 2010, Sierra Nevada Brewing partnered with the Abbey of New Clairvaux, the Abbey has not yet been sanctioned by the International Trappist Association, and therefore the monastery will not be brewing official Trappist beer. The brewery employed about 450 people in 2011, in January 2012, Sierra Nevada announced it would build a second brewing facility with an attached restaurant in Mills River, North Carolina. In 2013, the company opened the Torpedo Room in Berkeley, Grossman has been dubbed a pioneer by fellow craft brewers in the United States. Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. won the US Environmental Protection Agencys Green Business of the Year award for 2010, the brewery is powered by solar energy, having 10,000 photovoltaic modules covering its rooftops and parking lot. In all, the brewery uses 2.6 megawatts of electricity on premises. It also has built a station for electric vehicles on its premises. The company uses a small-scale BioPro™ biodiesel processor to convert the used cooking oil from its restaurant for biodiesel use in its delivery trucks, in 2009, it reached an agreement with a local ethanol company to produce high-grade ethanol fuel from its discarded yeast
42.
Goose Island Brewery
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Goose Island Brewery is a brewery in Chicago, Illinois, that began as a single brewpub opened in 1988 in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and named after a nearby island. The larger brewery opened in 1995, and a brewpub, in Wrigleyville. In 2011, Goose Island was sold to Anheuser-Busch InBev, the brewer began distributing Matilda west of the Rockies in March 2010. Goose Island outsources the production of some of its beers, honkers Ale and IPA sold on the east coast is now brewed under contract in New Hampshire. Greg Hall stepped down as brewmaster with the AB InBev purchase in 2011, Goose Island had two brewpubs which both serve brunch, lunch, and dinner. The 1800 N. Clybourn location has specialty food items, such as duck, rabbit and they serve anything from a burger and fries to homemade sausages and PEI Mussels. The Wrigleyville location closed in September 2014, but reopened for the Chicago Cubs season in April 2015 and it closed for good in November 2015, and its brewing equipment was removed. The Goose Island brewpubs were not a part of the sale of Goose Island Beer Company to Anheuser Busch, the brewery conducts tours at the Clybourn Brewpub on Saturday and Sunday. Goose Island produces a number of beers that are available year-round, at different times in the past, the brewery has produced dozens of other beers. In November 2008, Goose Island made news when its small batch of Bourbon County Stout became available for the first time in Western states. For several years, the WIT Beverage Company licensed the Goose Island name for a craft soda line including Chicago Style Root Beer, Concord Grape, Spicy Ginger, Vanilla Cream, the branding was changed to WBC Craft Sodas following the expiration of the Goose Island licensing in 2013
43.
Madeleine Kunin
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Madeleine May Kunin is an American diplomat and politician. She was the 77th Governor of Vermont from 1985 until 1991 and she also served as United States Ambassador to Switzerland from 1996 to 1999. She was Vermonts first and, to date, only female governor as well as the first Jewish governor of Vermont and she was also the first Jewish woman to be elected governor of a U. S. state. Kunin is currently a James Marsh Professor-at-Large at the University of Vermont, Kunin was born in Zürich, the daughter of Renee and Ferdinand May. She moved to the United States as a child, prior to seeking elective office, she worked as a journalist for The Burlington Free Press, as a tour guide at the Worlds Fair, and as a part-time college professor. She was also involved in community activities, particularly in the area of womens rights, children, in 2012 her book, The New Feminist Agenda, Defining the Next Revolution for Women, Work, and Family, was published by Chelsea Green Publishing. In 1972, Kunin was defeated in her bid to join the Burlington Board of Aldermen, later that year she was elected a Vermont State Representative, where in her first term she served as a member of the Government Operations Committee. Following her reelection in 1974, she was elected Minority Whip of the State House, after being elected to a third term in 1976, she was appointed Chairwoman of the Appropriations Committee, the first woman to assume this position. When Hebard left the House, he lobbied his former colleagues to name Kunin as chairwoman of the committee. In 1978 she was elected to the first of two terms as the 74th Lieutenant Governor of Vermont, serving with Republican Richard Snelling, Kunin primarily served as President of the State Senate and worked with citizens around the state. She produced various studies in such as energy and day care and made policy recommendations to the Governor. Kunin was a frequent speaker statewide during her time as lieutenant governor, Kunin did not run for reelection as lieutenant governor in 1982, instead challenging Snelling for the governorship. In 1986 Kunin ran for her term as governor. Her opponents were Republican Peter Plympton Smith and independent Bernie Sanders, Smith received 38 percent of the vote, Sanders 14 percent, and Kunin won with 47 percent of the vote. She is the first woman in U. S. history to have been elected governor of a U. S. state three times, as governor she focused on the environment, education, and childrens issues. She appointed the first woman to the Vermont Supreme Court and created her states family court system and she declined to seek reelection in 1990. Prior to joining the Clinton Administration she worked in Clintons campaign as a member of the committee for the Vice Presidential nominee. She is a resident of Burlington, Vermont, Kunin is the mother of four children, Julia, Peter, Adam, and Daniel
44.
Brussels World's Fair
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Expo 58, also known as the Brussels World’s Fair, was held from 17 April to 19 October 1958. It was the first major Worlds Fair registered under the Bureau International des Expositions after World War II, nearly 15,000 workers spent three years building the 2 km2 site on the Heysel plateau,7 kilometres northwest of central Brussels, Belgium. Many of the buildings were re-used from the Brussels International Exposition of 1935, every 25 years starting in 1855, Belgium had staged large national events to celebrate its national independence following the Belgian Revolution of 1830. However, the Belgian government under prime minister Achille Van Acker decided to forego celebrations in 1955 to have funding for the 1958 Expo. Expo 58 was the 11th Worlds Fair hosted by Belgium, since Expo 58, Belgium has not arranged any more world fairs. The site is best known for the Atomium, a giant model of a cell of an iron crystal. More than 41 million visitors visited the site, which was opened with a call for peace and social and economic progress. Another exhibition at the Belgian pavilion was the Congolese village that some have branded a human zoo, the Austrian pavilion was designed by Karl Schwanzer in modernist style. It was later transferred to Vienna to host the museum of the 20th century, in 2011 it was reopened under the new name 21er Haus. The exposition One Day in Czechoslovakia was designed by Jindřich Santar who cooperated with artists Jiří Trnka, Antonín Kybal, Stanislav Libenský, architects of the simple, but modern and graceful construction were František Cubr, Josef Hrubý and Zdeněk Pokorný. The teams artistic freedom, so rare in the hard-line communist regime of the 1950s, was ensured by the government committee for exhibitions chairman František Kahuda and he supported the famous Laterna Magika show, as well as Josef Svobodas technically unique Polyekran. The Czechoslovak pavilion was visited by 6 million people and was awarded the best pavilion of the Expo 58. This was designed by the architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez and it was awarded the expositions star of gold. The city of Paris had its own pavilion, separate from the French one and this was produced by the designer James Gardner, architect Howard Lobb & engineer Felix Samuely. The on-site British architect was Michael Blower, Brussels born and bilingual and it was designed by noted architect Edward Durell Stone. The Soviet pavilion was an impressive building which they folded up. They had a facsimile of Sputnik which mysteriously disappeared, and they accused the US of stealing it and they had a bookstore selling science and technology books in English and other languages published by the Moscow Press. On the exposition there was also a model of Lenin first nuclear icebreaker, the Soviet exposition was awarded with a Grand Prix
45.
Bernie Sanders
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Bernard Bernie Sanders is an American politician who has been the junior United States Senator from Vermont since 2007. Sanders is the longest serving independent in U. S. congressional history, Sanders became the ranking minority member on the Senate Budget Committee in January 2015, he had previously been chair of the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee for two years. Since January 2017, he has been Chair of the Senate Democratic Outreach Committee, a self-described democratic socialist, Sanders is pro-labor and emphasizes reversing economic inequality. Many scholars consider his views to be more in line with social democracy, Sanders was born and raised in the Brooklyn borough of New York City and graduated from the University of Chicago in 1964. While a student he was an active protest organizer for the Congress of Racial Equality, after settling in Vermont in 1968, Sanders ran unsuccessful third-party campaigns for governor and U. S. senator in the early to mid-1970s. As an independent, he was elected mayor of Burlington—Vermonts most populous city of 42,417 in 2010—in 1981 and he went on to be reelected as mayor three times. In 1990, he was elected to represent Vermonts at-large congressional district in the U. S. House of Representatives and he served as a congressman for 16 years before being elected to the U. S. Senate in 2006. In 2012, he was reelected with 71% of the popular vote, polls indicate that he is among the senators most popular with their constituents, ranking third in 2014 and first in both 2015 and 2016. Sanders rose to prominence following his 2010 filibuster against the Middle Class Tax Relief Act of 2010. Sanders has long been critical of U. S. foreign policy and was an early and outspoken opponent of the Iraq War, the First Gulf War, Sanders announced his campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination on April 30,2015. Initially considered a shot, Sanders won 23 primaries and caucuses. His campaign was noted for the enthusiasm of its supporters, as well as his rejection of large donations from corporations, the financial industry, and any associated Super PAC. In November 2016, Sanderss book Our Revolution, A Future to Believe In was released, upon its release, it was on The New York Times best-seller list at number 3. In 2016 Sanders formed an organization, Our Revolution, to educate voters about issues, get people involved in the political process. In February 2017, Sanders began webcasting The Bernie Sanders Show on Facebook, Bernard Sanders was born on September 8,1941, in Brooklyn, New York City. His father, Elias Sanders, was born on September 14,1904, in Słopnice, Poland, to a Jewish family, in 1921, the 17-year-old Elias immigrated to the United States, where he became a paint salesman. His mother, Dorothy Sanders, was born in New York City on October 2,1912, to Jewish immigrant parents from Poland, many of Eliass relatives back in Poland were killed in the Holocaust. Sanders became interested in politics at an age, A guy named Adolf Hitler won an election in 1932
46.
United States presidential primary
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The series of presidential primary elections and caucuses held in each U. S. state and territory forms part of the nominating process of United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process, political parties have developed their own procedures over time, some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning in either late-January or early-February, State and local governments run the primary elections, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. These delegates then in turn select their partys presidential nominee, the first state in the union to hold its presidential primary was New Hampshire in 1920. Each party determines how many delegates it allocates to each state, along with those pledged delegates chosen during the primaries and caucuses, state delegations to both the Democratic and Republican conventions also include unpledged delegates who have a vote. For Republicans, they consist of the three top party officials who serve At Large from each state and territory, Democrats have a more expansive group of unpledged delegates called superdelegates, who are party leaders and elected officials. In some of the less populous states, this allows campaigning to take place on a more personal scale. However, the results of the primary season may not be representative of the U. S. As a result, more states vie for earlier primaries, known as front-loading, the national parties have used penalties and awarded bonus delegates in efforts to stagger the system over broadly a 90-day window. Where state legislatures set the primary or caucus date, sometimes the out-party in that state has endured penalties in the number of delegates it can send to the national convention. There is no provision for the role of parties in the United States Constitution. In Federalist Papers No.9 and No,10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. Thus in the first two elections, the Electoral College handled the nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 that selected George Washington. The beginnings of the American two-party system then emerged from Washingtons immediate circle of advisors, starting with the 1796 election, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the partys presidential candidates. Before 1820, Democratic-Republican members of Congress would nominate a candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824, and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention, the first national convention was called by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1831, as they could not use the caucus system because they had no Congressmen. The party leaders called for a national meeting of supporters to select the partys candidate. This convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland on September 26,1831 which selected William Wirt as their Presidential candidate, delegates to the national convention were usually selected at state conventions whose own delegates were chosen by district conventions
United States
