1.
Early texts of Shakespeare's works
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The earliest texts of William Shakespeares works were published during the 16th and 17th centuries in quarto or folio format. Folios are large, tall volumes, quartos are smaller, roughly half the size, the publications of the latter are usually abbreviated to Q1, Q2, etc. where the letter stands for quarto and the number for the first, second, or third edition published. 18 of the 36 plays in the First Folio were printed in separate, Pericles and The Two Noble Kinsmen also appeared separately before their inclusions in folio collections. Six of these were classified bad quartos by Alfred W. Pollard, popular plays like 1 Henry IV and Pericles were reprinted in their quarto editions even after the First Folio appeared, sometimes more than once. Differing from the quartos of the plays, the first editions of Shakespeares narrative poems are extremely well printed, Richard Field, Shakespeares first publisher and printer, was a Stratford man, probably a friend of Shakespeare, and the two produced an excellent text. John Benson published an edition of Shakespeares Poems in 1640. The folio format was reserved for expensive, prestigious volumes and his poems were never included in his collected works until the eighteenth century. It was not until 1616, the year of Shakespeares death, seven years later the folio volume Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories & Tragedies appeared, this edition is now called the First Folio. It contains 36 plays,18 of which were printed for the first time, because Shakespeare was dead, the folio was compiled by John Heminges and Henry Condell, and arranged into comedies, histories and tragedies. The Folio is no more a definitive text than the quartos, many of the plays in the folio omit lines that can be found in quarto versions, and include misprints and textual corruption. The First Folio was compiled by Heminges and Condell — but it was published by a trio of stationers, William Jaggard, his son Isaac Jaggard, and Edward Blount. It contained, in addition to blandishments provided by various admirers of Shakespeare, such as the dedication signed by John Heminge, the Jaggards were printers, and did the actual printing of the book. It is thought that the printing of the First Folio was such a task that the Jaggards shop was simply needed to get the job done. The First Folio was reprinted three times in the 17th century, The Second Folio appeared in 1632, Isaac Jaggard had died in 1627, and Edward Blount had transferred his rights to stationer Robert Allot in 1630. The Second Folio was published by Allot, William Aspley, Richard Hawkins, Richard Meighen, and John Smethwick and it contained the same plays as the First Folio and much of the same additional material, with the addition of an unsigned poem by John Milton. The Third Folio was issued in 1663, published by Philip Chetwinde, Chetwinde had married Robert Allots widow, all seven of these additional plays had been published as quartos while Shakespeare was alive, but only Pericles was eventually widely accepted into the Shakespearean canon. The quartos of Pericles, The London Prodigal and A Yorkshire Tragedy were all attributed to William Shakespeare on their front pages, sir John Oldcastle was printed in 1619, three years after Shakespeares death, as part of the False Folio. It was attributed to Shakespeare on its title page which also bore a date of 1600
2.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
3.
First Folio
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Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies is the 1623 published collection of William Shakespeares plays. Modern scholars commonly refer to it as the First Folio, printed in folio format and containing 36 plays, it was prepared by Shakespeares colleagues John Heminges and Henry Condell. It was dedicated to the pair of brethren William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke and his brother Philip Herbert. The paper industry in England was then in its infancy and the quantity of quality rag paper for the book was imported from France. It is thought that the typesetting and printing of the First Folio was such a job that the Kings Men simply needed the capacities of the Jaggards shop. William Jaggard was old, infirm and blind by 1623, and died a month before the book went on sale, most of the work in the project must have been done by his son Isaac. The First Folios publishing syndicate also included two stationers who owned the rights to some of the plays that had been previously printed, William Aspley. Smethwick had been a partner of another Jaggard, Williams brother John. The printing of the Folio was probably done between February 1622 and early November 1623, the printer originally expected to have the book ready early, since it was listed in the Frankfurt Book Fair catalogue as a book to appear between April and October 1622. The thirty-six plays of the First Folio occur in the order given below, each play is followed by the type of source used, as determined by bibliographical research. Comedies 1 The Tempest * – the play was set into type from a prepared by Ralph Crane. Crane produced a high-quality result, with formal act/scene divisions, frequent use of parentheses and hyphenated forms,2 The Two Gentlemen of Verona * – another transcript by Ralph Crane. 3 The Merry Wives of Windsor – another transcript by Ralph Crane,4 Measure for Measure * – probably another Ralph Crane transcript. 5 The Comedy of Errors * – probably typeset from Shakespeares foul papers,6 Much Ado About Nothing – typeset from a copy of the quarto, lightly annotated. 7 Loves Labours Lost – typeset from a copy of Q1. 8 A Midsummer Nights Dream – typeset from a copy of Q2, well-annotated,9 The Merchant of Venice – typeset from a lightly edited and corrected copy of Q1. 10 As You Like It * – from a quality manuscript,11 The Taming of the Shrew * – typeset from Shakespeares foul papers, somewhat annotated, perhaps as preparation for use as a prompt-book. 12 Alls Well That Ends Well * – probably from Shakespeares foul papers or a manuscript of them,13 Twelfth Night * – typeset either from a prompt-book or a transcript of one
4.
Romantic comedy film
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Romantic comedy films are films with light-hearted, humorous plotlines, centered on romantic ideals such as that true love is able to surmount most obstacles. One dictionary definition is a movie, play, or television program about a love story that ends happily. Another definition states that its primary distinguishing feature is a plot in which two sympathetic and well-matched lovers are united or reconciled. Romantic comedy films are a genre of comedy films as well as of romance films. However a romantic comedy is classified as a film with two genres not a new genre. Some television series can also be classified as romantic comedies, a wedding-bells, fairy-tale-style happy ending is practically mandatory. The basic plot of a comedy is that two characters meet, part ways due to an argument or other obstacle, then ultimately reunite. Sometimes the two meet and become involved initially, then must confront challenges to their union. Sometimes they are hesitant to become involved because they believe that they do not like each other, because one of them already has a partner. However, the screenwriters leave clues that suggest that the characters are, in fact, attracted to each other, the protagonists often separate or seek time apart to sort out their feelings or deal with the external obstacles to their being together. While the two protagonists are separated, one or both of them realizes that they are ideal for each other, or that they are in love with each other. Then, after one of the two makes some effort to find the other person and declare their love, or through an astonishing coincidental encounter. Then, perhaps with some comic friction or awkwardness, they declare their love for each other, the couple does not, however, have to marry, or live together happily ever after. The ending of a comedy is meant to affirm the primary importance of the love relationship in its protagonists lives. There are many variations on this basic plotline, sometimes, instead of the two lead characters ending up in each others arms, another love match will be made between one of the principal characters and a secondary character. Alternatively, the film may be a rumination on the impossibility of love, the basic format of a romantic comedy film can be found in much earlier sources, such as Shakespeare plays like Much Ado About Nothing and A Midsummer Nights Dream. Some comedy films, such as Knocked Up, combine themes of romantic comedies and stoner comedies, often known as bromance, such films usually use sexual elements which bring the two characters together. Films in this genre include American Pie 2 and even Wedding Crashers, romantic comedies have begun to spread out of their conventional and traditional structure into other territory
5.
Shylock
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Shylock is a character in William Shakespeares play The Merchant of Venice. A Venetian Jewish moneylender, Shylock is the principal antagonist. His defeat and conversion to Christianity forms the climax of the story, Shylock is not a Jewish name. However, some believe it probably derives from the biblical name Shalah. Shalah is the grandson of Shem and the father of Eber, all the names of Jewish characters in the play derive from minor figures listed in genealogies in the Book of Genesis. It is possible that Shakespeare originally intended the name to be pronounced with a short i, the modern pronunciation has changed because the standard spelling with a y signifies to readers a long i pronunciation. In The Merchant of Venice, Shylock is a Jewish moneylender who lends money to his Christian rival, Antonio, when a bankrupt Antonio defaults on the loan, Shylock demands the pound of flesh. Meanwhile, Shylocks daughter, Jessica, falls in love with Antonios friend Lorenzo and converts to Christianity, which adds to Shylocks rage and hardens his resolve for revenge. In the end - due to the efforts of Antonios well-wisher, Portia - Shylock is charged with attempted murder of a Christian, carrying a death penalty. Shylock is then ordered to surrender half of his wealth and property to the state and the other half to Antonio. However, as an act of mercy, Antonio modifies the verdict, Shylock is forced to agree to these terms, and he exits citing illness. In Shakespeares time, no Jews had been present in England for several hundred years. However, stereotypes of Jews as money lenders remained from the Middle Ages, at the same time, most Christian kings forbade Jews to own land for farming or to serve in the government, and craft guilds usually refused to admit Jews as artisans. Thus money lending was one of the few occupations open to Jews. Hyam Maccoby argues that the play is based on medieval morality plays, in which the Virgin Mary argues for the forgiveness of human souls, Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean. Previously the role had been played by a comedian as a clown or, alternatively. Keans Shylock established his reputation as an actor, since Keans time, many other actors who have played the role have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character. Edwin Booth was an exception, playing him as a simple villain
6.
Portia (The Merchant of Venice)
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Portia is the heroine of William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice. If they choose the right casket – the casket containing Portias portrait, if they choose the wrong casket, they must leave and never seek another woman in marriage. Portia is glad when two suitors, one driven by greed and another by vanity, fail to choose correctly and she favours Bassanio, a young Venetian noble, but is not allowed to give him any clues to assist in his choice. Later in the play, she disguises herself as a man, then assumes the role of a lawyers apprentice whereby she saves the life of Bassanios friend, Antonio, Portia is one of the most prominent and appealing of the heroines in Shakespeares mature romantic comedies. She is beautiful, gracious, rich, intelligent, and quick-witted and she obeys her fathers will, while steadfastly seeking to obtain Bassanio. She demonstrates tact to the Princes of Morocco and Aragon, who seek her hand. In the court scenes, Portia finds a technicality in the bond, thereby outwitting Shylock and it is Portia who delivers one of the most famous speeches in The Merchant of Venice, The quality of mercy is not straind. It droppeth as the rain from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest, It blesseth him that gives and him that takes, the strength of the role of Portia has made it attractive to many notable actresses. Frances Abington, Sarah Siddons and Elizabeth Whitlock all played Portia in the 18th century when actresses first started appearing on stage in performances of the play. Despite Portias lack of legal training, she wins her case by referring to the details of the exact language of the law. Her success involves prevailing on technicalities rather than the merits of the situation and she uses the tactics of what is sometimes called a Philadelphia lawyer. The original Portia Shakespeare drew from was Porcia Catonis, the wife of the Roman statesman Brutus and she was also compared to the wife of Brutus within the play. The character of Portia has had a considerable and long-lived cultural impact, Portia is the name John Adams used to address his wife Abigail in his letters, presumably after Shakespeares character. The New England School of Law was originally known as the Portia Law School when it was established in 1908 as a law school. In his Rumpole novels, author John Mortimer has Rumpole call Phyllida Erskine-Brown the Portia of our Chambers, in 1986, a moon of Uranus was named after Portia. Portia de Rossi, married to Ellen DeGeneres, adopted the name Portia to reinvent herself after becoming a model and actress Shakespeare Resource Centre on the Merchant of Venice
7.
Antonio (The Merchant of Venice)
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Antonio is the title character in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. An influential and powerful nobleman of Venice, he is a middle-aged bachelor and he is kind, generous, honest and confident, and is loved and revered by all the Christians who know him. His willingness to die for Bassanio is a manifestation of his character, Antonio manifests his piety by cursing and spitting at Shylock. Act 1 When we first see him commiserating with his friends Salanio and Salarino he is pondering the unknown source of his depressive state and his friends try to guess the origin and nature of his condition by questioning him. First they inquire as to whether or not he is worried about his investments, when he insists that is not the reason they ask if he is in love which he is also quick to dismiss. It is then speculated that perhaps he has a temperament as some people do. This pair quickly exits to make way for Bassanio who is accompanied by his friends Lorenzo, Lorenzo cannot get in a word for the boisterous Gratiano who makes sport of Antonios melancholy telling him that he is too serious and that he himself would rather go through life acting foolish. After Lorenzo and Gratiano leave Bassanio tries to put Antonio at ease by saying Gratiano talks a lot of nonsense and it is in this conversation that we find a possible reason for Antonio’s sadness, the impending loss of his friend to a woman’s affections. Antonio, Well, tell me now, what lady is the same To whom you swore a secret pilgrimage That you today promised to tell me of. Bassanio then proceeds to tell Antonio of his financial state due to his own excesses. He compares himself with Jason and his quest for the Golden Fleece and he beseeches Antonio to back this venture knowing he is not likely to be refused by his generous benefactor. Indeed, Antonio, despite the fact that his capital is already at risk elsewhere, gives him a letter of credit, later Antonio enters the rialto to assure Shylock that he will be bound for the 3,000 ducats Bassanio wishes to borrow. Antonio has belittled and harassed Shylock in public, and he loathes him because when Christian friends of his money to the Jews he paid off the debts. Act 2 Antonio makes a appearance in this act in scene 6 when he runs into Gratiano. He goes on to say there will be no masque and that Bassanio is at that moment preparing to leave for Belmont to woo Portia. Act 3 We hear no more from Antonio until after Bassanio wins the hand of the wealthy Portia by correctly guessing which of three caskets holds her portrait, Gratiano proposes to Nerissa, Portia’s maid in waiting and friend. In the midst of his merrymaking he receives a letter detailing Antonio’s misfortune, none of the ships have returned to port and as such he has no funds to pay the bond with. His flesh is forfeit to the Jew who is intent on having it and he insists he does not regret helping Bassanio and even does not wish him to feel guilty
8.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
9.
Ducat
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The ducat /ˈdʌkət/ was a gold or silver coin used as a trade coin in Europe from the later medieval centuries until as late as the 20th century. Many types of ducats had various metallic content and purchasing power throughout the period, the gold ducat of Venice gained wide international acceptance, like the medieval Byzantine hyperpyron and the Florentine florin, or the modern British pound sterling and the United States dollar. The word ducat is from Medieval Latin ducatus = relating to a duke, Doge Enrico Dandolo of Venice, whose title means duke, introduced a silver ducat whose types are related to the ducats of Roger II. Later gold ducats of Venice, however, became so important that the name ducat was associated exclusively with them, the Venetian business model of the 13th century was importing goods from the East and selling them at a profit north of the Alps. They paid for goods with Byzantine gold coins but when the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos backed a rebellion called the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. This was just one more in a series of debasements of the hyperpyron, both Florence and Genoa had introduced gold coins in 1252 and the florin of Florence had become the standard European gold coin. Venice modeled the size and weight of their ducat on the florin, the Venetian ducat contained 3.545 grams of 99. 47% fine gold, the highest purity medieval metallurgy could produce. Gold ducat types derive from silver ducat types, which were ultimately Byzantine, the obverse shows the Doge of Venice kneeling before St. Mark, the patron saint of Venice. Saint Mark holds the gospel, which is his usual attribute, the legend on the left identifies the saint as S M VENET, i. e. Saint Mark of Venice, and the legend on the right identifies the doge, with his title DVX in the field. On the reverse, Christ stands among a field of stars in an oval frame, the reverse legend is the same as on Roger II’s ducats. Succeeding doges of Venice continued striking ducats, changing only their name on the obverse, during the 15th century, the value of the ducat in terms of silver money was stable at 124 Venetian soldi, i. e. schillings. The term ducat became identified with this amount of money as well as the gold coin. Conflict between England and Spain in 1567, however, increased the price of gold and upset this equivalence, at this point, the coin was called the ducato de zecca, i. e. ducat of the mint, which was shortened to zecchino and corrupted to sequin. Leonardo Loredan extended the coinage with a half ducat and subsequent doges added a quarter, all of these coins continued to use the designs and weight standards of the original 1284 ducat. Even after dates became a feature of western coinage, Venice struck ducats without them until Napoleon ended the Venetian Republic in 1797. Instead, the Roman coin showed a senator kneeling before St. Peter on the obverse, the Popes subsequently changed these designs, but continued to strike ducats of the same weight and size into the 16th century. Most imitations of the Venetian ducat were made in the Levant, the Knights of Saint John struck ducats with grand master Dieudonné de Gozon, 1346-1353, kneeling before Saint John on the obverse and an angel seated on the Sepulcher of Christ on the reverse. Subsequent Grand masters, however, found it expedient to copy the Venetian types more exactly, first at Rhodes and they struck ducats at Chios that could be distinguished from the Venetian originals only by their workmanship
10.
Antonio (Merchant of Venice)
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Antonio is the title character in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. An influential and powerful nobleman of Venice, he is a middle-aged bachelor and he is kind, generous, honest and confident, and is loved and revered by all the Christians who know him. His willingness to die for Bassanio is a manifestation of his character, Antonio manifests his piety by cursing and spitting at Shylock. Act 1 When we first see him commiserating with his friends Salanio and Salarino he is pondering the unknown source of his depressive state and his friends try to guess the origin and nature of his condition by questioning him. First they inquire as to whether or not he is worried about his investments, when he insists that is not the reason they ask if he is in love which he is also quick to dismiss. It is then speculated that perhaps he has a temperament as some people do. This pair quickly exits to make way for Bassanio who is accompanied by his friends Lorenzo, Lorenzo cannot get in a word for the boisterous Gratiano who makes sport of Antonios melancholy telling him that he is too serious and that he himself would rather go through life acting foolish. After Lorenzo and Gratiano leave Bassanio tries to put Antonio at ease by saying Gratiano talks a lot of nonsense and it is in this conversation that we find a possible reason for Antonio’s sadness, the impending loss of his friend to a woman’s affections. Antonio, Well, tell me now, what lady is the same To whom you swore a secret pilgrimage That you today promised to tell me of. Bassanio then proceeds to tell Antonio of his financial state due to his own excesses. He compares himself with Jason and his quest for the Golden Fleece and he beseeches Antonio to back this venture knowing he is not likely to be refused by his generous benefactor. Indeed, Antonio, despite the fact that his capital is already at risk elsewhere, gives him a letter of credit, later Antonio enters the rialto to assure Shylock that he will be bound for the 3,000 ducats Bassanio wishes to borrow. Antonio has belittled and harassed Shylock in public, and he loathes him because when Christian friends of his money to the Jews he paid off the debts. Act 2 Antonio makes a appearance in this act in scene 6 when he runs into Gratiano. He goes on to say there will be no masque and that Bassanio is at that moment preparing to leave for Belmont to woo Portia. Act 3 We hear no more from Antonio until after Bassanio wins the hand of the wealthy Portia by correctly guessing which of three caskets holds her portrait, Gratiano proposes to Nerissa, Portia’s maid in waiting and friend. In the midst of his merrymaking he receives a letter detailing Antonio’s misfortune, none of the ships have returned to port and as such he has no funds to pay the bond with. His flesh is forfeit to the Jew who is intent on having it and he insists he does not regret helping Bassanio and even does not wish him to feel guilty
11.
Tripoli
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Tripoli is the capital city and the largest city of Libya. Tripoli, with its area, has a population of about 1.1 million people. The city is located in the part of Libya on the edge of the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting into the Mediterranean. Tripoli includes the Port of Tripoli and the countrys largest commercial and it is also the site of the University of Tripoli. The vast Bab al-Azizia barracks, which includes the family estate of Muammar Gaddafi, is also located in the city. Colonel Gaddafi largely ruled the country from his residence in this barracks, Tripoli was founded in the 7th century BC by the Phoenicians, who named it Oea. Due to the long history, there are many sites of archaeological significance in Tripoli. Tripoli may also refer to the shabiyah, the Tripoli District, Tripoli is also known as Tripoli-of-the-West, to distinguish it from its Phoenician sister city Tripoli, Lebanon known in Arabic as Ṭarābulus al-Sham meaning Levantine Tripoli. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean, describing its turquoise waters, Tripoli English pronunciation, /ˈtrɪpəli/ is a Greek name that means Three Cities, introduced in Western European languages through the Italian Tripoli. In Arabic, طرابلس it is called Ṭarābulus, compare Sanskrit, tri meaning the number 3, and pura meaning a fortress, castle, city or town. Hence, in Sanskrit Tripura also means Three Cities, the city then passed into the hands of the rulers of Cyrenaica, although the Carthaginians later wrested it from the Greeks. By the later half of the 2nd century BC it belonged to the Romans, who included it in their province of Africa, and gave it the name of Regio Syrtica. Around the beginning of the 3rd century AD, it known as the Regio Tripolitana. It was probably raised to the rank of a province by Septimius Severus. In spite of centuries of Roman habitation, the only visible Roman remains, apart from scattered columns, the fact that Tripoli has been continuously inhabited, unlike e. g. Following the conquest, Tripoli was ruled by dynasties based in Cairo, Egypt, for some time it was a part of the Berber Almohad empire and of the Hafsids kingdom. It was part of the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries, finding themselves in very hostile territory, the Knights enhanced the citys walls and other defenses. Though built on top of a number of buildings, much of the earliest defensive structures of the Tripoli castle are attributed to the Knights of St John
12.
East Indies
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The East Indies or Indies are the lands of South and Southeast Asia. In a more restricted sense, the Indies can be used to refer to the islands of Southeast Asia, the name Indies is derived from the river Indus and is used to connote parts of Asia that came under Indian cultural influence. The East Indies may also include the former French-held Indochina, former British territories Brunei and Singapore and it does not, however, include the former Dutch New Guinea western New Guinea, which is geographically considered to be part of Melanesia. In colonial times they were just natives, however, the peoples of the East Indies comprise a wide variety of cultural diversity, and the inhabitants do not consider themselves as belonging to a single ethnic group. The major languages in this area draw from a variety of language families, and should not be confused with the term Indic. The extensive East Indies are subdivided into two sections, archaically called Hither India and Further India, the first is the former British India, the second is Southeast Asia. Historically, the king of Abyssinia was identified with Prester John of the Indies, exploration of these regions by European powers first began in the late 15th century and early 16th century led by the Portuguese explorers. The Portuguese described the region they discovered as the Indies. Eventually, the region would be broken up into a series of Indies, the East Indies, which was also called Old Indies or Great Indies, consisting of India, and the West Indies, also called New Indies or Little Indies, consisting of the Americas. The New World was initially thought to be the easternmost part of the Indies by explorer Christopher Columbus, later, to avoid confusion, the New World came to be called the West Indies, while the original Indies came to be called the East Indies. Greater India History of the Americas Indian Spanish West Indies
13.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
14.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
15.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
16.
Pound (mass)
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The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in the imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement. The international standard symbol for the pound is lb. The unit is descended from the Roman libra, the English word pound is cognate with, among others, German Pfund, Dutch pond, and Swedish pund. All ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto-Germanic of the Latin expression lībra pondō, usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight. This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound-mass and pound-force, the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard. Since 1 July 1959, the avoirdupois pound has been defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg. In the United Kingdom, the use of the pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963.9144 metre exactly. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains, the conversion factor between the kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7, and an grain is thus equal to exactly 64.79891 milligrams. The US has not adopted the system despite many efforts to do so. Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the libra is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae, or ounces, the libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, lb. A number of different definitions of the pound have historically used in Britain. Amongst these were the avoirdupois pound and the tower, merchants. Historically, the sterling was a tower pound of silver. In 1528, the standard was changed to the Troy pound, the avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. It was initially equal to 6992 troy grains, the pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been a part of the avoirdupois system
17.
Will and testament
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For the devolution of property not disposed of by will, see inheritance and intestacy. Thus, the word will validly applies to personal and real property. A will may also create a testamentary trust that is only after the death of the testator. Throughout most of the world, disposal of an estate has been a matter of social custom, according to Plutarch, the written will was invented by Solon. Originally it was a device intended solely for men who died without an heir, the English phrase will and testament is derived from a period in English law when Old English and Law French were used side by side for maximum clarity. Other such legal doublets include breaking and entering and peace and quiet, the conception of the freedom of disposition by will, familiar as it is in modern England and the United States, both generally considered common law systems, is by no means universal. In fact, complete freedom is the rather than the rule. Civil law systems often put some restrictions on the possibilities of disposal, advocates for gays and lesbians have pointed to the inheritance rights of spouses as desirable for same-sex couples as well, through same-sex marriage or civil unions. Opponents of such advocacy rebut this claim by pointing to the ability of same-sex couples to disperse their assets by will, types of wills generally include, nuncupative - oral or dictated, often limited to sailors or military personnel. Holographic will - written in the hand of the testator, in many jurisdictions, the signature, self-proved - in solemn form with affidavits of subscribing witnesses to avoid probate. Notarial - will in public form and prepared by a civil-law notary, servicemans will - will of person in active-duty military service and usually lacking certain formalities, particularly under English law. Reciprocal/mirror/mutual/husband and wife wills - wills made by two or more parties that make similar or identical provisions in favor of each other, unsolemn will - will in which the executor is unnamed. Will in solemn form - signed by testator and witnesses, some jurisdictions recognize a holographic will, made out entirely in the testators own hand, or in some modern formulations, with material provisions in the testators hand. The distinctive feature of a holographic will is less that it is handwritten by the testator, in Louisiana this type of testament is called an Olographic or Mystic will. It must be written, dated, and signed in the handwriting of the testator. Although the date may appear anywhere in the testament, the testator must sign the testament at the end of the testament, any additions or corrections must also be entirely hand written to have effect. In England, the formalities of wills are relaxed for soldiers who express their wishes on active service, a minority of jurisdictions even recognize the validity of nuncupative wills, particularly for military personnel or merchant sailors. However, there are constraints on the disposition of property if such an oral will is used
18.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
19.
Padua
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Padua is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic, the city is sometimes included, with Venice and Treviso, in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, which has a population of c. Padua stands on the Bacchiglione River,40 kilometres west of Venice and 29 km southeast of Vicenza, the Brenta River, which once ran through the city, still touches the northern districts. Its agricultural setting is the Venetian Plain, to the citys south west lies the Euganaean Hills, praised by Lucan and Martial, Petrarch, Ugo Foscolo, and Shelley. It hosts the University of Padua, founded in 1222, where Galileo Galilei was a lecturer, Padua is the setting for most of the action in Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew. There is a play by the Victorian writer Oscar Wilde, titled The Duchess Of Padua, the original significance of the Roman name Patavium is uncertain. It may be connected with the ancient name of the River Po, additionally, the root pat-, in the Indo-European language may refer to a wide open plain as opposed to nearby hills. The ending -ium, signifies the presence of villages that have united themselves together, Padua claims to be the oldest city in northern Italy. According to a tradition dated at least to the time of Virgils Aeneid and to Livys Ab Urbe Condita, Padua was founded in around 1183 BC by the Trojan prince Antenor. After the Fall of Troy, Antenor led a group of Trojans and their Paphlagonian allies, the Eneti or Veneti, thus, when a large ancient stone sarcophagus was exhumed in the year 1274, officials of medieval commune declared the remains within to be those of Antenor. Nevertheless, archeological remains confirm a date for the foundation of the center of the town to between the 11th and 10th centuries BC. The Roman historian Livy records an invasion of the Spartan king Cleonimos around 302 BC. The Spartans came up the river but were defeated by the Veneti in a naval battle, still later, the Veneti of Padua successfully defended themselves against the aggression of Etruscans and Gauls. According to Livy and Silius Italicus, the Veneti, including those of Padua, formed an alliance with the Romans by 226 BC, against their common enemy, men from Padua fought and died besides the Romans at Cannae. As the Romans advanced northward, Padua was gradually assimilated into the Roman Republic, in 175 BC, Padua requested the aid of Rome in putting down a local civil war. In 91 BC, Padua, along with cities of the Veneti. Around 49 BC, Padua was made a Roman municipium under the Lex Julia Municipalis and its citizens ascribed to the Roman tribe, at that time the population of the city was perhaps 40,000. The city was reputed for its excellent breed of horses and the wool of its sheep, in fact, the poet Martial remarks on the thickness of the tunics made there
20.
Doge of Venice
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The Doge of Venice, sometimes translated as Duke, was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for 1,100 years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-states aristocracy, commonly the man selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city. The doge was neither a duke in the sense, nor the equivalent of a hereditary duke. The title doge was the title of the senior-most elected official of Venice and Genoa, a doge was referred to variously by the titles My Lord the Doge, Most Serene Prince, and His Serenity. After a deadlocked tie at the election of 1229, the number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one, new regulations for the elections of the doge introduced in 1268 remained in force until the end of the republic in 1797. Their object was to minimize as far as possible the influence of great families. Thirty members of the Great Council, chosen by lot, were reduced by lot to nine, the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve, the twenty-five were reduced by lot to nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the forty-five were once more reduced by lot to eleven, none could be elected but by at least twenty-five votes out of forty-one, nine votes out of eleven or twelve, or seven votes out of nine electors. A detailed description of this process, and the procession that followed, is preserved in Martin Da Canales work Les Estoires de Venise. This practice came to an end in 1423, after the election of Francesco Foscari, the doges normally ruled for life. After a doges death, a commission of inquisitori passed judgment upon his acts, the official income of the doge was never large, and from early times holders of the office remained engaged in trading ventures. These ventures kept them in touch with the requirements of the grandi, from 7 July 1268, during a vacancy in the office of doge, the state was headed ex officio, with the style vicedoge, by the senior consigliere ducale. One of the duties of the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by casting a ring from the state barge, in its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro II Orseolo in 1000, and was celebrated on Ascension Day. It took its later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander III, on state occasions the Doge was surrounded by an increasing amount of ceremony, and in international relations he had the status of a sovereign prince. The doge took part in processions, which started in the Piazza San Marco. The doge would appear in the center of the procession, preceded by civil servants ranked in ascending order of prestige, from the 14th century onwards, the ceremonial crown and well-known symbol of the doge of Venice was called corno ducale, a unique kind of a ducal hat. Every Easter Monday the doge headed a procession from San Marco to the convent of San Zaccaria where the abbess presented him a new camauro crafted by the nuns, the Doges official costume also included golden robes, slippers and a sceptre for ceremonial duties
21.
Quibble (plot device)
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In terms of fiction, a quibble is a plot device, used to fulfill the exact verbal conditions of an agreement in order to avoid the intended meaning. Typically quibbles are used in legal bargains and, in fantasy, william Shakespeare used a quibble in The Merchant of Venice. A pact with the Devil commonly contains clauses that allow the devil to quibble over what he grants, and equally commonly, the maker of the pact finds a quibble to escape the bargain. In Norse mythology, Loki, having bet his head with Brokk and lost, forbids Brokk to take any part of his neck, saying he had not bet it, the Savoy Operas by Gilbert and Sullivan frequently feature quibbles, W. S. In the similar fairy tale The Goose Girl, the princess pours out her story to an iron stove, in Piers Anthonys fantasy world Xanth, the law requires that the king be a Magician, thereby excluding a Sorceress from ruling. Quibbles are the theme of The Twilight Zone episode The Man in the Bottle, a genie freed from a bottle grants a couple four wishes, warning that every wish has consequences. One of the wishes is to be in a position of great power. The genie turns him into Adolf Hitler during his days in World War II. In the Star Trek, Deep Space Nine episode The Circle, likewise, The Way of the Warrior, Sisko is forbidden to tell the Cardassians about an imminent invasion of their empire by the Klingons. In The Shadow Thieves, by Anne Ursu, Hades, attempting to banish the traitorous Philonecron, Philonecron later gets around Hadess binding proclamation by having servants carry him into the Underworld. In the 2002 film Spider-Man, Peter Parker faces professional wrestler Bonesaw McGraw after seeing a newspaper advertisement specifying $3000 for 3 minutes in the ring, when Croesus consulted the Pythia, he was told that going to war with Cyrus the Great would destroy a great empire. Croesus assumed that the seer meant that the Persian Empire would be destroyed and he proceeded to attack the Persians, believing victory was assured. In the end, however, the Persians were victorious, in Shakespeares Macbeth, Macbeth believes that he is invincible because the Three Witches give him the prophecy that none of woman born shall harm. In the final battle of the play, Macduff is able to kill Macbeth, in a second prophecy, Macbeth is told that he has nothing to fear until Great Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane Hill. He feels safe since he knows that forests cannot move, but is overcome when the English army, shielded with boughs cut from Birnam Wood, advances on his stronghold at Dunsinane. In The Lord of the Rings, the Elf Glorfindels prophecy states that not by the hand of man will the Witch-king of Angmar fall, the Witch-king is slain by Éowyn, a woman, during the battle of the Pelennor Fields. She is aided by Merry, a hobbit who distracted him by stabbing him with a Numenorean blade, as the Ring Wraiths are harmed by such swords. In Ruddigore, the baronets are cursed to die if they do not commit a crime every day, but failing to commit such a crime is committing suicide
22.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
23.
Thomas Heyes
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Thomas Heyes was the publisher-bookseller who published the first quarto edition of William Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice, in London, in 1600. He traded from St Paul’s Churchyard at the sign of the Green Dragon’, Thomas Heyes right to publish Shakespeares work is well attested. There is an entry in the Stationers Register dated 28 October 1600, entred for his copie under the handes of the Wardens and by Consent of Master Robertes. A booke called the booke of the Merchant of Venyce, based on the precise wording of this entry, it has been concluded that the edition published by Heyes was an official prompt book. The book was printed by ‘I. R. ’, the same James Roberts who had consented to its publication, Thomas Heyes left the copyright for this work to his son, Lawrence, in his will when the latter was only a boy. The copyright for Merchant of Venice was adjudged to ‘Lavrence Heyes’ in full court on 8 July 1619, proving this copyright was probably prompted by the publication of the False Folio edition by William Jaggard earlier that year. Lawrence published the third edition of Merchant of Venice in 1637. The copyright was transferred from Bridget Hayes and Jane Graisby to William Leake on 17 October 1657. Leake published the fourth edition of Merchant of Venice in 1652. Not much more is known about Thomas or Lawrence Heyes from other sources, Thomas Heyes also witnessed the will of the stationer Francis Coldock in 1602. Francis business adjoined that of Thomas Heyes, Francis address is given as “Lombard Street, over against the Cardinalls Hat, Green Dragon, Thomas published a number of other works, including England’s Parnassus by Robert Allot, in partnership with Nicholas Ling and Cuthbert Burby. His son Lawrence appears to have published one other work, ‘The worming of a mad dogge’
24.
Book size
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The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height and width of its cover. A series of terms is used by libraries and publishers for the general sizes of modern books, ranging from folio, to quarto. Historically, these referred to the format of the book. For example, a quarto historically was a book printed on a sheet of paper folded twice to four leaves. Because the actual format of modern books cannot be determined from examination of the books. In the hand press period books were manufactured by printing text on both sides of a sheet of paper and then folding the paper one or more times into a group of leaves or gathering. The binder would sew the gatherings through their inner hinges and attached to cords in the spine to form the book block. Before the covers were bound to the book, the block of pages was sometimes trimmed along the three unbound edges to open the folds of the paper and to produce smooth edges for the book. When the leaves were not trimmed, the reader would have to cut open the leaf edges using a knife. Books made by printing two pages of text on each side of a sheet of paper, which is folded once to form two leaves or four pages, are referred to as folios. Those made by printing four text pages on each side of a sheet of paper and folding the paper twice to form a gathering containing four leaves or eight pages are called quartos. Similarly, books made by printing eight pages of text on each side of a sheet, the proportion of leaves of quartos tends to be squarer than folios or octavos. These various production methods are referred to as the format of the book and these terms are often abbreviated, using 4to for quarto, 8vo for octavo, and so on. The octavo format, with eight leaves per gathering, has half the size of the quarto format before trimming. The vast majority of books were printed in the folio, quarto, there are many variations in how such books were produced. For example, three two-leaf printed sheets might be inserted in a fourth, producing gatherings of eight leaves or sixteen pages each. Bibliographers still refer to books as folios because the original full sheets were folded once to produce two leaves, and describe such gatherings as folios in 8s. Similarly, a book printed as an octavo, but bound with gatherings of four each, is called an octavo in 4s
25.
False Folio
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The only complete extant copy is part of the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC. The term false folio intentionally evokes the folio collections of Shakespeares works that appeared later, the description folio is not strictly accurate, since the ten plays were printed in a larger-than-usual quarto format, not in folio, but the key qualifier is false folio. The texts in question were first examined with modern bibliographic procedures primarily by Alfred W. Pollard, W. W. Greg, Pollard provides a detailed account in his Shakespeare Folios and Quartos. In summary, the stationer and printer William Jaggard reprinted ten plays in 1619, the ten plays were, Henry V – printed for T. P.1608 on the title page. Thomas Pavier was the stationer who possessed the rights to Henry V, king Lear – Printed for Nathaniel Butter 1608. Butter had printed Q1 of Lear in 1608, the Merchant of Venice – Printed by J. Roberts,1600. This was one play to which Jaggard did not have valid title, the Merry Wives of Windsor – Printed for Arthur Johnson,1619. Johnson published Q1 of Merry Wives in 1602, a Midsummer Nights Dream – Printed by James Roberts,1600. Pericles, Prince of Tyre – Printed for T. P.1619, sir John Oldcastle – printed for T. P.1600. A Yorkshire Tragedy – Printed for T. P.1619, the Whole Contention Between the Two Famous Houses, Lancaster and York – Printed at London, for T. P. In 1602, Pavier had acquired the rights to both plays from Millington, pericles was printed after The Whole Contention, since their signatures run together, but the nine plays were apparently bound together in no particular order. As Jaggard lacked rights to Hayes Merchant of Venice, he may also have lacked rights to Butters Lear, there is much about the False Folio affair that remains unclear, such as subjective questions of Jaggards motivation. Jaggard had an odd connection with the Shakespeare canon, he had printed the questionable miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim as Shakespeares in 1599 and 1612. Some Shakespeare scholars have wondered why the Kings Men used Jaggard as the printer and one of the publishers of the First Folio and it may have been a case of necessity, since Jaggard had a large-capacity print shop. Pollard focused much of his attention on the concept of literary piracy, and his viewpoint coloured much of the scholarly attitude and approach to the False Folio during the twentieth century
26.
Maurycy Gottlieb
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Maurycy Gottlieb was a Polish Jewish realist painter of the Romantic period. He was born in Drohobych to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking orthodox Jewish family living in Galicia and it was then part of the Austrian sector of Partitioned Poland, now Western Ukraine. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23, Maurycy was one of Isaac Gottlieb and Fanya née Tigermans eleven children. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski, at fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko, however, an anti-semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewskis protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde and he returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl Piloty and Alexander Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock, in the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich. In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki, in 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin, Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica, portraying a scene from Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw, Gottlieb based Jessicas face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker, Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfelds marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat. Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive, though not all are finished, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the West were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother Leopold Gottlieb was born five years after his death, nehama Guralnik, In the Flower of Youth, Maurycy Gottlieb. Tel Aviv Museum of Art, Dvir Publishers,1991, arkady, Warsaw, ISBN 83-213-3891-7 Ezra Mendelsohn, Painting a people, Maurycy Gottlieb and Jewish Art. Brandeis University Press, Hanover, New Hampshire, ISBN 1-58465-179-2 Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur, głowa starca - oil painting by Gottlieb in Central Jewish Library
27.
History of the Jews in England
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The history of the Jews in England goes back to the reign of William the Conqueror. The first written record of Jewish settlement in England dates from 1070, the Jewish presence continued until King Edward Is Edict of Expulsion in 1290. After the expulsion, there was no Jewish community, apart from individuals who practised Judaism secretly, while Cromwell never officially readmitted Jews to Britain, a small colony of Sephardic Jews living in London was identified in 1656 and allowed to remain. The Jewish Naturalisation Act of 1753, an attempt to legalise the Jewish presence in England, at the insistence of Irish leader Daniel OConnell, in 1846 the British law De Judaismo, which prescribed a special dress for Jews, was repealed. Due to the lack of violence in Britain in the 19th century, it acquired a reputation for religious tolerance. In the 1930s and 1940s, some European Jews fled to England to escape the Nazis, Jews faced anti-Semitism and stereotypes in Britain, and anti-Semitism in most cases went along with Germanophobia to the extent that Jews were equated with Germans in the early 20th century. This led many Jewish families to Anglicise their often German-sounding names, Jews in Britain now number 300,000, and England contains the second largest Jewish population in Europe and the fifth largest Jewish community worldwide. There is no evidence of Jews residing in England before the Norman Conquest, the few references in the Anglo-Saxon Church laws relate to Jewish practices about Easter. William of Malmesbury states that William the Conqueror brought Jews from Rouen to England, at first the status of Jews was not strictly determined. Henry granted a charter to Rabbi Joseph, the chief Rabbi of London, special weight was attributed to a Jews oath, which was valid against that of twelve Christians. The sixth clause of the charter was especially important, it granted to Jews the right to move wherever they wanted, as if they were the kings own property. Gentile-Jewish relations in England were disturbed under King Stephen, who burned down the house of a Jew in Oxford because he refused to pay a contribution to the kings expenses. In 1144 came the first report in history of the blood libel against Jews, Anthony Julius finds that the English were endlessly imaginative in inventing anti-Semitic allegations against the Jews. He says that England became the promoter, and indeed in some sense the inventor of literary anti-Semitism. In his book, Julius argues that blood libel is the key, because it incorporates the themes that Jews are malevolent, constantly conspiring against Christians, powerful, variations include stories about Jews poisoning wells, twisting minds, and buying and selling Christian souls and bodies. While the Crusaders were killing Jews in Germany, outbursts against Jews in England were, according to Jewish chroniclers, with the restoration of order under Henry II, Jews renewed their activity. Within five years of his accession Jews were found at London, Oxford, Cambridge, Norwich, Thetford, Bungay, Canterbury, Winchester, Newport, Stafford, Windsor, and Reading. Yet they were not permitted to bury their dead elsewhere than in London and their spread throughout the country enabled the king to draw upon their resources as occasion demanded
28.
Edict of Expulsion
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In 1290, King Edward I issued an edict expelling all Jews from England. The expulsion edict remained in force for the rest of the Middle Ages, the edict was not an isolated incident, but the culmination of over 200 years of increased persecution. Oliver Cromwell permitted Jews to return to England in 1657, over 360 years after their banishment by Edward I, the first Jewish communities of significant size came to England with William the Conqueror in 1066. Under the lords were further subjects such as serfs, who were bound and obliged to their lords, merchants had a special status in the system as did Jews. Jews were declared to be subjects of the King, unlike the rest of the population. This was an ambivalent legal position for the Jewish population, in that they were not tied to any particular lord and this could at times prove advantageous and at other times disadvantageous. Every successive king formally reviewed a royal charter granting Jews the right to remain in England, Jews did not enjoy any of the guarantees of the Magna Carta of 1215. Economically, Jews played a key role in the country, the church at the time strictly forbade the lending of money for profit. This created a vacuum in the economy of Europe that Jews filled due to discrimination in every other economic area. Canon law was not considered applicable to Jews, and Judaism does not forbid loans with interest between Jews and non-Jews, in consequence, some Jews made large amounts of money. Taking advantage of their status as his direct subjects, the King could appropriate Jewish assets in the form of taxation. He levied heavy taxes on Jews at will without having to summon Parliament, Jews acquired a reputation as extortionate moneylenders which made them extremely unpopular with both the church and the general public. While an anti-Jewish attitude was widespread in Europe, medieval England was particularly anti-Jewish, in frequent cases of blood libel, Jews were said to hunt for children to murder before Passover so they could use their blood to make the unleavened matzah. Anti-Jewish attitudes sparked numerous riots in which many Jews were murdered, the situation only got worse for Jews as the 13th century progressed. In 1218, Henry III of England proclaimed the Edict of the Badge, between 1219-72,49 levies were imposed on Jews for a total of 200,000 marks, a vast sum of money. The first major step towards expulsion took place in 1275, with the Statute of the Jewry, the statute outlawed all lending at interest and gave Jews fifteen years to readjust. In the duchy of Gascony in 1287, King Edward ordered the local Jews expelled, all their property was seized by the crown and all outstanding debts payable to Jews were transferred to the King’s name. By the time he returned to England in 1289, King Edward was deeply in debt, the next summer he summoned his knights to impose a steep tax
29.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
30.
Oliver Cromwell
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Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was born into the gentry, albeit to a family descended from the sister of King Henry VIIIs minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life as only four of his letters survive alongside a summary of a speech he delivered in 1628. He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a conversion in the 1630s. He was a religious man, a self-styled Puritan Moses. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short and he entered the English Civil War on the side of the Roundheads or Parliamentarians. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles Is death warrant in 1649 and he was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–1650. Cromwells forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, during this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics, and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651, as a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, the Royalists returned to power in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell, sponsored by military historian Richard Holmes was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Katherine married Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales, Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he use Cromwell, in honour of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. They had ten children, but Oliver, the child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Jasper was the uncle of Henry VII and great uncle of Henry VIII, Cromwells paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells father Robert was of modest means but still a part of the gentry class, as a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes, Cromwell himself in 1654 said, I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity. He was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St Johns Church and he went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos
31.
The Jew of Malta
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The Jew of Malta is a play by Christopher Marlowe, probably written in 1589 or 1590. The title character, Barabas, dominates the plays action, there has been extensive debate about the plays portrayal of Jews and how Elizabethan audiences would have viewed it. The Jew of Malta is considered to have been an influence on William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice. The first recorded performance was in 1592, the play was acted by Lord Stranges Men seventeen times between 26 February 1592 and 1 February 1593. It was performed by Sussexs Men on 4 February 1594, and by a combination of Sussexs, more than a dozen performances by the Admirals Men occurred between May 1594 and June 1596. In 1601 Henslowes Diary notes payments to the Admirals company for props for a revival of the play, the play was entered in the Stationers Register on 17 May 1594, but the earliest surviving edition was printed in 1633 by the bookseller Nicholas Vavasour. This edition contains prologues and epilogues written by Thomas Heywood for a revival in that year, Heywood is also sometimes thought to have revised the play. Corruption and inconsistencies in the 1633 quarto, particularly in the second half, the Jew of Malta was a success in its first recorded performance at the Rose theatre in early 1592, when Edward Alleyn played the lead role. The play remained popular for the fifty years, until Englands theatres were closed in 1642. In the Caroline era, actor Richard Perkins was noted for his performances as Barabas when the play was revived in 1633 by Queen Henriettas Men, the title page of the 1633 quarto refers to this revival, performed at the Cockpit Theatre. The play was revived by Edmund Kean at Drury Lane on 24 April 1818, the script of this performance included additions by S. Penley. The play contains a prologue in which the character Machiavel, a Senecan ghost based on Niccolò Machiavelli, Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying I count religion but a childish toy, /And hold there is no sin but ignorance. Barabas begins the play in his counting-house, when they both die in a duel, he becomes further incensed when Abigail, horrified at what her father has done, runs away to become a Christian nun. After Ithamore falls in love with a prostitute who conspires with her friend to blackmail and expose him. When he is caught, he drinks of poppy and cold mandrake juice so that he will be left for dead, when at last Barabas is nominated governor by his new allies, he switches sides to the Christians once again. Just at the moment, however, the former governor emerges and causes Barabas to fall into his own trap. Jews had been banished from England in 1290 with the Edict of Expulsion and they were not readmitted to the country until 1655. Thus, Elizabethan audiences would have had little to no encounters with Jews or Judaism in their daily life and these creations have been the subject of much debate
32.
Forced conversion
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Forced conversion is adoption of a different religion or irreligion under duress. Forced abandonment of religion has been described as conversion to atheism and those who convert may willingly embrace their new religion or irreligion, or may continue, covertly, with the beliefs and practices originally held, while outwardly behaving as converts. Crypto-Jews, crypto-Christians, crypto-Muslims and crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter, in general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when viewed over the expanse of human history. While religious leaders and the state generally have different aims, both are concerned with power and order, both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior, the relationship is far from simple. But religion has often been used coercively, and has used coercion, Christianity was a minority religion during much of the Roman Empire, and the early Christians were persecuted during that time. When Constantine I converted to Christianity, it became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics had been persecuted, beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed. In the view of historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into one capable of persecution. Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul, the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine empire. During the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, forcibly Roman Catholicized the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Forced conversion that occurred after the seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs, Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt, for this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. After the end of the Islamic control of Spain, Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, in Portugal, following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only a handful were allowed to leave and the rest were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and were forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500–02, after the conversions, the so-called New Christians were those inhabitants who were baptized under coercion and in the face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam or from Judaism. Jewish conversos still resided in Spain and often practiced Judaism cryptically and were suspected by the Old Christians of being Crypto-Jews, the Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish refugees, upon converting to Christianity in the 10th century, Vladimir the Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus, ordered Kievs citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river. After Ivan the Terribles conquest of the Khanate of Kazan, the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement, in the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russias non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews. The Portuguese practised religious persecution in Goa, India in the 16th and 17th centuries, the natives of Goa, most of them Hindus, were subjected to severe torture and oppression by the zealous Portuguese rulers and missionaries, and forcibly converted to Christianity
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The Merchant of Venice public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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