1.
Christian mysticism
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Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often connected to mystical theology, especially in the Roman Catholic. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and they range from ecstatic visions of the souls mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture. Mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning to conceal, in the Hellenistic world, a mystikos was an initiate of a mystery religion. Mystical referred to religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. In early Christianity the term referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to hidden or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures, the liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God, William James popularized the use of the term religious experience in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as an experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. Other critics point out that the stress on experience is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, transformation has particular importance in the theology of Origen. Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is shaped by cultural issues. Thus, the nature of experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology, in Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, Daat became gnosis, and poverty became an important component of monasticism. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen and Clement of Alexandria, given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within Gods love, which is seen as a form of truth. Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore some of the same ideas, images. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew Scriptures provides access to the meanings of the texts
2.
Mystical theology
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Mystical Theology is the branch of theology that explains mystical practices and states, as induced by contemplative practices such as contemplative prayer. According to Origen and the Alexandrian theology, theoria is the knowledge of God in creation and of sensible things and this knowledge and contemplation leads to communion with God akin to Divine Providence. In the theological tradition of St. Macarius of Egypt, theoria is the point of interaction between God and the human in the heart of the person, manifesting spiritual gifts to the human heart. The highest form of contemplation originates in the heart, a form of contemplation than that of the intellect. The concept that theoria is allotted to each individual by their capacity to comprehend God is consistent. This is also the tradition of theoria, as taught by St. Symeon the New Theologian and this experience cultivates humility, meekness and the love of the human race that the Triune God has created. This invisible fire in the heart for humanity is manifest in absolute kindness and love for ones neighbor akin to selfless humility, agape or love, growing from mortification, kenosis and this agape, or holy fire, is the essence of Orthodoxy. In the Cappadocian school of thought, theoria is the experience of the highest or absolute truth and it is entering the Cloud of Unknowing, which is beyond rational understanding, and can be embraced only in love of God. The Cappadocian fathers went beyond the intellectual contemplation of the Alexandrian fathers and this was to begin with the seminal work Philokalia, which, through hesychasm, leads to Phronema and finally theosis, which is validated by theoria. One must move beyond gnosis to faith, through ignorance, one moves beyond knowledge and being, this contemplation being theoria. In this tradition, theoria means understanding that the Uncreated cannot be grasped by the logical or rational mind, but only by the whole person, at this point, one can commune with God just as Moses did. Gregory of Nyssa presented as the culmination of the Christian religion the contemplation of the divine Being, pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, himself influenced by the Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus, had a strong impact on Christian thought and practice, both east and west. Theoria is the theme of Dionysius’ work called The Mystical Theology. In chapter 1, Dionysius says that God dwells in divine darkness i. e, God is unknowable through sense and reason. Therefore, a person must leave behind the activity of sense and reason, through spiritual union with God, the mystic is granted theoria and through this vision is ultimately given knowledge of God. In the tradition of Dionysus the Areopagite, theoria is the lifting up of the out of time, space and created being, while the Triune God reaches down, or descends. This process is known as ekstasis. While theoria is possible through prayer, it is attained in a way through the Eucharist
3.
Christian monasticism
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Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It has come to be regulated by rules and, in modern times. Those living the life are known by the generic terms monks. In modern English, they are known by the gender-neutral term monastics. The word monk originated from the Greek monachos monk, itself from monos meaning alone, monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together, quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, By creating a social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions. Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community, the basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the religious orders such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, the latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc. which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it. Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians, Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types the eremitical or secluded, the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first, the monastic life is based on Jesuss amen to be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia and their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels, poverty, chastity and obedience. Monks and friars are two distinct roles, in the thirteenth century … new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, because monasteries had declined. First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism, the Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah. From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesuss 40 days in the desert and they have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century, eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society
4.
Asceticism
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Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
5.
Christian meditation
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Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to become aware of and reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditārī, which has a range of meanings including to reflect on, to study, Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. Christian meditation aims to heighten the relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. Teachings in both the Eastern and Western Christian churches have emphasized the use of Christian meditation as an element in increasing knowledge of Christ. Christian meditation involves looking back on Jesus life, thanksgiving and adoration of God for his action in sending Jesus for human salvation. In her book The Interior Castle Saint Teresa of Avila defined Christian meditation as follows, By meditation I mean prolonged reasoning with the understanding, in this way. We begin by thinking of the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son, building on that theme, E. P. Clowney explained that three dimensions of Christian meditation are crucial, not merely for showing its distinctiveness, but for guiding its practice. The first is that Christian meditation is grounded in the Bible, the second distinctive mark of Christian meditation is that it responds to the love of God, as in I John, We love, for he first loved us. The personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion is thus heightened in Christian meditation, the third dimension is that the revelations of the Bible and the love of God lead to the worship of God, making Christian meditation an exercise in praise. While Protestants view salvation in terms of faith and grace alone both Western and Eastern Christians see a role for meditation on the path to salvation and redemption, apostle Paul stated in Epistle to the Romans 9,16 that salvation only comes from God that hath mercy. The path to salvation in Christian meditation is not one of give and take, the Word of God directs meditations to show the two aspects of love that please God, obedience and adoration. The initiative in Christian salvation is with God, and one does not meditate or love God to gain his favor. In Western Christian teachings, meditation is believed to involve the inherent action of the Holy Spirit to help the meditating Christian understand the deeper meanings of the Word of God. In the 20th century, Hans Urs von Balthasar paraphrased this teaching as follows, how could we understand what is within God and is disclosed to us except through the Spirit of God who is communicated to us. As a biblical basis for teaching, von Balthasar referred to 1 Corinthians 2, 9-10. The Spirit searches all things, even the things of God. Christian meditation is different from the style of meditations performed in Eastern religions or in the context of the New Age, while other types of meditation may suggest approaches to disengage the mind, Christian meditation aims to fill the mind with thoughts related to Biblical passages or Christian devotions. Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations are intended to stimulate thought, Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion
6.
Lectio Divina
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In Christianity, Lectio Divina is a traditional Benedictine practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of Gods Word. It does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, traditionally, Lectio Divina has four separate steps, read, meditate, pray, contemplate. First a passage of Scripture is read, then its meaning is reflected upon and this is followed by prayer and contemplation on the Word of God. The focus of Lectio Divina is not an analysis of biblical passages. In Lectio Divina, however, the practitioner enters and shares the peace of Christ rather than dissecting it, in some Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ. The roots of Scriptural reflection and interpretation go back to Origen in the 3rd century, before the emergence of the Western monastic communities, a key contribution to the foundation of Lectio Divina came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of Scripture as a sacrament. In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote, hen you devote yourself to the divine reading, seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people. Origen believed that The Word was incarnate in Scripture and could touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that the reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts, in Origens approach the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ. In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God, in this view, using Christ as the interpretive key unlocks the message in Scriptural texts. The primordial role of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI, in the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of constant prayer in a monastic setting. After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, according to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is Romans 10, 8–10 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of Gods word in the mouth or heart. It was the recitation of the text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina. With the motto Ora et labora, daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements, liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina, a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation and this spiritual practice is called divine reading or spiritual reading – i. e. lectio divina
7.
Christian contemplation
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Christian contemplation, from contemplatio, refers to several Christian practices which aim at looking at, gazing at, being aware of God or the Divine. It includes several practices and theological concepts, Christianity took up the use of both the Greek and Latin terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God. Eastern and Western traditions of Christianity grew apart as they incorporated the notion of theoria into their respective teachings. It expressed the state of being a spectator, both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana, including Ian Rutherford, Binod Kumar Agarwala, Gregory Grieve, insight into being and becoming through the intuitive truth called faith, in God, leads to truth through our contemplative faculties. This theory, or speculation, as action in faith and love for God, is then expressed famously as Beauty shall Save the World and this expression comes from a mystical or gnosiological perspective, rather than a scientific, philosophical or cultural one. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. Aristotle, on the hand, separated the spectating of theoria from practical purposes, and saw it as an end in itself. Thomas Louis Schubeck says that, in Aristotles view, the knowledge that guides ethical political activity does not belong to theoria, leading a contemplative life can be considered Aristotles answer to the question what life humans ought to live. … The more humans engage in contemplation, the closer they are to their gods, Aristotles view that the best life would be a purely contemplative one was disputed by the Stoics and others, such as the Epicureans, who saw speculation as inferior to practical ethics. Contemplation is, then, knowledge, knowledge of reality itself, as opposed to knowing how, Augustine expressed this distinction by using scientia for the kind of knowledge attained by ratio, and sapientia, wisdom, for the kind of knowledge received by intellectus. Human intelligence operates at two levels, a basic level concerned with doing things, and another level concerned with simply beholding, contemplating, knowing reality, in the Enneads of Plotinus, a founder of Neoplatonism, everything is contemplation and everything is derived from contemplation. Knowledge of The One is achieved through experience of its power, Plotinus agreed with Aristotles systematic distinction between contemplation and practice, dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstension from practical, active life. Plotinus explained, The point of action is contemplation, some Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. Some make a distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. Saint John Cassian recommended use of the phrase O God, make speed to save me, O Lord, another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus. Or the Jesus Prayer, which has called the mantra of the Orthodox Church. The author of The Cloud of Unknowing recommended use of a monosyllabic word, Theoria refers to a stage of illumination on the path to theosis
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Religious ecstasy
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Although the experience is usually brief in time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during ones lifetime. A persons sense of time and space disappear during a religious ecstasy forsaking any senses or physical cognizance in its duration. Among venerated Catholic saints who dabble in Christian mysticism, a physical stature, human sensory, or perception is completely detached to time. In Sufism, the term is referred to as wajd and the experience is referred to as either jazbah or majzoobiyat, the adjective religious means that the experience occurs in connection with religious activities or is interpreted in context of a religion. Thus we find experiences given such names as nature, religious, aesthetic, neo-platonic, ecstasies enjoyed by accepted religious mystics are usually called religious experiences no matter what the nature of the ecstasy or the trigger inducing it. Religious people may hold the view that true religious ecstasy occurs only in their religious context, an ecstatic experience may take place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. It may also happen without any known reason, the particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually one that is associated with that individuals particular religious and cultural traditions. As a result, an experience is usually interpreted within the particular individual religious context. Athletes may follow rituals in preparing for contests, which are dismissed as superstition, Yoga provides techniques to attain an ecstasy state called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are stages of ecstasy, the highest being Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhakti Yoga especially, places emphasis on ecstasy as being one of the fruits of its practice, in Buddhism, especially in the Pali Canon, there are eight states of trance also called absorption. The first four states are Rupa or, materially-oriented, the next four are Arupa or non-material. These eight states are preliminary trances which lead up to final saturation, in Visuddhimagga, great effort and years of sustained meditation are practiced to reach the first absorption, and that not all individuals are able to accomplish it at all. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a less intense state with much less practice, in the Dionysian Mysteries, initiates used intoxicants and other trance-inducing techniques to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated with communion, however, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them. Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit, the firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine. In modern Pentecostal, charismatic and spirit-filled Christianity, numerous examples of religious ecstasy have transpired and these occurrences however, have changed significantly since the time of the Toronto Blessing phenomena and several other North American so-called revivals and outpourings from the mid 1990s. It is said to be a prophetic action bringing spiritual blessings from God into the world, many believe spiritual birthing to be highly demonic in nature and more occult-like than Christian
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Desert Fathers
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The Desert Fathers were early Christian hermits, ascetics, and monks who lived mainly in the Scetes desert of Egypt beginning around the third century AD. The Apophthegmata Patrum is a collection of the wisdom of some of the desert monks and nuns. The most well known was Anthony the Great, who moved to the desert in 270–271 AD, the Desert Fathers had a major influence on the development of Christianity. The desert monastic communities that grew out of the gathering of hermit monks became the model for Christian monasticism. The eastern monastic tradition at Mt. Athos and the western Rule of St. Benedict both were influenced by the traditions that began in the desert. All of the revivals of the Middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration. Much of Eastern Christian spirituality, including the Hesychast movement, had its roots in the practices of the Desert Fathers. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, sometime around 270 AD, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of ones possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Christ. He followed the advice and made the step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude. Anthony lived in a time of transition for Christianity — the Diocletianic Persecution in 303 AD was the last great formal persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, only ten years later, Christianity was made legal in Egypt by Diocletians successor Constantine I. Those who left for the desert formed an alternate Christian society, the solitude, austerity, and sacrifice of the desert was seen by Anthony as an alternative to martyrdom, which was formerly seen by many Christians as the highest form of sacrifice. Anthony quickly gained followers eager to live their lives in accordance with this solidarity, around this time, desert monasticism appeared nearly simultaneously in several areas, including Egypt and Syria. Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers and they chose a life of extreme asceticism, renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable. Thousands joined them in the desert, mostly men but also a handful of women, religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthonys death, there were so many men and women living in the desert that it was described as a city by Anthonys biographer, three main types of monasticism developed in Egypt around the Desert Fathers. One was the life of the hermit, as practiced by Anthony. Another was the life, communities of monks and nuns in upper Egypt formed by Pachomius. The third was a semi-hermitic lifestyle seen mostly in Nitria, Kellia and Scetis, west of the Nile, the latter were small groups of monks and nuns with a common spiritual elder — these separate groups would join together in larger gatherings to worship on Saturdays and Sundays
10.
Athanasius of Alexandria
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His episcopate lasted 45 years, of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism. Conflict with Arius and Arianism as well as successive Roman emperors shaped Athanasius career, in 325, at the age of 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of Nicaea. Roman emperor Constantine the Great had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God, three years after that council, Athanasius succeeded his mentor as archbishop of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians, he struggled against the Emperors Constantine, Constantius II, Julian the Apostate and he was known as Athanasius Contra Mundum. Nonetheless, within a few years after his death, Gregory of Nazianzus called him the Pillar of the Church, Athanasius is counted as one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, he is labeled as the Father of Orthodoxy, some Protestants label him as Father of the Canon. Athanasius is venerated as a Christian saint, whose feast day is 2 May in Western Christianity,15 May in the Coptic Orthodox Church and he is venerated by the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Roman Catholic Church, the Lutherans, and the Anglican Communion. Athanasius was born to a Christian family in the city of Alexandria or possibly the nearby Nile Delta town of Damanhur sometime between the years 293 and 298, the accusation must have seemed plausible. The Orthodox Church places his year of birth around 297 and his parents were wealthy enough to afford giving him a fine secular education. Some Western scholars consider his command of Greek, in which he wrote most of his surviving works, however, in Coptic literature, Athanasius is the first patriarch of Alexandria to use Coptic as well as Greek in his writings. Rufinus relates a story that as Bishop Alexander stood by a window, he watched boys playing on the seashore below and he sent for the children and discovered that one of the boys had acted as bishop. He invited Athanasius and his playfellows to prepare for clerical careers, Alexandria was the most important trade center in the whole empire during Athanasiuss boyhood. Intellectually, morally, and politically—it epitomized the ethnically diverse Graeco-Roman world, even more than Rome or Constantinople, Athanasius recounts being a student, as well as being educated by the Martyrs of the Great and last persecution of Christianity by pagan Rome. This persecution was most severe in the East, particularly in Egypt, Peter of Alexandria, the 17th archbishop of Alexandria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of that persecution, and may have been one of those teachers. His successor as bishop of Alexandria, Alexander of Alexandria was an Origenist as well as a mentor of Athanasius. According to Sozomen, Bishop Alexander invited Athanasius to be his commensal, Athanasius earliest work, Against the Heathen – On the Incarnation, bears traces of Origenist Alexandrian thought but in an orthodox way. Athanasius was also familiar with the theories of philosophical schools
11.
John Chrysostom
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John Chrysostom, c.349 –407, Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. The epithet Χρυσόστομος means golden-mouthed in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence, Chrysostom was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church exceeded only by Augustine in the quantity of his surviving writings. He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox, together with the Byzantine Catholics, hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs. The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 13 November and 27 January, in the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church and commemorated on 13 September. Other churches of the Western tradition, including some Anglican provinces and some Lutheran churches, however, certain Lutheran churches and Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of 27 January. The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint, John was born in Antioch in 349 to Greek parents from Syria. Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian, Johns father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader, as a result of his mothers influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius. From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature. As he grew older, however, John became more committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus. According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his if the Christians had not taken him from us. John lived in asceticism and became a hermit in about 375. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged, John was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome. After the death of Meletius, John separated himself from the followers of Meletius, without joining Paulinus, but after the death of Paulinus he was ordained a presbyter in 386 by Evagrius, the successor of Paulinus. He was destined later to bring reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years. The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible and he emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property, Do you wish to honour the body of Christ, do not ignore him when he is naked. Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to him outside where he is cold
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Bernard of Clairvaux
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Bernard of Clairvaux, O. Cist was a French abbot and the primary reformer of the Cistercian order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order, three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val dAbsinthe, about 15 kilometres southeast of Bar-sur-Aube. According to tradition, Bernard founded the monastery on 25 June 1115, naming it Claire Vallée, there Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, on the death of Pope Honorius II on 13 February 1130, a schism broke out in the Church. King Louis VI of France convened a council of the French bishops at Étampes in 1130. After the council of Étampes, Bernard spoke with King Henry I of England, also known as Henry Beauclerc, Henry I was sceptical because most of the bishops of England supported Antipope Anacletus II, Bernard persuaded him to support Innocent. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernards, however, Innocent insisted on Bernards company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair III became Innocents strongest ally among the nobility, although the councils of Étampes, Wurzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus. Bernard set out to convince these other regions to rally behind Innocent, the first person he went to was Gerard of Angoulême. He proceeded to write a letter, known as Letter 126, Bernard would later comment that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard traveled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine and he was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135, after that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent. He traveled to Sicily in 1137 to convince the king of Sicily to follow Innocent, the whole conflict ended when Anacletus died on 25 January 1138. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the matter. Bernard soon saw one of his disciples elected Pope Eugene III, having previously helped end the schism within the church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled in southern France and his preaching there helped strengthen support against heresy, after the Christian defeat at the Siege of Edessa, the pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade. The last years of Bernards life were saddened by the failure of the crusaders, Bernard died at the age of 63, after 40 years as a monk. He was the first Cistercian placed on the calendar of saints, in 1830 Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon Bernard the title Doctor of the Church
The Cloud of Unknowing public domain audiobook at LibriVox