1.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
2.
Christian mysticism
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Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often connected to mystical theology, especially in the Roman Catholic. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and they range from ecstatic visions of the souls mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture. Mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning to conceal, in the Hellenistic world, a mystikos was an initiate of a mystery religion. Mystical referred to religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. In early Christianity the term referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to hidden or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures, the liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God, William James popularized the use of the term religious experience in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as an experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. Other critics point out that the stress on experience is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, transformation has particular importance in the theology of Origen. Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is shaped by cultural issues. Thus, the nature of experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology, in Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, Daat became gnosis, and poverty became an important component of monasticism. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen and Clement of Alexandria, given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within Gods love, which is seen as a form of truth. Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore some of the same ideas, images. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew Scriptures provides access to the meanings of the texts
3.
Mystical theology
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Mystical Theology is the branch of theology that explains mystical practices and states, as induced by contemplative practices such as contemplative prayer. According to Origen and the Alexandrian theology, theoria is the knowledge of God in creation and of sensible things and this knowledge and contemplation leads to communion with God akin to Divine Providence. In the theological tradition of St. Macarius of Egypt, theoria is the point of interaction between God and the human in the heart of the person, manifesting spiritual gifts to the human heart. The highest form of contemplation originates in the heart, a form of contemplation than that of the intellect. The concept that theoria is allotted to each individual by their capacity to comprehend God is consistent. This is also the tradition of theoria, as taught by St. Symeon the New Theologian and this experience cultivates humility, meekness and the love of the human race that the Triune God has created. This invisible fire in the heart for humanity is manifest in absolute kindness and love for ones neighbor akin to selfless humility, agape or love, growing from mortification, kenosis and this agape, or holy fire, is the essence of Orthodoxy. In the Cappadocian school of thought, theoria is the experience of the highest or absolute truth and it is entering the Cloud of Unknowing, which is beyond rational understanding, and can be embraced only in love of God. The Cappadocian fathers went beyond the intellectual contemplation of the Alexandrian fathers and this was to begin with the seminal work Philokalia, which, through hesychasm, leads to Phronema and finally theosis, which is validated by theoria. One must move beyond gnosis to faith, through ignorance, one moves beyond knowledge and being, this contemplation being theoria. In this tradition, theoria means understanding that the Uncreated cannot be grasped by the logical or rational mind, but only by the whole person, at this point, one can commune with God just as Moses did. Gregory of Nyssa presented as the culmination of the Christian religion the contemplation of the divine Being, pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, himself influenced by the Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus, had a strong impact on Christian thought and practice, both east and west. Theoria is the theme of Dionysius’ work called The Mystical Theology. In chapter 1, Dionysius says that God dwells in divine darkness i. e, God is unknowable through sense and reason. Therefore, a person must leave behind the activity of sense and reason, through spiritual union with God, the mystic is granted theoria and through this vision is ultimately given knowledge of God. In the tradition of Dionysus the Areopagite, theoria is the lifting up of the out of time, space and created being, while the Triune God reaches down, or descends. This process is known as ekstasis. While theoria is possible through prayer, it is attained in a way through the Eucharist
4.
Neoplatonism and Christianity
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Neoplatonism was a major influence on Christian theology throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages in the West. Certain central tenets of Neoplatonism served as an interim for the Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo on his journey from dualistic Manichaeism to Christianity. As a Manichee, Augustine had held that evil has substantial being and that God is made of matter, as a Neoplatonist, and later a Christian, Augustine believed that evil is a privation of good and that God is not material. Perhaps more importantly, the emphasis on mystical contemplation as a means to directly encounter God or the One, found in the writings of Plotinus and Porphyry and he reports at least two mystical experiences in his Confessions which clearly follow the Neoplatonic model. Many other Christians were influenced by Neoplatonism, especially in their identifying the Neoplatonic One, or God, the most influential of these would be Origen, who potentially took classes from Ammonius Saccas, and the late 5th century author known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Neoplatonism also had links with Gnosticism, which Plotinus rebuked in his ninth tractate of the second Enneads, Against Those That Affirm The Creator of The Kosmos and The Kosmos Itself to Be Evil. Due to their belief being grounded in Platonic thought, the Neoplatonists rejected Gnosticisms vilification of Platos demiurge, Plotinus believed the followers of gnosticism had corrupted the original teachings of Plato. Despite the influence this philosophy had on Christianity, Justinian I would hurt later Neoplatonism by ordering the closure of the refounded Academy of Athens in 529, Pseudo-Dionysius proved significant for both the Byzantine and Roman branches of Christianity. His works were translated into Latin by John Scotus Eriugena in the 9th century, from the days of the Early Church until the present, the Orthodox Church has made positive selective use of ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics. For example, the term originated with Heraclitus and meant reason or thought. In the Christian context, Logos takes on a deeper meaning, the writer and theologian Gregory Palamas gives four distinct meanings for the term ‘logos’. The most important principle to keep in mind is that early Christianity developed in a Greek milieu, however, the meanings of words sometimes evolved along different lines. In other cases, philosophical ideas and concepts were adapted and changed by Christian writers. Any exegetical endeavor trying to unravel the influence of Neo-Platonic thought on Christian theology needs to keep these principles in mind, One should also note that philosophy was used quite differently in the Eastern and Western theological traditions. The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite are among the most enigmatic works of late antiquity, Byzantine scholars such as Gregory Palamas cited Dionysius especially in matters of Mystical Theology such as theoria, the divine energies and the unknowability of God. At present, modern theologians and philosophers are still debating whether Dionysius was a Neo-Platonist with Christian influences or a Christian writer with Neo-Platonic influences, among Orthodox scholars, the later view seems to be shared by such writers as Andrew Louth and Vladimir Lossky. However, other Orthodox scholars such as John Meyendorff believe that the Neo-Platonism of Dionysius exerted both positive and negative influences on Orthodox theology, Meyendorff maintains that Dionysius has led to some confusion in the areas of liturgical and ecclesiological formulations. Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plotinus, Proclus, as well as Platos complete works into Latin, was the figure of a major Neoplatonist revival in the Renaissance
5.
Henosis
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Henosis is the classical Greek word for mystical oneness, union, or unity. In Platonism, and especially Neoplatonism, the goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality, the One, the Neoplatonic concept has precedents in the Greek mystery religions as well as parallels in Eastern philosophy. It is further developed in the Corpus Hermeticum, in Christian theology, soteriology, the term is relatively common in classical texts, and has the meaning of union or unity. Henosis, orprimordial unity, is rational and deterministic, emanating from indeterminism an uncaused cause, each individual as a microcosm reflects the gradual ordering of the universe referred to as the macrocosm. In mimicking the demiurge, one unites with The One or Monad, thus the process of unification, of The Being, and The One, is called Henosis. The culmination of Henosis is deification, Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation toward no thought and no division within the individual. As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on Henology, one can reach a tabula rasa and this absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Within the Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge, the Monad or dunamis is of one singular expression all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all. All division is reconciled in the one, the stage before reaching singularity, called duality, is completely reconciled in the Monad. As the one, source or substance of all things the Monad is all encompassing, as infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus and it is the demiurge or nous that perceives and therefore causes the force to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being, being and perception manifest what is called soul, Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus works have a character in that they reject matter as an illusion. Matter was strictly treated as immanent, with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia and this approach is called philosophical Idealism. Within the works of Iamblichus of Chalcis, The One and reconciliation of division can be obtained through the process of theurgy, by mimicking the demiurge, the individual is returned to the cosmos to implement the will of the divine mind. One goes through a series of theurgy or rituals that unites the initiate to the Monad and these rituals mimic the ordering of the chaos of the Universe into the material world or cosmos. Thus one without conflict internal or external is united and is The One, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, but also in western mysticism, henosis can be acquired by theoria, hesychasm and contemplative prayer. Yet, the concept of theosis, or deification, differs from henosis, since created beings cannot become God in His transcendent essence, nondualism Absolute Apotheosis Fana Form of the Good Moksha Monolatrism The All Theosis http, //www. goddess-athena. org/Encyclopedia/Friends/Iamblichus/index. htm
6.
Christian monasticism
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Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It has come to be regulated by rules and, in modern times. Those living the life are known by the generic terms monks. In modern English, they are known by the gender-neutral term monastics. The word monk originated from the Greek monachos monk, itself from monos meaning alone, monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together, quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, By creating a social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions. Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community, the basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the religious orders such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, the latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc. which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it. Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians, Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types the eremitical or secluded, the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first, the monastic life is based on Jesuss amen to be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia and their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels, poverty, chastity and obedience. Monks and friars are two distinct roles, in the thirteenth century … new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, because monasteries had declined. First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism, the Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah. From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesuss 40 days in the desert and they have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century, eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society
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Asceticism
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Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
8.
Christian meditation
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Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to become aware of and reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditārī, which has a range of meanings including to reflect on, to study, Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. Christian meditation aims to heighten the relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. Teachings in both the Eastern and Western Christian churches have emphasized the use of Christian meditation as an element in increasing knowledge of Christ. Christian meditation involves looking back on Jesus life, thanksgiving and adoration of God for his action in sending Jesus for human salvation. In her book The Interior Castle Saint Teresa of Avila defined Christian meditation as follows, By meditation I mean prolonged reasoning with the understanding, in this way. We begin by thinking of the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son, building on that theme, E. P. Clowney explained that three dimensions of Christian meditation are crucial, not merely for showing its distinctiveness, but for guiding its practice. The first is that Christian meditation is grounded in the Bible, the second distinctive mark of Christian meditation is that it responds to the love of God, as in I John, We love, for he first loved us. The personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion is thus heightened in Christian meditation, the third dimension is that the revelations of the Bible and the love of God lead to the worship of God, making Christian meditation an exercise in praise. While Protestants view salvation in terms of faith and grace alone both Western and Eastern Christians see a role for meditation on the path to salvation and redemption, apostle Paul stated in Epistle to the Romans 9,16 that salvation only comes from God that hath mercy. The path to salvation in Christian meditation is not one of give and take, the Word of God directs meditations to show the two aspects of love that please God, obedience and adoration. The initiative in Christian salvation is with God, and one does not meditate or love God to gain his favor. In Western Christian teachings, meditation is believed to involve the inherent action of the Holy Spirit to help the meditating Christian understand the deeper meanings of the Word of God. In the 20th century, Hans Urs von Balthasar paraphrased this teaching as follows, how could we understand what is within God and is disclosed to us except through the Spirit of God who is communicated to us. As a biblical basis for teaching, von Balthasar referred to 1 Corinthians 2, 9-10. The Spirit searches all things, even the things of God. Christian meditation is different from the style of meditations performed in Eastern religions or in the context of the New Age, while other types of meditation may suggest approaches to disengage the mind, Christian meditation aims to fill the mind with thoughts related to Biblical passages or Christian devotions. Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations are intended to stimulate thought, Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion
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Lectio Divina
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In Christianity, Lectio Divina is a traditional Benedictine practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of Gods Word. It does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, traditionally, Lectio Divina has four separate steps, read, meditate, pray, contemplate. First a passage of Scripture is read, then its meaning is reflected upon and this is followed by prayer and contemplation on the Word of God. The focus of Lectio Divina is not an analysis of biblical passages. In Lectio Divina, however, the practitioner enters and shares the peace of Christ rather than dissecting it, in some Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ. The roots of Scriptural reflection and interpretation go back to Origen in the 3rd century, before the emergence of the Western monastic communities, a key contribution to the foundation of Lectio Divina came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of Scripture as a sacrament. In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote, hen you devote yourself to the divine reading, seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people. Origen believed that The Word was incarnate in Scripture and could touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that the reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts, in Origens approach the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ. In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God, in this view, using Christ as the interpretive key unlocks the message in Scriptural texts. The primordial role of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI, in the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of constant prayer in a monastic setting. After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, according to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is Romans 10, 8–10 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of Gods word in the mouth or heart. It was the recitation of the text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina. With the motto Ora et labora, daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements, liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina, a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation and this spiritual practice is called divine reading or spiritual reading – i. e. lectio divina
10.
Intercession of saints
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Intercession of the saints is a doctrine held by the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. The practice of praying to saints can be found in Christian writings from the 3rd century onwards, the 4th-century Apostles Creed states belief in the communion of saints, which certain Christian churches interpret as supporting the intercession of saints. As in Christianity, this practice is controversial in Judaism and Islam, advocates of the doctrine say that Jesus parable of The Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16, 19–31 indicates the ability of the dead to pray for the living. Aquinas quotes Revelation 8,4, And the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before God from the hand of the angel, both those for and against the intercession of saints quote Job 5,1. Roman Catholic Church doctrine supports intercessory prayer to saints, intercessory prayer to saints also plays an important role in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches. Also some Anglo-Catholics believe in saintly intercession and this practice is an application of the Catholic doctrine of the Communion of Saints. It is understood that some of the basis for this was the belief that martyrs passed immediately into the presence of God. A further reinforcement, of the idea, was derived from the cult of the angels. The Catholic doctrine of intercession and invocation is set forth by the Council of Trent, with the exception of a few early Protestant churches, most modern Protestant churches strongly reject all saintly intercession, which they believe is contrary to biblical teaching. However, the Thirty-Nine Articles condemn the invocation of saints as a thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture. The bishop William Forbes termed the Anglican practice advocation of the saints, meaning asking for the saints to pray with them and on their behalf, however, they strongly reject invoking or asking help of saints. The Augsburg Confession emphasizes that Christ is the mediator between God and man, and that he is the one to address prayers to. Like the Lutheran churches, the Calvinist and other Reformed churches understand the communion of saints mentioned in the Apostles Creed to comprise all believers, invocation of saints is considered to be a transgression of the First Commandment. The Methodist Articles of Religion from 1784, in their XIV, in ancient Judaism, it was also popular to pray for intercession from Michael in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people. There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel, one composed by Eliezer ha-Kalir, and those who oppose this practice feel that to God alone may prayers be offered. In modern times one of the greatest divisions in Jewish theology is over the issue of one can beseech the help of a tzadik – an extremely righteous individual. The main conflict is over a practice of beseeching a tzadik who has died to make intercession before the Almighty. This practice is mainly among Chasidic Jews, but also found in varying degrees among other usually Chareidi communities
11.
Christian contemplation
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Christian contemplation, from contemplatio, refers to several Christian practices which aim at looking at, gazing at, being aware of God or the Divine. It includes several practices and theological concepts, Christianity took up the use of both the Greek and Latin terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God. Eastern and Western traditions of Christianity grew apart as they incorporated the notion of theoria into their respective teachings. It expressed the state of being a spectator, both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana, including Ian Rutherford, Binod Kumar Agarwala, Gregory Grieve, insight into being and becoming through the intuitive truth called faith, in God, leads to truth through our contemplative faculties. This theory, or speculation, as action in faith and love for God, is then expressed famously as Beauty shall Save the World and this expression comes from a mystical or gnosiological perspective, rather than a scientific, philosophical or cultural one. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. Aristotle, on the hand, separated the spectating of theoria from practical purposes, and saw it as an end in itself. Thomas Louis Schubeck says that, in Aristotles view, the knowledge that guides ethical political activity does not belong to theoria, leading a contemplative life can be considered Aristotles answer to the question what life humans ought to live. … The more humans engage in contemplation, the closer they are to their gods, Aristotles view that the best life would be a purely contemplative one was disputed by the Stoics and others, such as the Epicureans, who saw speculation as inferior to practical ethics. Contemplation is, then, knowledge, knowledge of reality itself, as opposed to knowing how, Augustine expressed this distinction by using scientia for the kind of knowledge attained by ratio, and sapientia, wisdom, for the kind of knowledge received by intellectus. Human intelligence operates at two levels, a basic level concerned with doing things, and another level concerned with simply beholding, contemplating, knowing reality, in the Enneads of Plotinus, a founder of Neoplatonism, everything is contemplation and everything is derived from contemplation. Knowledge of The One is achieved through experience of its power, Plotinus agreed with Aristotles systematic distinction between contemplation and practice, dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstension from practical, active life. Plotinus explained, The point of action is contemplation, some Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. Some make a distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. Saint John Cassian recommended use of the phrase O God, make speed to save me, O Lord, another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus. Or the Jesus Prayer, which has called the mantra of the Orthodox Church. The author of The Cloud of Unknowing recommended use of a monosyllabic word, Theoria refers to a stage of illumination on the path to theosis
12.
Hesychasm
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Hesychasm is a mystical tradition of contemplative prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Gregory Palamas, on which see Palamism, the origin of the term hesychasmos, and of the related terms hesychastes, hesychia and hesychazo, is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampes A Patristic Greek Lexicon, the basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear as early as the 4th century in such fathers as St John Chrysostom and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the period in Evagrius Pontikos, who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians. In Egypt, the more often used are anchoretism. The term Hesychast was used in the 6th century in Palestine in the Lives of Cyril of Scythopolis, here, it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia. The laws of the Emperor Justinian I treat Hesychast and anchorite as synonyms and it is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation. Hesychasm itself is not recorded in Lampes Lexicon, which indicates that it is a later usage, and the term Jesus Prayer is not found in any of the Fathers of the Church. Saint John Cassian presents as the used in Egypt for repetitive prayer, not the Jesus Prayer. Most likely, the rise of the term Hesychasm reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete, Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner focus and blocking of the physical senses. In this, hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Ponticus and even in the Greek tradition of going back to Plato. This is the same prayer used by the Christian Hesychasts and is the reason that they were mocked by their opponents as navel gazers. This bodily position and the practice of rhythmically breathing while invoking a divine name seems to be common to both Jewish Merkabah mysticism and Christian Hesychasm, thus the practice may have origins in the ascetical practices of the biblical prophets. Daniel Boyarin notes that Pauls own account of experience would therefore be the earliest first person account of the mystical vision of a Merkabah adept. The Hesychast interprets Christs injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to go into your closet to pray to mean one should ignore the senses. Saint John of Sinai writes, Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless primary Cognitive faculty of the soul in the house of the body. Theosis is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer resulting from the cultivation of watchfulness, according to the standard ascetic formulation of this process, there are three stages, Katharsis or purification, Theoria or illumination, and Theosis or deification. The primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis, in solitude and retirement, the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner
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Quietism (Christian philosophy)
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Since the late seventeenth century, “Quietism” has functioned, as the shorthand for accounts which are perceived to fall foul of the same theological errors, and thus to be heretical. As such, the term has come to be applied to beliefs far outside its original context, the term quietism was not used until the 17th century, so some writers have dubbed the expression of such errors before this era as ‘pre-quietism’. Quietism is particularly associated with Miguel de Molinos, referred to by the Catholic Encyclopedia as the founder of Quietism, Molinos and the doctrines of quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull Coelestis Pastor of 1687. Molinos was imprisoned in the Castel SantAngelo, where he died in 1696, Quietism spread among Roman Catholicism through small groups into France. Here it was influenced by the thought of François de Sales. Madame Guyon won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and she was also a spiritual counsellor to Archbishop Fénelon of Cambrai. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, in 1699, after Fénelon’s spirited defense in a press war with Bossuet, Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s Maxims of the Saints, to which Fénelon submitted at once. The inquisitions proceedings against remaining quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century and it is possible to isolate similar tendencies as those condemned in the seventeenth century “Quietist” controversy in earlier periods. The Cathars’ denial of the need for sacerdotal rites has been perceived as a form of quietism, likewise, the twelfth and thirteenth-century Brethren of the Free Spirit, Beguines and Beghards were all accused of holding beliefs with similarities to those condemned in the Quietist controversy. This may be a reference to the Cathars or Albigenses of southern France and Catalonia. Similar assertions of individual autonomy on the part of the Fraticelli led to their condemnation by John XXII in 1317, the condemnation of the errors of Meister Eckhart in 1329 may also be seen as an instance of an analogous concern in Christian history. In early sixteenth century Spain, concern over a set of beliefs held by those known as alumbrados raised similar concerns to those of Quietism and these concerns continued into the mid-sixteenth century, and the writings of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross. Thus, their work was not condemned as heresy, being consistent with Church teaching, the Capuchin friar Benet Canfield, an English Catholic living in Belgium, espoused quietism in a tract called Way of Perfection, on deep prayer and meditation. Beguines and Beghards Christian mysticism Hesychasm Johannes Kelpius Religious Society of Friends Taoism Zen Buddhism Nondualism Dandelion, a Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers, The Silent Revolution New York, Ontario & Lampeter, Edwin Mellen Press,1996. Renoux, Christian, Quietism, in The Papacy, An Encyclopedia, vol 3, edited by Philippe Levillain,3 vols, Miguel de Molinos, The Spiritual Guide, ed and trans by Robert P Baird, Bayley, Peter. Between Ambition and Quietism, the Socio-political Background of 1 Thessalonians 4, Revolution and Quietism, Two Political Attitudes in Theological Perspective. Quietism versus Enthusiasm, The Philadelphia Quakers and the Great Awakening, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Catholic Encyclopedia, Quietism as a false or exaggerated mysticism Columbia Encyclopedia on quietism More information Encyclopedia. com on quietism Encyclopædia Britannica1911, Quietism Informative
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Divinization (Christian)
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In Christian theology, divinization is the transforming effect of divine grace, the spirit of God, or the atonement of Christ. It literally means to become divine, or to become God. There were many varied references to divinization in the writings of the Church Fathers, in the second century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons said that God became what we are in order to make us what he is himself. Irenaeus also wrote, If the Word became a man, It was so men may become gods. He added, Do we cast blame on him because we were not made gods from the beginning, but were at first created merely as men, and then later as gods. For it was necessary at first that nature be exhibited, then after that what was mortal would be conquered and swallowed up in immortality. At about the time, Clement of Alexandria, wrote, Yea, I say. Clement further stated that f one knows himself, he will know God and his is beauty, true beauty, for it is God, and that man becomes a god, since God wills it. So Heraclitus was right when he said, Men are gods, Clement of Alexandria also stated that he who obeys the Lord and follows the prophecy given through him. Becomes a god while still moving about in the flesh, 100–165) insisted that in the beginning men were made like God, free from suffering and death, and that they are thus deemed worthy of becoming gods and of having power to become sons of the highest. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, stated his belief in literal deification, just as the Lord, putting on the body, became a man, so also we men are both deified through his flesh, and henceforth inherit everlasting life. Athanasius also observed, For the Son of God became man so that we might become God, Augustine of Hippo said, But he himself that justifies also deifies, for by justifying he makes sons of God. For he has given them power to become the sons of God, If then we have been made sons of god, we have also been made gods. To make human beings gods, Augustine said, He was made man who was God, Augustine goes on to write that are not born of His Substance, that they should be the same as He, but that by favour they should come to Him. Clement of Alexandria he Word of God became man, that thou mayest learn from man how man may become God. For if one knows himself, he will know God, and knowing God, he will be made like God is is beauty, the beauty, for it is God. Heraclitus, then, rightly said, Men are gods, and to be incorruptible is to participate in divinity. Theophilus of Antioch For if He had made him immortal from the beginning, again, if He had made him mortal, God would seem to be the cause of his death
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Catharsis
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Catharsis is the purification and purgation of emotions—especially pity and fear—through art or any extreme change in emotion that results in renewal and restoration. It is a metaphor used by Aristotle in the Poetics. Catharsis is a term in art that describes the effect of tragedy principally on the audience. Nowhere does Aristotle explain the meaning of catharsis as he is using that term in the definition of tragedy in the Poetics, for this reason, a number of diverse interpretations of the meaning of this term have arisen. The term is discussed along with Aristotles concept of anagnorisis. D. W. Lucas, in an edition of the Poetics, comprehensively covers the various nuances inherent in the meaning of the term in an Appendix devoted to Pity, Fear. Lucas himself does not accept any one of interpretations as his own. Purgation and purification, used in centuries, as the common interpretations of catharsis are still in wide use today. In his works prior to the Poetics, Aristotle had used the term catharsis purely in its medical sense, here, however, he employs it as a medical metaphor. F. L. Lucas maintains, therefore, that purification and cleansing are not proper translations for catharsis and it is the human soul that is purged of its excessive passions. Else made the argument against the purgation theory, It presupposes that we come to the tragic drama as patients to be cured, relieved, restored to psychic health. But there is not a word to support this in the Poetics, on the contrary it is evident in every line of the work that Aristotle is presupposing normal auditors, normal states of mind and feeling, normal emotional and aesthetic experience. Tragedy is then a corrective, through watching tragedy, the audience learns how to feel these emotions at proper levels. In the twentieth century a shift took place in the interpretation of catharsis with a number of scholars contributing to the argument in support of the intellectual clarification concept. It is generally understood that Aristotles theory of mimesis and catharsis are responses to Platos negative view of artistic mimesis on an audience. Aristotles concept of catharsis, in all of the major senses attributed to it, the following analysis by E. R. what fascinates us is the spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest motives a series of actions which lead to his own ruin. Oedipus might have left the plague to take its course, when Apollos word came back, he might still have left the murder of Laius uninvestigated, but piety and justice required him to act. He need not have forced the truth from the reluctant Theban herdsman, teiresias, Jocasta, the herdsman, each in turn tries to stop him, but in vain, he must read the last riddle, the riddle of his own life
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Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)
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Theosis or deification is a transformative process whose aim is likeness to or union with God, as taught by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. As a process of transformation, theosis is brought about by the effects of catharsis, According to Eastern Christian teaching, theosis is very much the purpose of human life. It is considered achievable only through a synergy between human activity and Gods uncreated energies, Eastern Christians consider that no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian in the proper sense. Theology in Eastern Christianity is not treated primarily as an academic pursuit, St. Athanasius of Alexandria wrote, He was incarnate that we might be made god. His statement is an apt description of the doctrine, what would otherwise seem absurd—that fallen, sinful man may become holy as God is holy—has been made possible through Jesus Christ, who is God incarnate. Most specifically creatures, i. e. created beings, cannot become God in His transcendent essence, or ousia, such a concept would be the henosis, or absorption and fusion into God of Greek pagan philosophy. However, every being and reality itself is considered as composed of the immanent energy, or Energeia, as energy is the actuality of God, i. e. His immanence, from Gods being, it is also the Energeia or activity of God, thus the doctrine avoids pantheism while partially accepting Neoplatonisms terms and general concepts, but not its substance. Let us become the image of the one whole God, bearing nothing earthly in ourselves, so that we may consort with God and become gods, receiving from God our existence as gods. e. The created image of God, through their communion with Jesus Christ, God shares Himself with the race, in order to conform them to all that He is in knowledge, righteousness. As God became human, in all ways except sin, He will also make humans God, i. e. holy or saintly, in all ways except His Divine Essence, which is uncaused and uncreated. Some Eastern Christian theologians go so far as to say that Jesus would have become incarnate for this alone, even if Adam. All of humanity is fully restored to the potential of humanity because the Son of God took to himself a human nature to be born of a woman. In Christ the two natures of God and human are not two persons but one, thus a union is effected in Christ between all of humanity in principle and God, so the holy God and sinful humanity are reconciled in principle in the one sinless man, Jesus Christ. This reconciliation is made actual through the struggle to conform to the image of Christ, without the struggle, the praxis, there is no real faith, faith leads to action, without which it is dead. One must unite will, thought, and action to Gods will, his thoughts, a person must fashion his life to be a mirror, a true likeness of God. Thus the term describes the whole process and its objective. By means of purification a person comes to theoria and then to theosis, Theosis is the participation of the person in the life of God
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Religious ecstasy
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Although the experience is usually brief in time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during ones lifetime. A persons sense of time and space disappear during a religious ecstasy forsaking any senses or physical cognizance in its duration. Among venerated Catholic saints who dabble in Christian mysticism, a physical stature, human sensory, or perception is completely detached to time. In Sufism, the term is referred to as wajd and the experience is referred to as either jazbah or majzoobiyat, the adjective religious means that the experience occurs in connection with religious activities or is interpreted in context of a religion. Thus we find experiences given such names as nature, religious, aesthetic, neo-platonic, ecstasies enjoyed by accepted religious mystics are usually called religious experiences no matter what the nature of the ecstasy or the trigger inducing it. Religious people may hold the view that true religious ecstasy occurs only in their religious context, an ecstatic experience may take place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. It may also happen without any known reason, the particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually one that is associated with that individuals particular religious and cultural traditions. As a result, an experience is usually interpreted within the particular individual religious context. Athletes may follow rituals in preparing for contests, which are dismissed as superstition, Yoga provides techniques to attain an ecstasy state called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are stages of ecstasy, the highest being Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhakti Yoga especially, places emphasis on ecstasy as being one of the fruits of its practice, in Buddhism, especially in the Pali Canon, there are eight states of trance also called absorption. The first four states are Rupa or, materially-oriented, the next four are Arupa or non-material. These eight states are preliminary trances which lead up to final saturation, in Visuddhimagga, great effort and years of sustained meditation are practiced to reach the first absorption, and that not all individuals are able to accomplish it at all. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a less intense state with much less practice, in the Dionysian Mysteries, initiates used intoxicants and other trance-inducing techniques to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated with communion, however, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them. Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit, the firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine. In modern Pentecostal, charismatic and spirit-filled Christianity, numerous examples of religious ecstasy have transpired and these occurrences however, have changed significantly since the time of the Toronto Blessing phenomena and several other North American so-called revivals and outpourings from the mid 1990s. It is said to be a prophetic action bringing spiritual blessings from God into the world, many believe spiritual birthing to be highly demonic in nature and more occult-like than Christian
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Abstinence
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Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food, the practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs, for example, one can abstain from smoking. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, in the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be an act, freely chosen to enhance life. The latter is a state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the life of desire, to a chosen ideal. Hindus observe fast once in a fightnight on the day of Ekadashi. This is done to please Lord Sri Krishna by keeping themselves busy in religious activities on this day, for Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the month of Ramadan. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet, in both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for a prior to taking Holy Communion. Many Traditionalist Catholics abstain from eating meat all Fridays in the year, Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence, the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat. Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol, mormons absstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for spiritual and charitable reasons. The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking. In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Hindus abstain from eating meat, total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism
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Origen
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Origen, or Origen Adamantius, was a Greek scholar, ascetic, and early Christian theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a writer in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, philosophical theology, preaching. He was anathematised at the Second Council of Constantinople and he was one of the most influential figures in early Christian asceticism. Origens Greek name Ōrigénēs probably means child of Horus and his nickname or cognomen Adamantios derives from Greek adámas, which means adamant, unalterable, unbreakable, unconquerable, diamond. He acquired it because of his ascetical practices. Origen was born in Alexandria to Christian parents and he was educated by his father, Leonides of Alexandria, who gave him a standard Hellenistic education, but also had him study the Christian scriptures. The name of his mother is unknown, in 202, Origens father was martyred in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus. A story reported by Eusebius has it that Origen wished to follow him in martyrdom, the death of Leonides left the family of nine impoverished when their property was confiscated. Many modern scholars, however, doubt that Clements school had been an ecclesiastical institution as Origens was. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library for a sum which netted him a daily income of 4 obols, on which he lived by exercising the utmost frugality. Teaching throughout the day, he devoted the greater part of the night to the study of the Bible, Eusebius reported that Origen, following Matthew 19,12 literally, castrated himself. The later church historian Philostorgius of Apamea, on the other hand, Eusebius story was accepted during the Middle Ages and was cited by Peter Abelard in his letters to Heloise. Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, during the past century, scholars have often questioned this, surmising that this may have been a rumor circulated by his detractors. Henry Chadwick points out that, while the story may be true, it seems unlikely, however, many noted historians, such as Peter Brown and William Placher, continue to find no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius claims. But the school had far outgrown the strength of a man, the catechumens pressed eagerly for elementary instruction. Under these circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas and his own interests became more and more centered in exegesis, and he accordingly studied Hebrew, though there is no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that language. From about this period dates Origens acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexandria, later Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen were dedicated to Ambrose. In the following year, an uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools
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Gregory of Nyssa
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Gregory of Nyssa, also known as Gregory Nyssen, was bishop of Nyssa from 372 to 376 and from 378 until his death. He is venerated as a saint in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Gregory, his elder brother Basil of Caesarea, and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus are collectively known as the Cappadocian Fathers. Gregorys philosophical writings were influenced by Origen, the book of Acts depicts that on the Day of Pentecost there were visiting Jews who were residents of. Cappadocia in attendance. In the First Epistle of Peter, written after AD65, there is no further reference to Cappadocia in the rest of the New Testament. Christianity arose in Cappadocia relatively late with no evidence of a Christian community before the second century AD. Alexander of Jerusalem was the first bishop of the province in the early to mid third century, the community remained very small throughout the third century, when Gregory Thaumaturgus acceded to the bishopric in c. 250, according to his namesake, the Nyssen, there were seventeen members of the Church in Caesarea. Cappadocian bishops were among those at the Council of Nicaea, because of the broad distribution of the population, rural bishops were appointed to support the Bishop of Caesarea. During the late fourth century there were around fifty of them, there were some adherents of heretical branches of Christianity, most notably Arians, Encratites and Messalians. Gregory was born around 335, probably in or near the city of Neocaesarea, among his eight siblings were St. Macrina the Younger, St. Naucratius, St. Peter of Sebaste and St. Basil of Caesarea. It has been established that this occurred due to the death of one son in infancy. Gregorys parents had suffered persecution for their faith, he writes that they had their goods confiscated for confessing Christ, between the 320s to the early 340s the family rebuilt its fortunes, with Gregorys father working in the city of Neocaeaseria as an advocate and rhetorician. Gregorys temperament is said to be quiet and meek, in contrast to his brother Basil who was known to be more outspoken. Gregory was first educated at home, by his mother Emmelia, little is known of what further education he received. Apocryphal hagiographies depict him studying at Athens, but this is probably based on the life of his brother Basil. It seems more likely that he continued his studies in Caesarea, Gregory himself claimed that his only teachers were Basil, Paul, John and the rest of the Apostles and prophets. While his brothers Basil and Naucratius lived as hermits from c,355, Gregory initially pursued a non-ecclesiastical career as a rhetorician. He did however, act as a lector and he is known to have married a woman named Theosebia during this period, who is sometimes identified with Theosebia the Deaconess, venerated as a saint by Orthodox Christianity
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Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
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The author pseudonymously identifies himself in the corpus as Dionysios, portraying himself as the figure of Dionysius the Areopagite, the Athenian convert of Paul of Tarsus mentioned in Acts 17,34. This false attribution to the earliest decades of Christianity resulted in the work being given authority in subsequent theological writing in both East and West. Its influence decreased in the West with the 15th century demonstration of its later dating, in attempts to identify a date after which the corpus must have been composed, a number of features have been identified in Dionysius writing, though the latter two are subject to scholarly debate. In the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy Dionysius twice seems to allude to the recitation of the Creed in the course of the liturgy. It is often asserted that Peter the Fuller first mandated the inclusion of the Nicene Creed in the liturgy in 476, thus providing an earliest date for the composition of the Corpus. It is often suggested that because Dionysius seems to eschew divisive Christological language, he was writing after the Henoticon of Zeno was in effect. Also, given that the Henoticon was rescinded in 518, if Dionysius was writing after this date and it is possible that pseudo-Dionysius was himself a member of this group, though debate continues over whether his writings do in fact reveal a monophysite understanding of Christ. The author pseudonymously identifies himself in the corpus as Dionysios, portraying himself as the figure of Dionysius the Areopagite, various legends existed in the early surrounding the figure of Dionysius, who became emblematic of the spread of the gospel to the Greek world. It is therefore not surprising that that author of works would have chosen to adopt the name of this otherwise briefly mentioned figure. }}The authorship of the Dionysian Corpus was initially disputed, Severus and his party affirmed its apostolic dating. During the 19th century modernist Catholics too came generally to accept that the author must have lived after the time of Proclus, both showed that Dionysius had used, in his treatise on evil in Chapter 4 of The Divine Names, the De malorum subsistentia of Proclus. Corrigan and Harrington find Pseudo-Dionysius to be most probably a pupil of Proclus, perhaps of Syrian origin, who knew enough of Platonism and the Christian tradition to transform them both. Since Proclus died in 485, and since the first clear citation of Dionysius works is by Severus of Antioch between 518 and 528, then we can place Dionysius authorship between 485 and 518-28. Ronald Hathaway provides a table listing most of the identifications of Dionysius. A more recent identification is with Damascius, the last scholarch of the School of Athens, there is therefore no current scholarly consensus on the question of Pseudo-Dionysius identification. There was no concept of property in the ancient world. The Stanford Encyclopedia claims It must also be recognized that forgery is a modern notion, like Plotinus and the Cappadocian Fathers before him, Dionysius does not claim to be an innovator, but rather a communicator of a tradition. His works are mystical, and show strong Neoplatonic influence, for example he uses Plotinus well-known analogy of a sculptor cutting away that which does not enhance the desired image, and shows familiarity with Proclus. He also shows influence from Clement of Alexandria, the Cappadocian Fathers, Origen of Alexandria, Parmenides, according to pseudo-Dionysius, God is better characterized and approached by negations than by affirmations
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Desert Fathers
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The Desert Fathers were early Christian hermits, ascetics, and monks who lived mainly in the Scetes desert of Egypt beginning around the third century AD. The Apophthegmata Patrum is a collection of the wisdom of some of the desert monks and nuns. The most well known was Anthony the Great, who moved to the desert in 270–271 AD, the Desert Fathers had a major influence on the development of Christianity. The desert monastic communities that grew out of the gathering of hermit monks became the model for Christian monasticism. The eastern monastic tradition at Mt. Athos and the western Rule of St. Benedict both were influenced by the traditions that began in the desert. All of the revivals of the Middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration. Much of Eastern Christian spirituality, including the Hesychast movement, had its roots in the practices of the Desert Fathers. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, sometime around 270 AD, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of ones possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Christ. He followed the advice and made the step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude. Anthony lived in a time of transition for Christianity — the Diocletianic Persecution in 303 AD was the last great formal persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, only ten years later, Christianity was made legal in Egypt by Diocletians successor Constantine I. Those who left for the desert formed an alternate Christian society, the solitude, austerity, and sacrifice of the desert was seen by Anthony as an alternative to martyrdom, which was formerly seen by many Christians as the highest form of sacrifice. Anthony quickly gained followers eager to live their lives in accordance with this solidarity, around this time, desert monasticism appeared nearly simultaneously in several areas, including Egypt and Syria. Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers and they chose a life of extreme asceticism, renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable. Thousands joined them in the desert, mostly men but also a handful of women, religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthonys death, there were so many men and women living in the desert that it was described as a city by Anthonys biographer, three main types of monasticism developed in Egypt around the Desert Fathers. One was the life of the hermit, as practiced by Anthony. Another was the life, communities of monks and nuns in upper Egypt formed by Pachomius. The third was a semi-hermitic lifestyle seen mostly in Nitria, Kellia and Scetis, west of the Nile, the latter were small groups of monks and nuns with a common spiritual elder — these separate groups would join together in larger gatherings to worship on Saturdays and Sundays
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Paul of Thebes
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Paul of Thebes, commonly known as Paul, the First Hermit or Paul the Anchorite is regarded as the first Christian hermit. He is not to be confused with Paul the Simple, who was a disciple of Anthony the Great, the Life of Saint Paul the First Hermit was composed in Latin by Saint Jerome, probably in 375–376. Paul of Thebes was born around 227 in the Thebaid of Egypt, Paul and his married sister lost their parents. In order to obtain Pauls inheritance, his brother-in-law sought to betray him to the persecutors, according to Jeromes Vitae Patrum, Paul fled to the Theban desert as a young man during the persecution of Decius and Valerianus around AD250. He would remain in that cave for the rest of his life, Paul of Thebes is known to posterity because around the year 342, Anthony the Great was told in a dream about the older hermits existence, and went to find him. Jerome related that Anthony the Great and Paul met when the latter was aged 113 and they conversed with each other for one day and one night. The Synaxarium shows each saint inviting the other to bless and break the bread, St. Paul held one side, putting the other side into the hands of Father Anthony, and soon the bread broke through the middle and each took his part. When Anthony next visited him, Paul was dead, Anthony clothed him in a tunic which was a present from Athanasius of Alexandria and buried him, with two lions helping to dig the grave. Father Anthony returned to his monastery taking him the robe woven with palm leaf. He honored the robe so much that he wore it twice a year, at the Feast of Easter. His feast day is celebrated on January 15 in the West, on January 5 or January 15 in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, Saint Anthony described him as the first monk. St. Pauls Monastery is traditionally believed to be on the site of the cave where the saint lived, the monastery is located in the eastern desert mountains of Egypt near the Red Sea. The Cave Church of St. Paul marks the spot where St. Anthony, the Father of Monasticism, and St. Paul, the First Hermit, are believed to have met. He is also the saint of the Diocese of San Pablo and is the titular of the Cathedral of the said Diocese in San Pablo, Laguna. The Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit was founded in Hungary in his honour in the 13th century and he is usually represented with a palm tree, two lions and a raven. Coptic Orthodox Church Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite Hermit Coptic Saints The Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit San Pablo, Laguna Oxford Dictionary of Saints, Coptic Synexarium Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John
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Anthony the Great
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Saint Anthony or Antony was a Christian monk from Egypt, revered since his death as a saint. He is distinguished from other saints named Anthony by various epithets, Anthony the Great, Anthony of Egypt, Anthony the Abbot, Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Anchorite, and Anthony of Thebes. For his importance among the Desert Fathers and to all later Christian monasticism and his feast day is celebrated on January 17 among the Orthodox and Catholic churches and on Tobi 22 in the Egyptian calendar used by the Coptic Church. The biography of Anthonys life by Athanasius of Alexandria helped to spread the concept of Christian monasticism and he is often erroneously considered the first Christian monk, but as his biography and other sources make clear, there were many ascetics before him. Anthony was, however, the first to go into the wilderness, Anthony is appealed to against infectious diseases, particularly skin diseases. In the past, many afflictions, including ergotism, erysipelas. Anthony was born in Coma in Lower Egypt in AD251 to wealthy landowner parents, when he was about 18 years old, his parents died and left him with the care of his unmarried sister. Shortly thereafter, he decided to follow the Evangelical counsel of Jesus which reads, If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasures in heaven. Anthony gave away some of his familys lands to his neighbors, sold the remaining property and he then left to live an ascetic life, placing his sister with a group of Christian virgins, a sort of proto-convent. For the next fifteen years, Anthony remained in the area, there are various legends associating Anthony with pigs, one is that he worked as a swineherd during this period. Anthony is sometimes considered the first monk, and the first to initiate solitary desertification, philo opined that this class of persons may be met with in many places, for both Greece and barbarian countries want to enjoy whatever is perfectly good. Christian ascetics such as Thecla had likewise retreated to isolated locations at the outskirts of cities, Anthony is notable for having decided to surpass this tradition and headed out into the desert proper. He left for the alkaline Nitrian Desert on the edge of the Western Desert about 95 km west of Alexandria and he remained there for 13 years. According to Athanasius, the devil fought Anthony by afflicting him with boredom, laziness, and the phantoms of women, after that, he moved to a tomb, where he resided and closed the door on himself, depending on some local villagers who brought him food. When the devil perceived his ascetic life and his worship, he was envious and beat him mercilessly. When his friends from the village came to visit him and found him in this condition. After he recovered, he made an effort and went back into the desert to a farther mountain by the Nile called Pispir. There he lived strictly enclosed in an old abandoned Roman fort for some 20 years, according to Athanasius, the devil again resumed his war against Anthony, only this time the phantoms were in the form of wild beasts, wolves, lions, snakes, and scorpions
25.
Arsenius the Great
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His contemporaries so admired him as to surname him the Great. His feast day is celebrated on May 8 in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox church and he was born in 350 AD, in Rome to a Christian, Roman senatorial family. After his parents died, his sister Afrositty was admitted to a community of virgins, and he gave all their riches to the poor, Arsenius became famous for his righteousness and wisdom. There is considerable debate regarding the accuracy of several points in Arseniuss life, Arsenius was chosen on the basis of being a man well read in Greek literature. He reached Constantinople in 383, and continued as tutor in the family for eleven years. Coming one day to see his sons at their studies, Theodosius found them sitting while Arsenius talked to them standing and this he would not tolerate, and caused the teacher to sit and the pupils to stand. While living in the Emperors palace, God gave him grace in the sight of everyone and he lived a lavish life in the palace, but all the time felt a growing inclination to renounce the world. One day he was praying, and said, “O God teach me how to be saved. ”And God’s voice came to him through the Gospel, For what is a man profited, if he gain the whole world. He left Constantinople and came by sea to Alexandria and fled into the wilderness, when he first presented himself to Saint Macarius the Great, the father of the monks of Scetis, he recommended him to the care of Saint John the Dwarf to try him. Sometime around the year 400 he joined the monks at Scetes, Egypt. When the repast was half finished he threw down some bread before him, Arsenius meekly picked up the bread and ate, sitting on the ground. Satisfied with this proof of humility, St. John kept him under his direction, the new solitary was from the first most exemplary yet unwittingly retained certain of his old habits, such as sitting cross-legged or laying one foot over the other. Noticing this, the abbot requested someone to imitate Arseniuss posture at the gathering of the brethren. Arsenius took the hint and corrected himself, in 434 he was forced to leave due to raids on the monasteries and hermitages there by the Mazici. He relocated to Troe, and also spent some time on the island of Canopus and he spent the next fifteen years wandering the desert wilderness before returning to Troe to die c.445 at the age of around 100. During the fifty-five years of his life he was always the most meanly clad of all. Even while engaged in manual labour he never relaxed in his application to prayer, at all times copious tears of devotion fell from his eyes. But what distinguished him most was his disinclination to all that might interrupt his union with God and he invariably denied himself to visitors, no matter what their rank and condition and left to his disciples the care of entertaining them
26.
Poemen
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Abba Poemen was an Egyptian monk and early Desert Father who is the most quoted Abba in the Apophthegmata Patrum. Abba Poemen was quoted most often for his gift as a guide, reflected in the name Poemen. He is considered a saint in Eastern Christianity and his feast day is August 27 in Julian calendar. Abba Poemen lived at a monastery in Scetis, one of the first centers of early Christian monasticism, in 407 A. D. the monastery was overrun by raiders, scattering the monks. Abba Poemen and Abba Anoub, along with a handful of monks, fled to Terenuthis, after leaving Scetis, Abba Poemen and his group first lived in an abandoned pagan temple. The various raids on Scetis were a point in desert monasticism. The ensuing diaspora resulted in Abba Poemen and his group keeping alive the collective wisdom of the monks of Scetis by creating the bulk of the Apophthegmata Patrum, Abba Poemens personality was described as that of a wise shepherd more than a desert ascetic. He was known for his tolerance of the weakness of others, one apocryphal story recounts that some of the older monks approached Abba Poemen for his advice on how to treat monks who fell asleep during their prayers. Another story, though used in support of Poemens tendency to refrain from judgement. The story tells of a monk with a wife who had a child—perhaps unclear who the father was. Abba Poemen sent him a bottle of wine as a gift, to celebrate, later dismissed the woman and became a monk. Abba Poemen was also described as a speaker who still taught more by example than by lecturing others. When a visiting monk asked him if he should assume a role of authority over the brothers he was living with, Abba Poemen responded by saying, No, be their example, judgment of others was also foreign to his nature. He once stated that, A man may seem to be silent, modern writers credit Abba Poemens gift of memory for keeping alive many of the stories from the Apophthegmata Patrum. Many of those stories are recollections of Abba Poemen from his time with the monks in Scetis. A later Coptic writer, Zacharias of Sakha, believed that Abba Poemen was also a writer, wilhelm Bousset and William Harmless both treat Poemen as a historical figure. Abba Poemen is also featured prominently in another collection of Desert Father sayings and he was notable for his kindness and compassion toward his fellow monks, including those who had fallen from the high ideals of the Desert Fathers. He was frequently sought out by his brothers for his wise, many of our Fathers have become very courageous in asceticism, but in fineness of perception there are very few
27.
Macarius of Egypt
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Macarius of Egypt was an Egyptian Christian monk and hermit. He is also known as Macarius the Elder, Macarius the Great, Macarius was born in Upper Egypt. A late tradition places his birthplace in the village of Shabsheer, in Al Minufiyah Governorate, St. Macarius is known for his wisdom. His friends and close kin used to call him “Pidar Yougiron” which meant the “old young man” or “the young man with the elders’ wisdom. ”At the wish of his parents he entered into marriage, shortly after, his parents departed as well. Macarius subsequently distributed all his money among the poor and needy and he found a teacher in an experienced Elder, who lived in the desert not far from the village. The Elder accepted the youth, guided him in the science of watchfulness, fasting and prayer. Seeing his virtues, the people of his village brought him to the bishop of Ashmoun who ordained him priest, a while later, a pregnant woman accused him of having defiled her. Macarius did not attempt to himself, and accepted the accusation in silence. However, when the womans delivery drew near, her labor became exceedingly difficult and she did not manage to give birth until she confessed Macariuss innocence. A multitude of people came asking for his forgiveness. While at the desert, he visited Anthony the Great and learned from him the laws, when he returned to the Scetic Desert at the age of forty, he presided over its monastic community for the rest of his life. Ten years after going into the desert, he became a priest, for a brief period of time, Macarius was banished to an island in the Nile by the Emperor Valens, along with Saint Macarius of Alexandria, during a dispute over the doctrine of the Nicene Creed. At their return on 13 Paremhat, they were met by a multitude of monks of the Nitrian Desert, numbered fifty thousand, among whom were Saint Pishoy, Macarius died in the year 391. After his death, the natives of his village of Shabsheer stole the body, pope Michael V of Alexandria brought the relics of Saint Macarius back to the Nitrian Desert on 19 Mesori. Today, the body of Saint Macarius is found in his monastery, Fifty Spiritual Homilies were ascribed to Macarius a few generations after his death, and these texts had a widespread and considerable influence on Eastern monasticism and Protestant pietism. The Macarian Homilies have thus influenced Pietist groups ranging from the Spiritual Franciscans to Eastern Orthodox monastic practice to John Wesley to modern charismatic Christianity, however, modern patristic scholars have established that it is not likely that Macarius the Egyptian was their author. In addition to the homilies, a number of letters have been ascribed to Macarius, Gennadius recognizes only one genuine letter of Macarius, which is addressed to younger monks. The first letter, called Ad filios Dei, may indeed be the letter by Macarius the Egyptian that is mentioned by Gennadius
28.
Moses the Black
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Saint Moses the Black, was an ascetic monk and priest in Egypt in the fourth century AD, and a notable Desert Father. Moses was a servant of a government official in Egypt who dismissed him for theft, a large, imposing figure, he became the leader of a gang of bandits who roamed the Nile Valley spreading terror and violence. On one occasion, a barking dog prevented Moses from carrying out a robbery, weapons in his mouth, Moses swam the river toward the owners hut. The owner, again alerted, hid, and the frustrated Moses took some of his sheep to slaughter. Attempting to go In front of local authorities, he took shelter with some monks in a colony in the desert of Wadi El Natrun, then called Sketes, the dedication of their lives, as well as their peace and contentment, influenced Moses deeply. He soon gave up his old way of life, became a Christian, was baptized and joined the community at Scetes. Moses had a difficult time adjusting to regular monastic discipline. His flair for adventure remained with him, attacked by a group of robbers in his desert cell, Moses fought back, overpowered the intruders, and dragged them to the chapel where the other monks were at prayer. He told the brothers that he did not think it Christian to hurt the robbers, Moses was zealous in all he did, but became discouraged when he concluded he was not perfect enough. Early one morning, Saint Isidore, abbot of the monastery, took Moses to the roof and together they watched the first rays of dawn come over the horizon. Isidore told Moses, Only slowly do the rays of the sun drive away the night and usher in a new day, Moses proved to be effective as a prophetic spiritual leader. The abbot ordered the brothers to fast during a particular week, some brothers came to Moses, and he prepared a meal for them. Neighboring monks reported to the abbot that Moses was breaking the fast, when they came to confront Moses, they changed their minds, saying You did not keep a human commandment, but it was so that you might keep the divine commandment of hospitality. Some see in this account one of the earliest allusions to the Paschal fast, when a brother committed a fault and Moses was invited to a meeting to discuss an appropriate penance, Moses refused to attend. When he was called to the meeting, Moses took a leaking jug filled with water. Another version of the story has him carrying a basket filled with sand, when he arrived at the meeting place, the others asked why he was carrying the jug. He replied, My sins run out behind me and I do not see them, on hearing this, the assembled brothers forgave the erring monk. Moses became the leader of a colony of hermits in the Western Desert
29.
Syncletica of Alexandria
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Amma Syncletica of Alexandria, a Christian saint and Desert Mother of the 4th century, was of a wealthy background and is reputed to have been very beautiful. From childhood, however, Syncletica was drawn to God and the desire to dedicate her life to him, from the time she gained responsibility for her familys affairs, after the death of her parents, she gave all that had been left her to the poor. With her younger sister Syncletica abandoned the life of the city and her holy life soon gained the attention of locals and gradually many women came to live as her disciples in Christ. St. Syncletica is regarded as a Desert Mother and her sayings are recorded with those of the Desert Fathers and she is believed to have died in her eightieth year, around 350 AD. Amma Syncletica is commemorated 5 January in the Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic Churches, sarah of the Desert Theoctiste of Lesbos Mary of Egypt Antiochian Orthodox Church Monachos Library
30.
Athanasius of Alexandria
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His episcopate lasted 45 years, of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism. Conflict with Arius and Arianism as well as successive Roman emperors shaped Athanasius career, in 325, at the age of 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of Nicaea. Roman emperor Constantine the Great had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God, three years after that council, Athanasius succeeded his mentor as archbishop of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians, he struggled against the Emperors Constantine, Constantius II, Julian the Apostate and he was known as Athanasius Contra Mundum. Nonetheless, within a few years after his death, Gregory of Nazianzus called him the Pillar of the Church, Athanasius is counted as one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, he is labeled as the Father of Orthodoxy, some Protestants label him as Father of the Canon. Athanasius is venerated as a Christian saint, whose feast day is 2 May in Western Christianity,15 May in the Coptic Orthodox Church and he is venerated by the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Roman Catholic Church, the Lutherans, and the Anglican Communion. Athanasius was born to a Christian family in the city of Alexandria or possibly the nearby Nile Delta town of Damanhur sometime between the years 293 and 298, the accusation must have seemed plausible. The Orthodox Church places his year of birth around 297 and his parents were wealthy enough to afford giving him a fine secular education. Some Western scholars consider his command of Greek, in which he wrote most of his surviving works, however, in Coptic literature, Athanasius is the first patriarch of Alexandria to use Coptic as well as Greek in his writings. Rufinus relates a story that as Bishop Alexander stood by a window, he watched boys playing on the seashore below and he sent for the children and discovered that one of the boys had acted as bishop. He invited Athanasius and his playfellows to prepare for clerical careers, Alexandria was the most important trade center in the whole empire during Athanasiuss boyhood. Intellectually, morally, and politically—it epitomized the ethnically diverse Graeco-Roman world, even more than Rome or Constantinople, Athanasius recounts being a student, as well as being educated by the Martyrs of the Great and last persecution of Christianity by pagan Rome. This persecution was most severe in the East, particularly in Egypt, Peter of Alexandria, the 17th archbishop of Alexandria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of that persecution, and may have been one of those teachers. His successor as bishop of Alexandria, Alexander of Alexandria was an Origenist as well as a mentor of Athanasius. According to Sozomen, Bishop Alexander invited Athanasius to be his commensal, Athanasius earliest work, Against the Heathen – On the Incarnation, bears traces of Origenist Alexandrian thought but in an orthodox way. Athanasius was also familiar with the theories of philosophical schools
31.
John Chrysostom
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John Chrysostom, c.349 –407, Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. The epithet Χρυσόστομος means golden-mouthed in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence, Chrysostom was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church exceeded only by Augustine in the quantity of his surviving writings. He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox, together with the Byzantine Catholics, hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs. The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 13 November and 27 January, in the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church and commemorated on 13 September. Other churches of the Western tradition, including some Anglican provinces and some Lutheran churches, however, certain Lutheran churches and Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of 27 January. The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint, John was born in Antioch in 349 to Greek parents from Syria. Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian, Johns father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader, as a result of his mothers influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius. From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature. As he grew older, however, John became more committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus. According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his if the Christians had not taken him from us. John lived in asceticism and became a hermit in about 375. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged, John was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome. After the death of Meletius, John separated himself from the followers of Meletius, without joining Paulinus, but after the death of Paulinus he was ordained a presbyter in 386 by Evagrius, the successor of Paulinus. He was destined later to bring reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years. The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible and he emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property, Do you wish to honour the body of Christ, do not ignore him when he is naked. Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to him outside where he is cold
32.
Hilarion
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Hilarion was an anchorite who spent most of his life in the desert according to the example of Anthony the Great. The chief source of information regarding Hilarion is the written by St. Jerome. The life of Hilarion was written by Jerome in 390 at Bethlehem and its object was to further the ascetic life to which he was devoted. It contains, amidst much that is legendary, some statements which attach it to genuine history, Hilarion was born in Thabatha, south of Gaza in Syria Palaestina of pagan parents. He successfully studied rhetoric with a Grammarian in Alexandria and it seems that he was converted to Christianity in Alexandria. After that, he shunned the pleasures of his day—theatre, circus, according to St. Jerome, he was a thin and delicate youth of fragile health. After hearing of Saint Anthony, whose name, was in the mouth of all the races of Egypt Hilarion, at the age of fifteen, as Anthonys hermitage was busy with visitors seeking cures for diseases or demonic affliction, Hilarion returned home along with some monks. At Thabatha, his parents having died in the meantime, he gave his inheritance to his brothers, Hilarion went to the area southwest of Majoma, the port of Gaza, that was limited by the sea at one side and marshland on the other. Because the district was notorious for brigandage, and his relatives and friends warned him of the danger he was incurring, with him he took only a shirt of coarse linen, a cloak of skins given to him by St. Anthony, and a coarse blanket. He led a life, and he fasted rigorously, not partaking of his frugal meal until after sunset. He supported himself by weaving baskets, Hilarion lived a life of hardship and simplicity in the desert, where he also experienced spiritual dryness that included temptations to despair. Beset by carnal thoughts, he fasted even more and he was so wasted that his bones scarcely held together. According to St. Jerome, He finally built a hut of reeds, afterwards, he constructed a tiny low-ceilinged cell, a tomb rather than a house, where he slept on a bed of rushes, and recited the Bible or sang hymns. He never washed his clothes, changed only when they fell apart. He was once visited by robbers, but they left him alone when they learned that he did not fear death. Saint Jerome describes his diet as a half a pint of lentils moistened with cold water, eventually, perceiving his sight to grow dim and his body to be subject to an itching with an unnatural roughness, he added a little oil to this diet. After he had lived in the wilderness for 22 years, he became famous in Syria Palaestina. Visitors started to come, begging for his help, the parade of petitioners and would-be disciples drove Hilarion to retire to more remote locations
33.
John Cassian
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Saint John Cassian, John the Ascetic, or John Cassian the Roman, was a Christian monk and theologian celebrated in both the Western and Eastern Churches for his mystical writings. Cassian is noted for his role in bringing the ideas and practices of Christian monasticism to the early medieval West, Cassian was born around 360, most likely in the region of Scythia Minor, although some scholars assume a Gallic origin. The son of parents, he received a good education, his writings show the influence of Cicero. He was bilingual in Latin and Greek, Cassian mentions having a sister in his first work, the Institutes, with whom he corresponded in his monastic life, she may have ended up with him in Marseilles. As a young adult he traveled to Palestine with an older friend Germanus, there they entered a hermitage near Bethlehem. After remaining in that community for three years, they journeyed to the desert of Scete in Egypt, which was rent by Christian struggles. There they visited a number of monastic foundations, approximately fifteen years later, about 399, Cassian and Germanus faced the Anthropomorphic controversy provoked in letter form by Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria. Cassian noted that the majority of the received the message of their patriarch with bitterness. Following an unsuccessful journey to Alexandria to protest the matter, Cassian, Cassian and Germanus went to Constantinople, where they appealed to the Patriarch of Constantinople, Saint John Chrysostom, for protection. Cassian was ordained a deacon and was made a member of the attached to the Patriarch while the struggles with the imperial family ensued. When the Patriarch was forced into exile from Constantinople in 404, while he was in Rome, Cassian accepted the invitation to found an Egyptian-style monastery in southern Gaul, near Marseilles. He may also have spent time as a priest in Antioch between 404 and 415, in any case, he arrived in Marseilles around 415. His foundation, the Abbey of St Victor, was a complex of monasteries for men and women, one of the first such institutes in the West, and served as a model for later monastic development. Cassians achievements and writings influenced Saint Benedict, who incorporated many of the principles into his monastic rule, Cassian died in 435 at Marseille. Cassian came very late into writing and did so only when a request was made by one or more important persons and his sources were the same as those of Evagrius Ponticus, but he added his own ideas, which were arranged in extensive collections. Evagrius was, however, the single most important influence on Cassians ideas, due to his reverence for the Origenist monks of Nitria, Kellia, in these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. The Institutes deal with the organization of monastic communities, while the Conferences deal with the training of the inner man. According to Hugh Feiss OSB the Institutes are a counterweight to Sulpicius Severus’ Life of Martin and Dialogues, Cassian, who insists on manual work, had a higher opinion of and close ties with the monastery on the Island of Lerins, founded by Honoratus
34.
Bernard of Clairvaux
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Bernard of Clairvaux, O. Cist was a French abbot and the primary reformer of the Cistercian order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order, three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val dAbsinthe, about 15 kilometres southeast of Bar-sur-Aube. According to tradition, Bernard founded the monastery on 25 June 1115, naming it Claire Vallée, there Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, on the death of Pope Honorius II on 13 February 1130, a schism broke out in the Church. King Louis VI of France convened a council of the French bishops at Étampes in 1130. After the council of Étampes, Bernard spoke with King Henry I of England, also known as Henry Beauclerc, Henry I was sceptical because most of the bishops of England supported Antipope Anacletus II, Bernard persuaded him to support Innocent. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernards, however, Innocent insisted on Bernards company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair III became Innocents strongest ally among the nobility, although the councils of Étampes, Wurzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus. Bernard set out to convince these other regions to rally behind Innocent, the first person he went to was Gerard of Angoulême. He proceeded to write a letter, known as Letter 126, Bernard would later comment that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard traveled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine and he was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135, after that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent. He traveled to Sicily in 1137 to convince the king of Sicily to follow Innocent, the whole conflict ended when Anacletus died on 25 January 1138. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the matter. Bernard soon saw one of his disciples elected Pope Eugene III, having previously helped end the schism within the church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled in southern France and his preaching there helped strengthen support against heresy, after the Christian defeat at the Siege of Edessa, the pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade. The last years of Bernards life were saddened by the failure of the crusaders, Bernard died at the age of 63, after 40 years as a monk. He was the first Cistercian placed on the calendar of saints, in 1830 Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon Bernard the title Doctor of the Church
35.
Hildegard of Bingen
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Hildegard of Bingen, O. S. B. also known as Saint Hildegard and Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess, writer, composer, philosopher, Christian mystic, visionary, and polymath. She is considered to be the founder of scientific history in Germany. Hildegard was elected magistra by her fellow nuns in 1136, she founded the monasteries of Rupertsberg in 1150, One of her works as a composer, the Ordo Virtutum, is an early example of liturgical drama and arguably the oldest surviving morality play. She is also noted for the invention of a language known as Lingua Ignota. Although the history of her formal consideration is complicated, she has recognized as a saint by branches of the Roman Catholic Church for centuries. On 7 October 2012, Pope Benedict XVI named her a Doctor of the Church, Hildegard was born around the year 1098, although the exact date is uncertain. Her parents were Mechtild of Merxheim-Nahet and Hildebert of Bermersheim, a family of the lower nobility in the service of the Count Meginhard of Sponheim. Sickly from birth, Hildegard is traditionally considered their youngest and tenth child, in her Vita, Hildegard states that from a very young age she had experienced visions. The date of Hildegards enclosure at the monastery is the subject of debate and her Vita says she was professed with an older woman, Jutta, the daughter of Count Stephan II of Sponheim, at the age of eight. However, Juttas date of enclosure is known to have been in 1112 and their vows were received by Bishop Otto Bamberg on All Saints Day,1112. Some scholars speculate that Hildegard was placed in the care of Jutta at the age of eight, in any case, Hildegard and Jutta were enclosed together at the Disibodenberg, and formed the core of a growing community of women attached to the male monastery. Jutta was also a visionary and thus attracted many followers who came to visit her at the cloister, Hildegard tells us that Jutta taught her to read and write, but that she was unlearned and therefore incapable of teaching Hildegard sound biblical interpretation. The written record of the Life of Jutta indicates that Hildegard probably assisted her in reciting the psalms, working in the garden and other handiwork and this might have been a time when Hildegard learned how to play the ten-stringed psaltery. Volmar, a frequent visitor, may have taught Hildegard simple psalm notation, the time she studied music could have been the beginning of the compositions she would later create. Upon Juttas death in 1136, Hildegard was unanimously elected as magistra of the community by her fellow nuns, Abbot Kuno of Disibodenberg asked Hildegard to be Prioress, which would be under his authority. Hildegard, however, wanted more independence for herself and her nuns and this was to be a move towards poverty, from a stone complex that was well established to a temporary dwelling place. When the abbot declined Hildegards proposition, Hildegard went over his head and it was only when the Abbot himself could not move Hildegard that he decided to grant the nuns their own monastery. Hildegard and about twenty nuns thus moved to the St. Rupertsberg monastery in 1150, in 1165 Hildegard founded a second monastery for her nuns at Eibingen
36.
Symeon the New Theologian
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Symeon the New Theologian was a Byzantine Christian monk and poet who was the last of three saints canonized by the Eastern Orthodox church and given the title of Theologian. Theologian was not applied to Symeon in the academic sense of theological study. One of his teachings was that humans could and should experience theoria. Symeon was born into the Byzantine nobility and given a traditional education, by the time he was thirty, Symeon the New Theologian became the abbot of the Monastery of St. Mammas, a position he held for twenty-five years. He attracted many monks and clergy with his reputation for sanctity, though his teachings brought him conflict with church authorities. His most well known disciple was Nicetas Stethatos who wrote the Life of Symeon, Symeon is recognized as the first Byzantine mystic to freely share his own mystical experiences. Some of his writings are included in the Philokalia, a collection of texts by early Christian mystics on contemplative prayer, Symeon wrote and spoke frequently about the importance of experiencing directly the grace of God, often talking about his own experiences of God as divine light. Another common subject in his writings was the need of putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father, the authority for many of his teachings derived from the traditions of the Desert Fathers, early Christian monks and ascetics. Symeons writings include Hymns of Divine Love, Ethical Discourses, the details of Symeons life come from his own writings and from the Life of Symeon, written by his disciple Nicetas. He was born at Basileion in Galatia to Basil and Theophano Galaton and his given name at birth is unclear—it was traditional at that time, when becoming a monk, to take on a new name with the same initial as ones birth name. Symeon may have ignored that tradition in order to take the name as his spiritual father. In his writings, he described the experiences of George. Symeon received a basic Greek school education until the age of eleven, the uncle helped Symeon to complete his secondary education at the court of the emperor Basil II and his brother Constantine VIII. At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite, a monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople. That meeting convinced the younger Symeon to forgo higher education and take on Symeon the Studite as his spiritual father, at that time he began studying the life of prayer and asceticism under his guidance, with the desire to immediately enter the monastery. It was during this time that Symeon had his first experience of God as divine light and he attributed the experience to the prayers of Symeon the Studite. In spite of the experience, the young Symeon confessed that he fell into worldly ways of living. Direct personal experience of God was to one of Symeons central teachings in his writings
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Saint Dominic
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Saint Dominic, also known as Dominic of Osma and Dominic of Caleruega, often called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo Félix de Guzmán, was a Castilian priest and founder of the Dominican Order. Dominic is the saint of astronomers. Dominic was born in Caleruega, halfway between Osma and Aranda de Duero in Old Castile, Spain and he was named after Saint Dominic of Silos, who is said to be the patron saint of hopeful mothers. The Benedictine abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos lies a few north of Caleruega. In the earliest narrative source, by Jordan of Saxony, Dominics parents are named Felix Guzman and Juanna of Aza. This story drew resonance from the fact that his order became known, after his name, as the Dominican order, Dominicanus in Latin which a play on words interpreted as Domini canis, Dog of the Lord. Jordan adds that Dominic was brought up by his parents and an uncle who was an archbishop. The failure to name his parents is not unusual, since Jordan wrote a history of the Orders early years, a later source, still of the 13th century, also gives their names as Juana and Felix. Nearly a century after Dominics birth, a local author asserted that Dominics father was vir venerabilis et dives in populo suo. The travel narrative of Pero Tafur, written circa 1439, states that Dominics father belonged to the family de Guzmán, Dominics mother, Jane of Aza, was beatified by Pope Leo XII in 1828. Dominic was educated in the schools of Palencia where he devoted six years to the arts, in 1191, when Spain was desolated by famine, young Dominic gave away his money and sold his clothes, furniture and even precious manuscripts to feed the hungry. Dominic reportedly told his fellow students, Would you have me study off these dead skins. In 1194, around age twenty-five, Dominic joined the Canons Regular in the canonry in the Cathedral of Osma, following the rule of Saint Augustine. In 1203 or 1204 he accompanied Diego de Acebo, the Bishop of Osma, on a mission for Alfonso VIII, King of Castile. The envoys traveled to Denmark via Aragon and the south of France, the marriage negotiations ended successfully, but the princess died before leaving for Castile. However, even Dominic managed only a few converts among the Cathari, in 1215, Dominic established himself, with six followers, in a house given by Peter Seila, a rich resident of Toulouse. He subjected himself and his companions to the rules of prayer and penance. In the same year, the year of the Fourth Lateran Council, Dominic and Foulques went to Rome to secure the approval of the Pope, Innocent III
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