1.
Newspaper
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A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
2.
Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves
3.
Broadsheet
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A broadsheet is the largest newspaper format and is characterized by long vertical pages. The term derives from types of popular prints usually just of a sheet, sold on the streets and containing various types of material. The first broadsheet newspaper was the Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, other common newspaper formats include the smaller Berliner and tabloid/compact formats. Many broadsheets measure approximately 29 1⁄2 by 23 1⁄2 inches per full broadsheet spread, australian and New Zealand broadsheets always have a paper size of A1 per spread. South African broadsheet newspapers have a spread sheet size of 820 by 578 mm or 32.3 by 22.8 in. Others measure 22 inches or 560 millimetres vertically, in the United States, the traditional dimensions for the front page half of a broadsheet are 15 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long. However, in efforts to save newsprint costs many U. S. newspapers have downsized to 12 inches wide by 22 3⁄4 inches long for a folded page. Many rate cards and specification cards refer to the size with dimensions representing the front page half of a broadsheet size, rather than the full. Some quote actual page size and others quote the area size. The two versions of the broadsheet are, Full broadsheet – The full broadsheet typically is folded vertically in half so that it forms four pages, the four pages are called a spread. Half broadsheet – The half broadsheet is usually a page that is not folded vertically and just includes a front. In uncommon instances, an entire newspaper can be a two-page half broadsheet or four-page full broadsheet, totally self-contained advertising circulars inserted in a newspaper in the same format are referred to as broadsheets. Broadsheets typically are also folded horizontally in half to accommodate newsstand display space, the horizontal fold however does not affect the page numbers and the content remains vertical. The most important newspaper stories are placed above the fold and this contrasts with tabloids which typically do not have a horizontal fold. The broadsheet has since emerged as the most popular format for the dissemination of printed news, historically, broadsheets developed after the British in 1712 placed a tax on newspapers based on the number of their pages. The original purpose of the broadsheet, or broadside, was for the purpose of posting royal proclamations, acts, eventually the people began using the broadsheet as a source for political activism by reprinting speeches, ballads or narrative songs originally performed by bards. With the early mechanization of the 19th century came an increase in production of printed materials including the broadside as well as the penny dreadful. In this period all over Europe began to print their issues on broadsheets
4.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
5.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
6.
Student affairs
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People who work in this field are known as student affairs practitioners or student affairs professionals. These student affairs practitioners work to provide services and support for students at institutions of higher education, the size and organization of a student affairs division or department may vary based on the size, type, and location of an institution. In some institutions today, student affairs departments are led by a president or vice chancellor who then reports directly to the president/chancellor of the institution. In other cases the head of student affairs may report to the provost or academic dean, there it developed from the originally distinct positions of dean of women and dean of men. Student affairs did not become a profession in South Africa until the end of apartheid in 1994. As in other countries of sub-Saharan Africa, South African universities have followed an American model of student affairs administration. Difficulties in the implementation of student affairs principles from developed countries has been characterized as due to South Africas status as a developing country, the profession of student affairs grew from the campus up, not from theory down. Early higher education in the United States was based on the Oxbridge model of education, thus, most early institutions were residential and these men were the precursor to student affairs professionals in the United States. Typically, they served as dean of disclipline and in loco parentis, with these changes it became apparent that additional staff members were needed to allow the president to respond to the issues of finance and faculty recruitment. These first student affairs professionals were the dean of women, dean of men, many of the early deans came from teaching roles in the liberal arts. Alice Freeman Palmer in 1892 at the University of Chicago was the first to hold the title of Dean of Women, the Dean of Mens position typically included discipline, but could vary depending on the institutions overall philosophy. The one thing that remained consistent was the responsibility to deal with men, deans of Women were trail blazers as women in positions of authority. Not only were women at colleges and universities a new development, the institutional leadership was dominated by men, but still they persevered including the founding of what is now the American Association of University Women in 1903. In 1924, May L. Cheney, who organized a teacher placement office at the University of California, in 1929, forty-six NAAS members registered for the Sixth Annual Convention. NAAS became the National Association of Personnel and Placement Officers, the name American College Personnel Association was adopted in 1931. Association communication consisted of one mailed newsletter, the Personnel-O-Gram, in 1937, the Student Personnel Point of View statement was developed by leaders of the American Council on Education and ACPA. The Student Personnel Points of View, written in 1937 and 1949, in the 1960s the student development movement, the study of the student as a whole - physical, mental and emotional, was introduced. In the 1970s the landscape of student affairs began to change when the age was lowered
7.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
8.
Education in the United States
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Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-age children attend schools, about 10% attend private schools. Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state and this requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, education is divided into three levels, elementary school, middle or junior school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, there are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, the United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015 the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U. S. high school students #40 globally in Math and #24 in Science and Reading. ”King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U. S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U. S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, government-supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian Common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs and also history and geography, States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 and 1917. They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture, by 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. His movement spread to many other Southern states to small colleges for Colored or Negro students entitled A. & M. or A. & T. some of which later developed into state universities. By 1910,72 percent of children attended school, private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and — in the rural centers — land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in increasing public high school enrollment. By 1930,100 percent of children attended school, during World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v, in 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B
9.
History of education in the United States
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The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States, the first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. At first, the rudiments of literacy and arithmetic were taught inside the family, literacy rates were much higher in New England because much of the population had been deeply involved in the Protestant Reformation and learned to read in order to read the Scriptures. Literacy was much lower in the South, where the Anglican Church was the established church, single working-class people formed a large part of the population in the early years, arriving as indentured servants. The planter class did not support public education but arranged for private tutors for their children, by the mid-19th century, the role of the schools in New England had expanded to such an extent that they took over many of the educational tasks traditionally handled by parents. All the New England colonies required towns to set up schools, in 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made proper education compulsory, other New England colonies followed this example. Similar statutes were adopted in colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. The schools were all male and all white, with few facilities for girls, in the 18th century, common schools were established, students of all ages were under the control of one teacher in one room. Although they were supplied at the local level, they were not free. Students families were charged tuition or rate bills, the larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school. The most famous was the Boston Latin School, which is still in operation as a high school. Hopkins School in New Haven, Connecticut, was another, by the 1780s, most had been replaced by private academies. By the early 19th century New England operated a network of high schools, now called prep schools, typified by Phillips Andover Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy. They became the major feeders for Ivy League colleges in the mid-19th century and these prep schools became coeducational in the 1970s, and remain highly prestigious in the 21st century. Residents of the Upper South, centered on the Chesapeake Bay, in late 17th century Maryland, the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students. Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools, during the colonial years, some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling. In March 1620, George Thorpe sailed from Bristol for Virginia and he became a deputy in charge of 10,000 acres of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school. The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when George Thorpe was killed in the Indian Massacre of 1622, in Virginia, rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish
10.
Education reform
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Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed, however, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs. In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market, where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests, as a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations. This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition, as a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth. Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed reforms in the United States. The one constant for all forms of education includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students, from ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time personal tutor, historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education, related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on why, and which questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles and this path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers, some reformers incorporated several motivations, e. g. Maria Montessori, who both educated for peace, and to meet the needs of the child. Reform has taken many forms and directions, throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations, Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. Compulsory learning never sticks in the mind, an educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. Though educational reform occurred on a level at various points throughout history
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Primary education in the United States
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Primary education in the United States refers to the first eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school. Preschool programs, which are formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of education is commonly referred to as kindergarten. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12. In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary schools in the United States, some private schools, and some public schools, are offering pre-kindergarten as part of elementary school. The first three to five years of a life can be the most critical period of their education. Since 1965, the government has promoted the growth of state-funded programs such as Head Start. In 2007, it served over 22 million preschool-aged children and their families, Head Start works to educate the whole child in addition to providing health and nutrition services to low-income families. Students may attend either a 6-year or 7-year public or private elementary school, elementary school usually runs from kindergarten through either grade 5 or grade 6, depending on the region. Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case the student will proceed to High School. In most U. S. elementary schools, students have all their classes from one or two homeroom teachers. In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to students in areas such as Art. Education in the United States Education in New York City Homeschooling in the United States Secondary education in the United States Primary education Primary school
12.
Secondary education in the United States
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The United States historically had a demand for general skills rather than specific training/apprenticeships. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of education followed by four years of high school. At the turn of the 20th Century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entrance to fewer than 5 percent of the population in preparation for college, most were expected to be ready for a job or a family after junior high school. The first public schools started around the 1830s and 40s within the wealthier areas of similar income levels. There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, the shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, there was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools. In 1954 the Supreme Court case Brown v. By 1955, in 1965 the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum and it emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The bill also aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing every child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education, after 1980, the growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down. Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new Charter schools developed during the 1980s and were embraced by the American Federation of Teachers in 1988. These would be legally and financially autonomous public school free from state laws and district regulations. Minnesota was the first state to pass a school law in 1991. By 2009 charter schools were operating in 41 states and 59% of these had waiting lists, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Standards-based education has been embraced in most states which changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, by 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to ensure that all graduates had achieved these standards. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs, the U. S. government may also propose, but cannot enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally lie beyond its jurisdiction. Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum, the level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in. Many states require that courses in the areas of English, science, social studies. The majority of high schools require four English credits to graduate, generally, three science courses are required
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Higher education in the United States
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Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education. These may be public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, according to the National Student Clearinghouse, US college enrollment has declined for five consecutive years and is projected to continue declining for the next two decades. Unlike Tertiary education system of UK, American education is unique in the world to place emphasis on Liberal Arts education in its higher education curriculum. As of 2012, the latest figures available in 2015, the US has a total of 4,726 Title IV-eligible, the US had 21 million students in higher education, roughly 5. 7% of the total population. About 13 million of these students were enrolled full-time which was 81,000 students lower than 2010. Colleges and universities in the U. S. vary in terms of goals, some may emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, many combine some or all of the above, being a comprehensive university. Almost all colleges and universities are coeducational, during a dramatic transition in the 1970s, all but a handful of mens colleges started accepting women. Over 80 percent of the colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged. Over 100 historically black colleges and universities operate, both private and public, Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations, independent of the government, to vouch for the quality of competing degrees. Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results, non-accredited institutions exist, such as Bible colleges, but the students are not eligible for federal loans. Community colleges are often, though, not always two-year colleges and they have open admissions, with generally lower tuition than other state or private schools. Graduates receive the associates degree such as an Associate of Arts upon graduating, many students earn an associate degree at a two-year institution, before transferring to a four-year institution to study another two years to earn a bachelors degree. Four-year colleges usually have a number of students, offer a greater range of studies. They are either primarily undergraduate institutions or the institution of a university. Some states, such as Washington, now offer schools simply known as colleges, the elevation in status comes from a cooperation between the community college and local universities. There are two distinctions between colleges and community colleges that arise from this arrangement. The second primary difference is that colleges, in cooperation with university, some colleges go so far as to offer particular, specialized 4-year bachelors degrees, on behalf of the university. Four-year institutions in the U. S. emphasizing the arts are liberal arts colleges, entirely undergraduate institutions
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Johns Hopkins University
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The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
15.
Sputnik 1
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Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957 and it was a 58 cm diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable and this surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information, even though the satellite itself wasnt equipped with sensors. The density of the atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, the satellite travelled at about 29,000 kilometres per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, the signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. Sputnik burned up on 4 January 1958 while reentering Earths atmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km, on 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev addressed Dimitri Ustinov and proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad, Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year. A week later, on 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on R-7 rocket test launches – held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, was planned to be completed in 1957–58, it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg, the first test launch of Object D was scheduled for 1957. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the wind, magnetic fields. These data would be valuable in the creation of artificial satellites. A system of stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellites orbit
16.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
17.
Carnegie Corporation of New York
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected corporation for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Corporations capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31,1999. During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, as the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for purposes in Canada. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth. During the corporations early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee, James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions, soon after Carnegies death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board. Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegies personal philanthropies, until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools. In his letter of gift to his trustees, Carnegie wrote, Conditions upon erth inevitably change, hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths. I disclaim any intention of doing so, on the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement, thus, over the years, the corporations priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational. After Carnegies death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research, convinced of the nations need to increase scientific expertise and scientific management, the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. At this time, the corporation developed a interest in adult education. During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore opportunities for adults. The foundations grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes, widely heralded, Myrdals book American Dilemma had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and his cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations
18.
Ford Foundation
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The Ford Foundation is a New York headquartered, globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and Henry Ford, it was funded by a US$25,000 gift from Edsel Ford. By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90 percent of the shares of the Ford Motor Company. Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings, the foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of US$12.4 billion, after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947, the presidency of the foundation fell to Edsels eldest son, Henry Ford II. It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropy in the world, the board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundations future. The committee, headed by California attorney H, the board embraced the recommendations in 1949. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundations portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974 and this divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become a public company. In 2012, stating that it is not a research library, in 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the public broadcasting system, then known as National Educational Television, which went on the air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave US$1 million to the Childrens Television Workshop to help create, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting replaced NET with the Public Broadcasting Service on October 5,1970. The foundations first international office opened in 1952 in New Delhi. In 1961, Kofi Annan received a grant from the foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul. In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make law school clinics part of their curriculum, clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. In 1967 and 1968, the provided financial support for decentralization. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some teachers and administrators. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund was incorporated in 1967 with a US$2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza. In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year US$1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund, the same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including the foundation
19.
Education Week
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Education Week is a United States national newspaper covering K–12 education. It is published by Editorial Projects in Education, a nonprofit organization, the newspaper publishes 37 issues a year, three of them special annual reports. He realized that education would benefit from a news publication. Gwaltney and other members of EPE met to plan a new publication. In 1966, EPE published the first issue of The Chronicle of Higher Education, in 1978, EPE sold Chronicle to its editors and shifted its attention. With the support of several philanthropies, and using the model of Chronicle. The first issue of Education Week appeared on Sept.7,1981, Education Week gained an online presence in 1996 with the website edweek. org, which features breaking news, interactive digital features and a host of news and opinion blogs. Targeted at teacher-leaders, Education Week Teacher features news relevant to teachers, along with opinion blogs, edWeek Market Brief provides actionable intelligence about the marketplace of K-12 education. The Education Week Research Center was founded in 1997 as the team for the annual Quality Counts report. The center conducts a range of research each year for that report, as well as Diplomas Count, Education Week, edweek. org. In 1997, Education Week launched Quality Counts, a report that uses in-depth journalism. The report also includes a report card on public education in the 50 states. From 1997 to 2010, Quality Counts was sponsored by the Pew Center on the States, technology Counts, launched in 1997 and released annually, focuses on top issues related to technology and schools. Previous reports have explored digital content or curriculum, e-learning, in 2006, EPE launched Diplomas Count, its annual report on high school graduation policies and rates. The report included graduation rates and patterns for the 50 states, the report included downloadable highlights reports on each state. Starting in 2013 Education Week has honored innovative school district leaders through the Leaders to Learn From report, featured leaders include superintendents, community engagement officers, nutrition services directors, curriculum specialists and directors of nursing. Education Week Press was launched in 2002 to publish books and e-books on behalf of Editorial Projects in Education, authors include both staff writers and external contributors. Education Week TopSchoolJobs is an employment resource for job-seekers and employers in the field, including job postings for teachers
20.
Gopher (protocol)
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The Gopher protocol /ˈɡoʊfər/ is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet. The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the predecessor of the World Wide Web. The protocol was invented by a led by Mark P. McCahill at the University of Minnesota. It offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on information stored on it, more recent Gopher revisions and graphical clients added support for multimedia. Gopher was preferred by many network administrators for using fewer resources than Web services. Gophers hierarchical structure provided a platform for the first large-scale electronic library connections, Gopher has been described by some enthusiasts as faster and more efficient and so much more organised than todays Web services. The Gopher protocol is still in use by enthusiasts, and although it has been almost entirely supplanted by the Web, a small population of actively maintained servers remains. Gopher system was released in mid-1991 by Mark P. McCahill, Farhad Anklesaria, Paul Lindner, Daniel Torrey and its central goals were, as stated in RFC1436, A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users. A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively, extending the file system metaphor, such as searches. By 1992, the method of locating someones e-mail address was to find their organizations CCSO nameserver entry in Gopher. The name was coined by Anklesaria as a play on several meanings of the word gopher, the University of Minnesota mascot is the gopher, a gofer is an assistant who goes for things, and a gopher burrows through the ground to reach a desired location. The World Wide Web was in its infancy in 1991, by the late 1990s, Gopher had largely ceased expanding. Several factors contributed to Gophers stagnation, In February 1993, the University of Minnesota announced that it would charge licensing fees for the use of its implementation of the Gopher server. As a consequence of this, some users were concerned that a fee would also be charged for independent implementations. Users were scared away from Gopher technology, to the advantage of the Web, in September 2000, the University of Minnesota re-licensed its Gopher software under the GNU General Public License. Gopher client functionality was duplicated by early Web browsers, such as Mosaic. Gopher has a rigid structure compared to the free-form HTML of the Web. With Gopher, every document has a format and type
21.
IPad
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IPad is a line of tablet computers designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. which run the iOS mobile operating system. The first iPad was released on April 3,2010, the most recent iPad models are the 9. 7-inch iPad Pro released on March 31,2016, the user interface is built around the devices multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard. The iPad includes built-in Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity on select models, as of January 2015, there have been over 250 million iPads sold. IPad tablets are second most popular, by sales, against Android-based ones, since 2013, an iPad can shoot video, take photos, play music, and perform Internet functions such as web-browsing and emailing. Other functions – games, reference, GPS navigation, social networking, as of March 2016, the App Store has more than one million apps for the iPad by Apple and third parties. There have been six versions of the iPad, the first generation established design precedents, such as the 9. 7-inch screen size and button placement, that have persisted through all models. The third generation added a Retina Display, the new Apple A5X processor with a graphics processor, a 5-megapixel camera, HD 1080p video recording, voice dictation. The fourth generation added the Apple A6X processor and replaces the 30-pin connector with an all-digital Lightning connector, the iPad Air added the Apple A7 processor and the Apple M7 motion coprocessor, and reduced the thickness for the first time since the iPad 2. The iPad Air 2 added the Apple A8X processor, the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, an 8-megapixel camera, and the Touch ID fingerprint sensor, there have been four versions of the iPad Mini. The first generation features a screen size of 7.9 inches and features similar internal specifications as the iPad 2 except it uses the Lightning connector. The iPad Mini 2 features the Retina Display, the Apple A7 processor, the iPad Mini 3 features the Touch ID fingerprint sensor. The iPad Mini 4 features the Apple A8 and the Apple M8 motion coprocessor, Apple co-founder Steve Jobs said in a 1983 speech that the companys strategy is really simple. What we want to do is we want to put a great computer in a book that you can carry around with you. And we really want to do it with a link in it so you don’t have to hook up to anything and you’re in communication with all of these larger databases. Apples first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100, introduced in 1993, powered by an ARM6 processor core developed by ARM, Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo based tablet, the PenLite, but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales. Apple released several more Newton-based PDAs, the one, the MessagePad 2100, was discontinued in 1998. Apple re-entered the mobile-computing markets in 2007 with the iPhone, smaller than the iPad, but featuring a camera and mobile phone, it pioneered the multi-touch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface of Apples iOS mobile operating system. By late 2009, the release had been rumored for several years
22.
Plagiarism
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Plagiarism is the wrongful appropriation and stealing and publication of another authors language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions and the representation of them as ones own original work. Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic ethics and it is subject to sanctions like penalties, suspension, and even expulsion. Recently, cases of plagiarism have been identified in academia. The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe in the 18th century, Plagiarism is not in itself a crime, but can constitute copyright infringement. In academia and industry, it is a serious ethical offense, Plagiarism is not defined or punished by law, but rather by institutions. In the 1st century, the use of the Latin word plagiarius to denote stealing someone elses work was pioneered by the Roman poet Martial, plagiary, a derivative of plagiarus, was introduced into English in 1601 by dramatist Ben Jonson to describe someone guilty of literary theft. The derived form plagiarism was introduced into English around 1620, the Latin plagiārius, kidnapper, and plagium, kidnapping, have the root plaga, based on the Indo-European root *-plak, to weave. Plagiarism specifically is not mentioned in any current statute, either criminal or civil, some cases may be treated as unfair competition or a violation of the doctrine of moral rights. The increased availability of copyrighted material due to the development of technology has furthered the debate as to whether copyright offences are criminal. In short, people are asked to use the guideline, if you did not write it yourself, Plagiarism is not the same as copyright infringement. Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights of a copyright holder, Plagiarism, in contrast, is concerned with the unearned increment to the plagiarizing authors reputation, or the obtaining of academic credit, that is achieved through false claims of authorship. Thus, plagiarism is considered an offense against the plagiarists audience. Plagiarism is also considered an offense against anyone who has provided the plagiarist with a benefit in exchange for what is specifically supposed to be original content. In such cases, acts of plagiarism may sometimes form part of a claim for breach of the plagiarists contract, or, if done knowingly. Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud, many institutions use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential plagiarism and to deter students from plagiarizing. Most universities address the issue of academic integrity by providing students with thorough orientations, required writing courses, indeed, there is a virtually uniform understanding among college students that plagiarism is wrong. Nevertheless, each year students are brought before their institutions’ disciplinary boards on charges that they have misused sources in their schoolwork, an extreme form of plagiarism, known as contract cheating involves students paying someone else, such as an essay mill, to do their work for them. In journalism, plagiarism is considered a breach of journalistic ethics, some individuals caught plagiarizing in academic or journalistic contexts claim that they plagiarized unintentionally, by failing to include quotations or give the appropriate citation
23.
The New Republic
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The New Republic is a liberal American magazine of commentary on politics and the arts published since 1914, with influence on American political and cultural thinking. It supported American entry into World War One, but discarded much of its faith in the possibility of a scientific liberalism, after the 1980s it incorporated elements of conservatism. In early 2016, Hughes announced he was putting the magazine up for sale, indicating the need for new vision and it was sold in February 2016 to Win McCormack. As of 2004, however, some, like Anne Kossedd and Steven Rendall, the magazine endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 general election. Supply side economics, especially the idea of reducing higher marginal tax rates. Moreover, The New Republic is strongly in favor of health care. On certain high-profile social issues, such as its support of same-sex marriage, in its March 2007 issue, The New Republic ran an article by Paul Starr where he defined the type of modern American liberalism in his article War and Liberalism, Liberalism wagers that a state. Can be strong but constrained – strong because constrained, rights to education and other requirements for human development and security aim to advance equal opportunity and personal dignity and to promote a creative and productive society. The New Republic does not focus solely on domestic policy, as it also brings analysis, Support for Israel has been another strong theme in The New Republic. According to Martin Peretz, former owner of The New Republic, unsigned editorials prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq expressed strong support for military action, citing the threat of Weapons of mass destruction as well as humanitarian concerns. In the November 27,2006 issue, the editors wrote, At this point, it seems almost beside the point to say this, the past three years have complicated our idealism and reminded us of the limits of American power and our own wisdom. We were against the confirmation of Justice Alito, in its May 2007 issue the magazine ran an editorial pointing to the humanitarian beliefs of liberals as being responsible for the recent plight of the American left. Such editorials and articles exemplify the political orientation of The New Republic. The magazines first issue was published on November 7,1914, the magazine is widely considered important in changing the character of liberalism in the direction of governmental interventionism, both foreign and domestic. Among the most important of these was the emergence of the U. S. as a Great Power on the international scene, and in 1917 TNR urged Americas entry into World War I on the side of the Allies. One consequence of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917 and it reversed course with the start of the Cold War in 1947 and the 1948 departure of leftist editor Henry A. Wallace to run for president on the Progressive ticket. After Wallace, TNR moved towards positions more typical of mainstream American liberalism, during the 1950s it was critical of both Soviet foreign policy and domestic anti-communism, particularly McCarthyism. During the 1960s the magazine opposed the Vietnam War, but was often critical of the New Left
24.
The Nation
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The Nation is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States, and the most widely read weekly journal of liberal/progressive political and cultural news, opinion, and analysis. It is published by The Nation Company, L. P. at 33 Irving Place and it is associated with The Nation Institute. The Nation has bureaus in Washington, D. C, London and South Africa, with departments covering architecture, art, corporations, defense, environment, films, legal affairs, music, peace and disarmament, poetry, and the United Nations. Circulation peaked at 187,000 in 2006 but by 2010 had dropped to 145,000 in print, the Nation was established in July 1865 on Newspaper Row at 130 Nassau Street in Manhattan. The publisher was Joseph H. Richards, and the editor was Edwin Lawrence Godkin, dennett interviewed Confederate veterans, freed slaves, agents of the Freedmens Bureau, and ordinary people he met by the side of the road. The articles, since collected as a book, have been praised by The New York Times as examples of masterly journalism, closely related to this was the publications advocacy of the elimination of protective tariffs in favor of lower prices of consumer goods associated with a free trade system. Wendell Phillips Garrison, son of William Lloyd Garrison, was Literary Editor from 1865 to 1906, the magazine would stay at Newspaper Row for 90 years. In 1881, newspaperman-turned-railroad-baron Henry Villard acquired The Nation and converted it into a literary supplement for his daily newspaper the New York Evening Post. The offices of the magazine were moved to the Evening Posts headquarters at 210 Broadway, in 1900, Henry Villards son, Oswald Garrison Villard, inherited the magazine and the Evening Post, selling off the latter in 1918. Villards takeover prompted the FBI to monitor the magazine for roughly 50 years, the FBI had a file on Villard from 1915. Villard sold the magazine in 1935 and it became a nonprofit in 1943. Almost every editor of The Nation from Villards time to the 1970s was looked at for subversive activities and ties. S, during the 1930s, The Nation showed enthusiastic support for Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. This organization was responsible for academic responsibilities, including conducting research and organizing conferences. Nation Associates became responsible for the operation and publication of the magazine on a nonprofit basis, before Pearl Harbor, The Nation repeatedly called on the United States to enter World War II to resist Fascism, and after the US entered the war, supported the American war effort. It also supported the use of the bomb on Hiroshima. During the late 1940s and again in the early 1950s, a merger was discussed by The Nations Freda Kirchwey, the new publication would have been called The Nation and New Republic. Kirchwey was the most hesitant, and both attempts to merge failed, the two magazines would later take very different paths, with The Nation having a higher circulation and The New Republic moving more to the right. In the 1950s, The Nation was attacked as pro-communist because of its advocacy of friendship with the Soviet Union, one of the magazines writers, Louis Fischer resigned from the magazine afterwards, claiming The Nations foreign coverage was too pro-Soviet
25.
Reason (magazine)
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Reason is an American libertarian monthly magazine published by the Reason Foundation. The magazine has a circulation of around 50,000 and was named one of the 50 best magazines in 2003 and 2004 by the Chicago Tribune, Reason was founded in 1968 by Lanny Friedlander as a more-or-less monthly mimeographed publication. In 1970 it was purchased by Robert W. Poole, Jr. Manuel S. Klausner, and Tibor R. Machan, who set it on a more regular publishing schedule. As the monthly print magazine of free minds and free markets, it covers politics, culture, and ideas with a mix of news, analysis, commentary, during the 1970s and 80s, the magazines contributors included Milton Friedman, Murray Rothbard, Thomas Szasz and Thomas Sowell. In 1978, Poole, Klausner, and Machan created the associated Reason Foundation, marty Zupan joined Reason in 1975, and served through the 1980s as managing editor and editor-in-chief, leaving in 1989. Virginia Postrel was editor-in-chief of the magazine from July 1989 to January 2000 and she founded the magazines website in 1995. Nick Gillespie became editor-in-chief in 2000, erik Spiekermann, the designer of the Meta typeface, headed a redesign of Reason in 2001, aiming for a look that is cleaner, more modern, making use of the Meta typeface throughout. In June 2004, subscribers to Reason magazine received an issue that had their name. The concept was to demonstrate the power of public databases, as well as the customized printing capabilities of Xeikons printer, according to then editor-in-chief Nick Gillespie. The move was seen by David Carr of The New York Times as the ultimate in customized publishing, in 2008, Reasons web site was named a Webby Award Honoree in the magazine category. That same year, Matt Welch became magazines editor-in-chief, with Gillespie becoming editor-in-chief of reason. tv, in 2011, Gillespie and Welch published The Declaration of Independents, How Libertarian Politics Can Fix Whats Wrong with America. Katherine Mangu-Ward became the magazines editor-in-chief in June 2016, with Welch moving to an editor-at-large position. Other Reason editors include Jacob Sullum, Jesse Walker, Brian Doherty, Peter Suderman, and Damon Root, contributors include Ronald Bailey, Greg Beato, Cathy Young, Hit & Run is Reasons group blog. It is maintained and written by the staff of the magazine, Reason editors referred to this co-opting of the former website as the Suck-ification of Reason. In 2005, Hit & Run was named as one of the best political blogs by Playboy, Reason TV is a website affiliated with Reason magazine that produces short-form documentaries and video editorials. The site produced a series of videos called The Drew Carey Project hosted by comedian Drew Carey, Reason. tv teamed with Carey again in 2009 to produce Reason Saves Cleveland, in which Carey suggested free market solutions to his hometowns problems. Since 2010, comedian Remy Munasifi has partnered with Reason TV to produce parody videos, the Declaration of Independents The Independents Official website Reason TVs channel on YouTube Wired founder helps Reason
26.
The American Prospect
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The American Prospect is a quarterly American political magazine dedicated to American liberalism and progressivism. The American Prospect says it aims to advance liberal and progressive goals through reporting, analysis, the magazine was founded in 1990 by Robert Kuttner, Robert Reich, and Paul Starr as a response to the perceived ascendancy of conservatism in the 1980s. The American Prospect has run a writing program that offers young journalists the opportunity to spend two years at the magazine, blogging as well as contributing to the print magazine. Past fellows have included Matt Yglesias, Ezra Klein, Chris Mooney, Joshua Marshall, Dana Goldstein, former staff writers and contributors include Gabriel Arana, Steve Erickson, and Harold Meyerson. In March 2010, The American Prospect entered into an affiliation with the Demos, the official affiliation ended in 2012. In 2010, The American Prospect was the recipient of Utne Reader magazines Utne Independent Press Award for Political Coverage, in 2012, the magazine nearly folded due to financial struggles. It was able to raise money to stay afloat. In 2014, the magazine re-purposed itself as a journal of ideas. Kit Rachlis announced he was leaving the editorship of the magazine, senior writer Monica Potts and editor Bob Moser were laid off, the network was absorbed into Care2s Frogloop and general operations. Originally The American Prospect published quarterly, then bimonthly, in 2000, thanks to a grant from the Schumann Center for Media and Democracy, it became biweekly. Financial and logistical difficulties ensued, and the moved to a 10-issue-per-year format in spring 2003. The online version of the magazine included an active blog called TAPPED. Facing financial issues, the magazine reduced its bi-monthly publication scheduled to a publication schedule in 2014. Notable contributors to the magazine and blog have included Michelle Goldberg, Harold Meyerson, Robert Kuttner, executive editors have included Michael Tomasky, Harold Meyerson, Mark Schmitt, and Kit Rachlis. Official website The 60-second interview, Robert Kuttner, co-editor, The American Prospect
27.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
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American Association of University Professors
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The American Association of University Professors is an organization of professors and other academics in the United States. AAUP membership is about 47,000, with over 500 local campus chapters and 39 state organizations, founded in 1915 by Arthur O. Rudy Fichtenbaum is the current president. Among the events led to its founding was the dismissal of eugenicist, economics professor. The AAUPs Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure is the articulation of these principles and practices. The associations procedures ensuring academic due process remain the model for professional employment practices on campuses throughout the country, the association suggests that The principles of Academic Freedom and Tenure date back to a 1925 conference. The AAUP offers the original principles, including the 1940 interpretations of the statement and a 1970 interpretation, the statement is straightforward, based on three principles of academic freedom. The second principle of freedom is that teachers should have the same freedom in the classroom. The third asserts that college and university professors are citizens and should be free to speak, based upon five principles, the statement on academic tenure is equally simple and to the point. The first principle maintains that the terms of appointment are to be stated in writing, the second details the conditions and length of time professors are given to attain tenure. The third notes that during the period before attaining tenure. Detailing terms for appeal of the decision to deny tenure, the fourth point notes that both faculty and the governing board should judge whether tenure is to be granted or denied. The final point suggests that if the faculty member is not granted tenure appointment for reasons of financial restraint upon the university, noting the Supreme Court Case Keyishian v. The commentary iterates key points of the 1940 interpretations, refinements to the statement were introduced in subsequent years, culminating in the 1966 Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities. This statement was formulated by the American Association of University Professors, the American Council on Education. The statement clarifies the roles of governing boards, faculties. The document does not provide for a blueprint to the governance of higher education, nor was the purpose of the statement to provide principles for relations with industry and government. Rather, the statement aimed to establish a vision for the internal governance of institutions. Student involvement is not addressed in detail, the statement concerns general education policy and internal operations with an overview of the formal roles for governing structures in the organization and management of higher education
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
