1.
Military history
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On the other hand, Just War Theory explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to establish a doctrine of military ethics. The discipline of history is dynamic, changing with development as much of the subject area as the societies. An important recent concept is the Revolution in Military Affairs which attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by emerging technologies and it highlights the short outbursts of rapid change followed by periods of relative stability. In terms of the profession in major countries, military history is an orphan. William H. McNeill points out, This branch of our discipline flourishes in an intellectual ghetto, the study of military history in universities remains seriously underdeveloped. Indeed, lack of interest in and disdain for military history probably constitute one of the strangest prejudices of the profession, historiography is the study of the history and method of the discipline of history or the study of a specialised topic. In this case, military history with an eye to gaining an accurate assessment of conflicts using all available sources, Military historians use Historiographical analysis in an effort to allow an unbiased, contemporary view of records. Historians utilize their knowledge of government regulation and military organization, and employing a targeted, despite these limits, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history. Military historians have often compared organization, tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, in the early 1980s, historian Jeffrey Kimball surveyed the ideological preferences of 109 active diplomatic historians in the United States as well as 54 active military historians. He reports that, Of historians in the field of history, 7% are Socialist, 19% are Other, 53% are Liberal, 11% are None. Of military historians, 0% are Socialist, 8% are Other, 35% are Liberal, 18% are None, the documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between Sumer and Elam c.2700 BC near the modern Basra, and includes such enduring records as the Hebrew Bible. Other prominent records in history are the Trojan War in Homers Iliad. An approach centered on the analysis of a leader was taken by Xenophon in Anabasis, the records of the Roman Julius Caesar enable a comparative approach for campaigns such as Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello Civili. New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war, the cost of warfare, the preparations, a rule of thumb is that if your enemy has a potentially war winning weapon, you have to either match it or neutralize it. The chariot was an effective, fast weapon, while one man controlled the maneuvering of the chariot and these became crucial to the maintenance of several governments, including the New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang Dynasty and the nation states of early to mid Zhou dynasty. The infantry started as opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders, the Greeks and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes. The Macedonians and Hellenistic states would adopt phalanx formations with sarissa pikemen, the Romans would later adopt more flexible maniples from their neighbors which made them extremely successful in the field of battle. The kingdoms of the Warring States in East Asia also adopted infantry combat, in the Sicilian Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to subdue Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the success of the Syracusans
2.
John Kenneth Galbraith
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John Kenneth Ken Galbraith, OC was a Canadian-born economist, public official, and diplomat, and a leading proponent of 20th-century American liberalism. His books on economic topics were bestsellers from the 1950s through the 2000s, as an economist, he leaned toward Post-Keynesian economics from an institutionalist perspective. Galbraith was a long-time Harvard faculty member and stayed with Harvard University for half a century as a professor of economics and he was a prolific author and wrote four dozen books, including several novels, and published more than a thousand articles and essays on various subjects. Among his works was a trilogy on economics, American Capitalism, The Affluent Society, Galbraith was active in Democratic Party politics, serving in the administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S Truman, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. He served as United States Ambassador to India under the Kennedy administration and his political activism, literary output and outspokenness brought him wide fame during his lifetime. Galbraith was one of the few to both the Medal of Freedom and the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his public service and contributions to science. The government of France made him a Commandeur de la Légion dhonneur, Galbraith was born to Canadians of Scottish descent, Sarah Catherine Kendall and Archibald Archie Galbraith, in Iona Station, Ontario, Canada, and was raised in Dunwich Township, Ontario. He had three siblings, Alice, Catherine, and Archibald William, by the time he was a teenager, he had adopted the name Ken, and later disliked being called John. Galbraith grew to be a tall man, attaining a height of 6 feet 9 inches. His father was a farmer and school teacher, a homemaker and a community activist, his mother died when he was fourteen years old. The family farm was located on Thomson Line, both of his parents were supporters of the United Farmers of Ontario in the 1920s. His early years were spent at a school which is still standing. Later, he went to Dutton High School and St. Thomas High School, in 1931, Galbraith graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture from the Ontario Agricultural College, which was then an associate agricultural college of the University of Toronto. After graduation in 1934, he started to work as an instructor at Harvard University, Galbraith taught intermittently at Harvard in the period 1934 to 1939. From 1939 to 1940, he taught at Princeton University, in 1937, he became a United States citizen and was no longer a British subject. In the same year, he took a fellowship at the University of Cambridge, England. He then traveled in Europe for several months in 1938, attending an international economic conference and his public service started in the era of New Deal when he joined the United States Department of Agriculture. From 1943 until 1948, he served as an editor of Fortune magazine, in 1949, he was appointed professor of economics at Harvard
3.
Hamilton Fish III
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Hamilton Fish III was a soldier and Republican politician from New York State. When Fish celebrated his 102nd birthday in 1990, he was the oldest living American who had served in Congress, Fish was born Hamilton Stuyvesant Fish in Garrison, Putnam County, New York to the former Republican U. S. Representative Hamilton Fish II and the former Emily Mann and his paternal grandfather, Hamilton Fish, was United States Secretary of State under the Republican President Ulysses S. Grant. The father of the first Hamilton Fish, Nicholas Fish, was an officer in the Continental Army and was appointed adjutant general of New York by Governor George Clinton. The wife of Nicholas Fish was Elizabeth Stuyvesant, a descendant of Peter Stuyvesant, through his mother, Emily Mann, Hamilton Fish III was also a descendant of Thomas Hooker, who settled Hartford, Connecticut in 1636. Fishs uncle Elias Mann was a judge and three-term mayor of Troy, john Kean and Susan Livingstons great-grandson, and thus a relative of Fish, was Thomas Kean, who was elected governor of New Jersey in 1982. A cousin of Hamilton Fish III was a sergeant in Company L of Theodore Roosevelts Rough Riders, at the age of ten, Hamilton Fish II had his sons name legally changed from Hamilton Stuyvesant Fish to just Hamilton Fish to honor his fallen cousin. Fish was married in 1921 to Grace Chapin Rogers, daughter of onetime Brooklyn Mayor Alfred C and their son, Hamilton Fish IV, was a thirteen-term U. S. Representative from New York, holding office from 1969 to 1995, the Fishes daughter Lillian Veronica Fish married David Whitmire Hearst, son of William Randolph Hearst. During his childhood, Fish attended Chateau de Lancy, a Swiss school near Geneva, which his father also attended in 1860, there and he spent summers with his family in Bavaria. He began his U. S. boarding school education at Fay School in Southborough, Massachusetts, marks School, a preparatory school also in Southborough. Fish later described himself as a B student but successful in different sports. Marks in 1906, Fish went on to attend Harvard University, there, he played on Harvards football team as a tackle and was a member of the Porcellian Club. Standing 6 feet 4 inches and weighing 200 pounds, Ham Fish was highly successful as a player, he was twice an All-America. He was the only Harvard man on Yale graduate Walter Camps All time All America team, after graduating from Harvard, Fish continued his involvement in football. He donated $5000 for several awards to Harvard football players, and organized the Harvard Law School football team, in 1909, aged twenty, Fish graduated early from Harvard with a cum laude degree in history and government. He declined an offer to teach history at Harvard and instead attended Harvard Law School and he left law school before graduating, and took a job in a New York City insurance office. Fish was a Progressive member of the New York State Assembly in 1914,1915 and 1916, prior to the United States entering the First World War, Fish was captain of Company K, 15th New York Infantry
4.
John Houseman
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He is perhaps best known for his role as Professor Charles W. Kingsfield in the film The Paper Chase, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He reprised his role as Kingsfield in the subsequent television series adaptation of The Paper Chase, Houseman was also known for his commercials for the brokerage firm Smith Barney. He had a distinctive Mid-Atlantic English accent, in common with many actors of his generation, Houseman was born in Bucharest, Romania, on September 22,1902, the son of May and Georges Haussmann, who ran a grain business. His mother was British, from a Christian family of Welsh and Irish descent and his father was an Alsatian-born Jew. He became a United States citizen in 1943, Houseman died at age 86 of spinal cancer on October 31,1988 at his home in Malibu, California. He also directed Lute Song, The Country Girl, and Don Juan in Hell, Houseman himself worked as a speculator in the international grain markets, only turning to the theater following the 1929 stock market crash. He received his first opportunity of any note in 1933 when composer Virgil Thomson recruited him to direct Four Saints in Three Acts, Welles consented and, after preliminary conversations, agreed to leave the play he was in after a single night to take the lead in Housemans production. Panic opened at the Imperial Theatre on March 15,1935, among the cast was Housemans ex-wife, Zita Johann, who had co-starred with Boris Karloff three years earlier in Universals The Mummy. In 1936, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration put unemployed theatre performers, the Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project was headed by Rose McClendon, a well-known black actress, and Houseman, a theatre producer. The incidental music was composed by Virgil Thomson, the play premiered at the Lafayette Theatre on April 14,1936, to enthusiastic reviews and remained sold out for each of its nightly performances. The play was regarded by critics and patrons as an enormous, if controversial, after 10 months with the Negro Theater Project, however, Houseman felt he was faced with the dilemma of risking his future. In 1936, the two were running a WPA unit in midtown Manhattan for classic productions called Project No.891 and their first production would be Christopher Marlowes Tragical History of Dr. Faustus which Welles directed, also playing the title role. In June 1937, Project No.891 would produce their most controversial work with The Cradle Will Rock, written by Marc Blitzstein the musical was about Larry Foreman, a worker in Steeltown, which is run by the boss, Mister Mister. The show was thought to have had left-wing and unionist sympathies, shortly before the show was to open, FTP officials in Washington announced that no productions would open until after July 1,1937, the beginning of the new fiscal year. In his memoir, Run-Through, Houseman wrote about the surrounding the opening night at the Maxine Elliott Theatre. All the performers had been enjoined not to perform on stage for the production when it opened on July 14,1937, the cast and crew left their government-owned theatre and walked 20 blocks to another theatre, with the audience following. No one knew what to expect, when they got there Blitzstein himself was at the piano, one of the non-professional performers, Olive Stanton, who played the part of Moll, the prostitute, stood up in the audience, and began singing her part. All the other performers, in turn, stood up for their parts, thus the oratorio version of the show was born
5.
Milton Caniff
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Milton Arthur Paul Milt Caniff was an American cartoonist famous for the Terry and the Pirates and Steve Canyon comic strips. Caniff was born in Hillsboro, Ohio and he was an Eagle Scout and a recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America. Caniff did cartoons for local newspapers while studying at Stivers High School in Dayton Ohio, at Ohio State University, Caniff joined the Sigma Chi Fraternity and later illustrated for The Magazine of Sigma Chi and The Norman Shield. Graduating in 1930, Caniff began at the Columbus Dispatch where he worked with the noted cartoonists Billy Ireland and Dudley Fisher, but Caniffs position was eliminated during the Great Depression. Caniff related later that he had been uncertain of whether to pursue acting or cartooning as a career and he died on May 3,1988 and was buried in the Mount Repose Cemetery, Haverstraw, New York. In 1932, Caniff moved to New York City to accept an artist job with the Features Service of the Associated Press. Caniff continued Gilfeather until the spring of 1933, when it was retired in favor of a comedy panel cartoon called The Gay Thirties. In July 1933, Caniff began a fantasy strip, Dickie Dare, influenced by series such as Flash Gordon. The eponymous main character was a youth who dreamed himself into adventures with such literary and legendary persons as Robin Hood, Robinson Crusoe, in 1934, Caniff was hired by the New York Daily News to produce a new strip for the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. The result was Terry and the Pirates, the strip which made Caniff famous, like Dickie Dare, Terry Lee began as a boy who is traveling with an adult mentor and adventurer, Pat Ryan. But over the years the character aged, and by World War II he was old enough to serve in the Army Air Force. During the 12 years that Caniff produced the strip, he introduced many fascinating characters, introduced during the early days of the strip was Terry and Pats interpreter and manservant Connie. They were later joined by the mute Chinese giant Big Stoop, both he and Connie provided the main source of comic relief. During the war, Caniff began a strip, a special version of Terry. Caniff donated all of his work on this strip to the armed forces—the strip was only in military newspapers. Another strip had her dancing with a man in civilian clothes, a disgruntled GI shoved and mocked him for having an easy life, Caniff continued Male Call until seven months after V-J Day, ending it in March 1946. In 1946 Caniff ended his association with Terry and the Pirates, while the strip was a major success, it was not owned by its creator but by its distributing syndicate, the Chicago Tribune-New York Daily News, a common practice with syndicated comics at the time. Caniff produced his last strip of Terry and the Pirates in December 1946, at the time, Caniff was one of only two or three syndicated cartoonists who owned their creations, and he attracted considerable publicity as a result of this circumstance
6.
Bill Mauldin
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William Henry Bill Mauldin was an American editorial cartoonist who won two Pulitzer Prizes for his work. His cartoons were popular with soldiers throughout Europe, and with civilians in the United States as well, Mauldin was born in Mountain Park, New Mexico into a family with a tradition of military service. His father served as an artilleryman in World War I, after growing up there and in Phoenix, Arizona, Mauldin took courses at the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts under the tutoring of Ruth VanSickle Ford. While in Chicago, Mauldin met Will Lang Jr. and became fast friends with him, Lang Jr. later became a journalist and a bureau head for Life magazine. Mauldin entered the US Army in 1940 via the Arizona National Guard, while in the 45th Infantry Division, Mauldin volunteered to work for the units newspaper, drawing cartoons about regular soldiers or dogfaces. Eventually he created two cartoon infantrymen, Willie and Joe, who represented the average American GI. During July 1943, Mauldins cartoon work continued when, as a sergeant of the 45th Divisions press corps, he landed with the division in the invasion of Sicily and later in the Italian campaign. Mauldin began working for Stars and Stripes, the American soldiers newspaper, as well as the 45th Division News, until he was transferred to the Stars. By March 1944, he was given his own jeep, in which he roamed the front and he published six cartoons a week. His cartoons were viewed by soldiers throughout Europe during World War II, the War Office supported their syndication, not only because they helped publicize the ground forces but also to show the grim side of war, which helped show that victory would not be easy. While in Europe, Mauldin befriended a fellow soldier-cartoonist, Gregor Duncan, Mauldin was not without his detractors. His images—which often parodied the Armys spit-shine and obedience-to-orders-without-question policy—offended some officers, general Dwight Eisenhower, Pattons superior, told Patton to leave Mauldin alone, he felt the cartoons gave the soldiers an outlet for their frustrations. Stars and Stripes is the paper, he told him. In a 1989 interview, Mauldin said, I always admired Patton, oh, sure, the stupid bastard was crazy. He thought he was living in the Dark Ages, I didnt like that attitude, but I certainly respected his theories and the techniques he used to get his men out of their foxholes. Mauldins cartoons made him a hero to the common soldier, gIs often credited him with helping them to get through the rigors of the war. His credibility with the common soldier increased in September 1943, when he was wounded in the shoulder by a German mortar while visiting a machine gun crew near Monte Cassino, by the end of the war he received the Armys Legion of Merit for his cartoons. Mauldin wanted Willie and Joe to be killed on the last day of combat, the first civilian compilation of his work, Up Front, a collection of his cartoons interwoven with his observations of war, topped the best-seller list in 1945
7.
Telford Taylor
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Taylor was born in Schenectady, New York, his parents were John Bellamy Taylor and Marcia Estabrook Jones. He attended Williams College in Massachusetts before enrolling at the Harvard Law School in 1928 and he subsequently worked for several government agencies, becoming the general counsel for the Federal Communications Commission in 1940. He was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel in 1943 and visited Bletchley Park in England, at the Nuremberg Trials, he initially served as an assistant to Chief Counsel Robert H. Jackson and in this function was the U. S. prosecutor in the High Command case. In these trials at Nuremberg,163 of the 200 defendants who were tried were found guilty in some or all of the charges of the indictments, in 1950, the United Nations codified the most important statements from these trials in the seven Nuremberg Principles. After the Nuremberg Trials, Taylor returned to life in the United States. He became increasingly concerned with Senator McCarthys activities, which he criticized strongly, eisenhower for not stopping McCarthys shameful abuse of Congressional investigatory power. He defended several victims of McCarthyism — alleged communists or perjurers — including labor leader Harry Bridges, in 1961 Taylor attended the Eichmann trial in Israel as a semi-official observer, and expressed concerns about the trial being held on a defective statute. Taylor became a professor at Columbia University in 1962, where he would be named Nash Professor of Law in 1974. In 1966, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, Taylor was very critical of the conduct of U. S. troops in the Vietnam War, and in 1971 urged President Richard Nixon to set up a national commission to investigate the conflict. He strongly criticized the court-martial of Lt. William Calley, the officer of the U. S. troops involved in the My Lai massacre. Taylor published his views in a book entitled Nuremberg and Vietnam and he argued that by the standards employed at the Nuremberg Trials, U. S. conduct in Vietnam and Cambodia was equally criminal as that of the Nazis during World War II. For this reason, he favored prosecuting U. S. aviators who had participated in bombing missions over North Vietnam and his 1979 book, Munich, The Price of Peace, won the National Book Critics Circle Award for the best work of general nonfiction. In the 1980s, he extended his activities into sports. His 700-page 1992 memoir of the Nuremberg trials revealed how Nazi leader Hermann Göring had cheated the hangman by taking smuggled poison and he died in 1998 at the St. Lukes-Roosevelt Hospital in Manhattan after having suffered a stroke. He was survived by his second wife Toby Golick and six children, Joan, Ellen, John, Ursula, Ben, here is the list of his decorations, Sword and Swastika, Generals and Nazis in the Third Reich, Simon & Schuster 1952, reprinted 1980. ISBN 0-8446-0934-X Grand Inquest, The Story of Congressional Investigations, Simon & Schuster 1955, ISBN 0-306-70620-2 The March of Conquest, The German Victories in Western Europe,1940, Simon & Schuster 1958, reprinted 1991. ISBN 0-88184-447-0 The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials, A Personal Memoir, Knopf 1992, ISBN 0-394-58355-8 Main sources, The obituary from the New York Times, telford Taylor, Pioneer of International Criminal Law, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,37,1999. Telford Taylor from the Cardozo School of Law at the Yeshiva University, a short biography from Columbia University
8.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
9.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
10.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
W. Averell Harriman
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William Averell Harriman was an American Democratic politician, businessman, and diplomat. He was the son of railroad baron E. H. Harriman and he served as Secretary of Commerce under President Harry S. Truman and later as the 48th Governor of New York. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952, Harriman served President Franklin D. Roosevelt as special envoy to Europe and served as the U. S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union and U. S. Ambassador to Britain. He served in numerous U. S. diplomatic assignments in the Kennedy and he was a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as The Wise Men. Better known as Averell Harriman, he was born in New York City and he was the brother of E. Roland Harriman and Mary Harriman Rumsey. Harriman was a friend of Hall Roosevelt, the brother of Eleanor Roosevelt. Hart Merriam, Grove Karl Gilbert, and Edward Curtis, along with 100 family members and staff, young Harriman would have his first introduction to Russia, a nation on which he would spend a significant amount of attention in his later life in public service. He attended Groton School in Massachusetts before going on to Yale where he joined the Skull, after graduating, he inherited the largest fortune in America and became Yales youngest Crew coach. Using money from his father he established W. A. Harriman & Co banking business in 1922, in 1927 his brother Roland joined the business and the name was changed to Harriman Brothers & Company. In 1931, it merged with Brown Bros. & Co. to create the highly successful Wall Street firm Brown Brothers Harriman & Co, notable employees included George Herbert Walker and his son-in-law Prescott Bush. Harrimans main properties included Brown Brothers & Harriman & Co, Union Pacific Railroad, Merchant Shipping Corporation, Harrimans associated properties included the Southern Pacific Railroad, Illinois Central Railroad, Wells Fargo & Co. the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. American Ship & Commerce, Hamburg-Amerikanische Packetfahrt-Aktiengesellschaft, the American Hawaiian Steamship Co, United American Lines, the Guaranty Trust Company, and the Union Banking Corporation. He served as Chairman of The Business Council, then known as the Business Advisory Council for the United States Department of Commerce in 1937 and 1939. Harrimans older sister, Mary Rumsey, encouraged Averell to leave his job and work with her and their friends. Averell joined the NRA National Recovery Administration, the first government consumer rights group, following the death of August Belmont, Jr. in 1924, Harriman, George Walker, and Joseph E. Widener purchased much of Belmonts thoroughbred breeding stock. Harriman raced under the name of Arden Farms, among his horses, Chance Play won the 1927 Jockey Club Gold Cup. He also raced in partnership with Walker under the name Log Cabin Stable before buying him out, racing Hall of Fame inductee Louis Feustel, trainer of Man o War, trained the Log Cabin horses until 1926. Of the partnerships successful runners purchased from the August Belmont estate, Harrimans banking business was the main Wall Street connection for German companies and the varied U. S. financial interests of Fritz Thyssen, who was a financial backer of the Nazi party until 1938
