1.
Newshub
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Newshub is a New Zealand news service that airs on Three and radio stations run by MediaWorks. The Newshub brand replaced 3 News on the TV3 network and the Radio Live news service heard on MediaWorks Radio stations on 1 February 2016, the flagship 6, 00pm bulletin of Newshub is currently presented by Mike McRoberts and Samantha Hayes. Newshub Live at 6pm replaced the TV3 6pm news bulletin previously known as 3 News at 6pm, Melissa Davies & Tom McRae present the weekend edition at 6pm and are also back up anchors for Samantha Hayes and Mike McRoberts. Other back up anchors on Newshub Live at 6pm have included Hamish Clark, Late night news show on TV3 which usually airs weeknights around 10, 30pm but can run later depending on the evening schedule. The bulletin was presented by Samantha Hayes until her promotion to 6pm anchor, Current anchors for Newshub Late include Sacha McNeil and Jenny Suo. This is TV3s fourth late night show with the original show being Nightline between 1990 and 2013, The Paul Henry Show in 2014 and Newsworthy in 2015. Launched on March 20, the airs for half an hour on weekdays. The AM Show is a New Zealand morning news and talk show airs on TV3. It is presented by Duncan Garner, with news anchor Amanda Gillies, sports presenter Mark Richardson, the show replaced Paul Henry after it was announced the frontman of the show, Paul Henry, was resigning and therefore the show was going to be replaced. The announcement was made by MediaWorks in November 2016, and Paul Henry last aired on 16 December 2016, the AM Show will premiere on 13 February 2017. The Project is a New Zealand current affairs show hosted by Jesse Mulligan, Josh Thomson and it premiered on Three in early February 2017, and airs from 7pm to 7, 30pm. The show replaced Story after it was canceled and aired its final episode on 16 December 2016, storys frontman, Duncan Garner, was moved to the breakfast timeslot taking over Paul Henry to host The AM Show. The shows format was taken from the Australian version of the show, The Project, the Nation is TV3s in-depth political current affairs show focusing on the major players and forces that shape New Zealand. The show is presented by Lisa Owen and Patrick Gower and airs on Saturday mornings at 9, 30am and Sunday mornings at 10, three60 is TV3s newest current affairs show focusing on international news, politics & business. Three60 is presented by Newshub anchor Mike McRoberts and airs on Sunday mornings at 9, the TV3 6pm news bulletin was known as 3 News or 3 News at 6pm up to 31 January 2016. 3 News was originally known as 3 National News and first went on air in November 1989 when TV3 began broadcasting, for the first year of broadcast 3 National News was a thirty-minute bulletin screening at 6, 30pm, the same time slot as Holmes on TV1. The original bulletin was presented by former BCNZ and TVNZ anchor Philip Sherry, joined by sportscaster Greg Clark, the final report, by Janet McIntyre, described TV3s launch party and the networks first day of operation. The sports segment was produced by Tony Ciprian, in 1991 TV3 extended 3 National News to a 1-hour bulletin starting at 6pm, this occurred during the Gulf War but TV3 continued to screen a 1-hour bulletin following the war
2.
Katrina vanden Heuvel
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Katrina vanden Heuvel is an American editor and publisher. She is the editor, publisher, and part-owner of the liberal / progressive magazine The Nation and she has been the magazines editor since 1995. She is a frequent commentator on political television programs. She is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and she has one sister and two step-siblings. Her maternal grandparents were Music Corporation of America founder Jules C. Stein, through her maternal grandmother, vanden Heuvel is a distant cousin of actor and comedian George Jessel. Her mother is of Jewish descent and her father is of Dutch, Vanden Heuvel graduated from the Trinity School in 1977. She studied politics and history at Princeton University, during her undergraduate years, she served as an editor and eventually as editor-in-chief of the Nassau Weekly, a school publication, and had an internship at National Lampoon magazine in 1978. Vanden Heuvel wrote her thesis on McCarthyism, and graduated summa cum laude from Princeton in 1981. In 1989, vanden Heuvel was promoted to The Nations editor-at-large position, in 1995, vanden Heuvel was named chief editor of The Nation. By 1995, The Nation was losing $500,000 year, the investors included van den Heuvel, Paul Newman, E. L. Doctorow, Alan Sagner, Peter Norton and others, Vanden Heuvel contributed a blog at the online version of The Nation, entitled Editors Cut. With her husband, Stephen F. Cohen, vanden Heuvel edited Voices of Glasnost and she also edited the compilation volume, The Nation, 1865–1990. Vanden Heuvel has appeared on ABCs This Week, MSNBC, CNN and PBS and has published in The Washington Post. As of December 2016, she continues to write a column for The Washington Post. Since this date, vanden Heuvel is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, in June 1987, Vanden Heuvel edited a special edition of The Nation, Gorbachevs Soviet Union, which was awarded the New York University Olive Branch Award. Vanden Heuvel was awarded Planned Parenthoods Maggie Award for her 2003 article Right-to-Lifers Hit Russia and she also won the NYCLUs Callaway Prize for the Defense of the Right of Privacy, and the American-Arab Anti-discrimination Committees Voices of Peace award in 2003. Vanden Heuvel has also recognized and granted awards by the Liberty Hill Foundation, the Correctional Association. Voices of Glasnost, Interviews with Gorbachevs Reformers, dictionary of Republicanisms, The Indispensable Guide to What They Really Mean When They Say What They Think You Want to Hear
3.
Norman Thomas
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Norman Mattoon Thomas was an American Presbyterian minister who achieved fame as a socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. Thomas was the oldest of six children, born November 20,1884 in Marion, Ohio, to Emma Williams and Weddington Evans Thomas, a Presbyterian minister. Thomas had an uneventful Midwestern childhood and adolescence, helping to put himself through Marion High School as a carrier for Warren G. Hardings Marion Daily Star. Like other paper carriers, he reported directly to Florence Kling Harding, no pennies ever escaped her, said Thomas. The summer after he graduated high school his father accepted a pastorate at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. He left Bucknell after one year to attend Princeton University, the beneficiary of the largesse of an uncle by marriage. Thomas graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University in 1905, after some settlement house work and a trip around the world, Thomas decided to follow in his fathers footsteps and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911, Union Theological Seminary had been at that time a center of the Social Gospel movement and liberal politics, and as a minister, Thomas preached against American participation in the First World War. This pacifist stance led to his being shunned by many of his fellow alumni from Princeton, when church funding of the American Parishs social programs was stopped, Thomas resigned his pastorate. Despite his resignation, Thomas did not formally leave the ministry until 1931 and it was Thomas position as a conscientious objector which drew him to the Socialist Party of America, a staunchly antimilitarist organization. When SPA leader Morris Hillquit made his campaign for Mayor of New York in 1917 on an anti-war platform, to his surprise, Hillquit wrote back, encouraging the young minister to work for his campaign, which Thomas energetically did. Soon thereafter he joined the Socialist Party. Thomas was the secretary of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation even before the war, when the organization started a magazine called The World Tomorrow in January 1918, Thomas was employed as its paid editor. Together with Devere Allen, Thomas helped to make The World Tomorrow the leading voice of liberal Christian social activism of its day, in 1921, Thomas moved to secular journalism, when he was employed as associate editor of The Nation magazine. In 1922 Thomas became co-director of the League for Industrial Democracy, later, he was one of the founders of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor of the American Civil Liberties Union. Thomass political activity also included attempts at the US presidency, following Eugene Debss death in 1926, there was a leadership vacuum in the Socialist Party. Neither of the two top political leaders, Victor L. Berger and Hillquit, were eligible to run for president because of their foreign birth. The third main figure, Daniel Hoan, was occupied as mayor of Milwaukee, the 1928 campaign was the first of Thomass six consecutive campaigns as the presidential nominee of the Socialist Party
4.
Progressivism in the United States
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Progressivism in the United States is a broadly based reform movement that reached its height early in the 20th century and is generally considered to be middle class and reformist in nature. It arose as a response to the vast changes brought by modernization, such as the growth of corporations and railroads. In the 21st century, progressives continue to embrace concepts such as environmentalism, Social progressivism, the view that governmental practices ought to be adjusted as society evolves, forms the ideological basis for many American progressives. Historian Alonzo Hamby defined progressivism as the movement that addresses ideas, impulses. Emerging at the end of the century, it established much of the tone of American politics throughout the first half of the century. Many of the principles of the Progressive Movement focused on the need for efficiency in all areas of society. The real enemy was particularism, state rights, limited government, Progressives repeatedly warned that illegal voting was corrupting the political system. It especially identified big-city bosses, working with saloon keepers and precinct workers, the solution to purifying the vote included prohibition, voter registration requirements, and literacy tests. All the Southern states used devices to disenfranchise black voters during the Progressive Era, typically the progressive elements in those states pushed for disenfranchisement, often fighting against the conservatism of the Black Belt whites. A major reason given was that whites routinely purchased black votes to control elections, in the North, Progressives such as William URen and Robert La Follette argued that the average citizen should have more control over his government. The Oregon System of Initiative, Referendum, and Recall was exported to many states, including Idaho, Washington, many progressives, such as George M. Forbes, president of Rochesters Board of Education, hoped to make government in the U. S. Progressives in the South supported the elimination of supposedly corrupt black voters from the election booth, while the ultimate significance of the progressive movement on todays politics is still up for debate, Alonzo L. Hamby asks, What were the central themes that emerged from the cacophony. And what was the impact of American foreign policy, were the progressives isolationists or interventionists. Imperialists or advocates of national self-determination, and whatever they were, what was their motivation. Not surprisingly many battered scholars began to shout no mas, in 1970, Peter Filene declared that the term progressivism had become meaningless. The Progressives typically concentrated on city and state government, looking for waste and these changes led to a more structured system, power that had been centralized within the legislature would now be more locally focused. These changes led to a solid type of municipal administration compared to the old system that was underdeveloped. The Progressives mobilized concerned middle class voters, as well as newspapers and magazines, to identify problems and concentrate reform sentiment on specific problems
5.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
6.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
William Lloyd Garrison
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William Lloyd Garrison was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society and he promoted immediate emancipation of slaves in the United States. In the 1870s, Garrison became a prominent voice for the suffrage movement. Garrison was born on December 10,1805, in Newburyport, Massachusetts, under An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, Abijah Garrison, a merchant sailing pilot and master, had obtained American papers and moved his family to Newburyport in 1806. Embargo Act of 1807, intended to injure Great Britain, caused a decline in American commercial shipping, the elder Garrison became unemployed and deserted the family in 1808. Garrisons mother was Frances Maria Lloyd, reported to have tall, charming. She started referring to their son William as Lloyd, his middle name and she died in 1823, in the town of Springfield, Massachusetts. Garrison sold home-made lemonade and candy as a youth, and also delivered wood to support the family. In 1818, at 13, Garrison began working as a compositor for the Newburyport Herald. He soon began writing articles, often under the pseudonym Aristides, Aristides was an Athenian statesman and general nicknamed the Just. After his apprenticeship ended, Garrison and a printer named Isaac Knapp bought their own newspaper in 1826. One of their regular contributors was poet and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier, in this early work as a small town newspaper writer, Garrison acquired skills he would later use as a nationally known writer, speaker and newspaper publisher. In 1828, he was appointed editor of the National Philanthropist in Boston, Massachusetts, at the age of 25, Garrison joined the anti-slavery movement, later crediting the 1826 book of Presbyterian Reverend John Rankin, Letters on Slavery, for attracting him to the cause. For a brief time he associated with the American Colonization Society. Although some members of the society encouraged granting freedom to slaves, Southern members thought reducing the threat of free blacks in society would help preserve the institution of slavery. By late 1829–1830, Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, Garrison began writing for and became co-editor with Benjamin Lundy of the Quaker newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation in Baltimore, Maryland. With his experience as a printer and newspaper editor, Garrison changed the layout of the paper, Lundy was freed to spend more time touring as an anti-slavery speaker. Garrison initially shared Lundys gradualist views, but while working for the Genius, Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper in spite of their differing views
9.
The Liberator (newspaper)
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The Liberator was an abolitionist newspaper founded by William Lloyd Garrison and Isaac Knapp in 1831. Garrison co-published weekly issues of The Liberator from Boston continuously for 35 years, from January 1,1831, the Liberator continued for three decades from its founding through the end of the American Civil War. It had black columnists and reporters, Garrison ended the newspapers run with a valedictory column at the end of 1865, when the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States. It was succeeded by The Nation, the Liberators printers, Isaac Knapp, James Brown Yerrinton and James Manning Winchell Yerrinton, and Robert Folger Wallcut, printed many of the woman’s rights tracts used in the 1850s. The Liberator full online archives at Fair Use Repository, including archives of full-page scans of all issues from 1831–1865. Internet Archive, Liberator v.28, no.30,1858 Liberator v.31, no.1, no.15, no.16, no.27,1861 Liberator v.32, no.1, no.27,1862 The Liberator Files collection maintained by Horace Seldon. All of the articles were written by Garrison. To the Public, Garrisons introductory column for The Liberator, January 1,1831, the Insurrection, Garrisons reaction to the news of Nat Turners slave rebellion in Virginia, September 3,1831. December 29,1832, one of Garrisons first explicit condemnations of the Constitution, declaration of Sentiments, adopted by the Boston Peace Convention September 18,1838, reprinted in The Liberator, September 28,1838. Abolition at the Ballot Box, June 28,1839, the American Union, January 10,1845. On the Dissolution of the Union, June 15,1855, the Tragedy at Harpers Ferry, Garrisons first public comments on John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry, October 28,1859. The War—Its Cause and Cure, May 3,1861, valedictory, The Final Number of The Liberator, Garrisons closing column for The Liberator, December 29,1865. Abolitionist publications North Star, a newspaper owned and run by Frederick Douglass. The Liberator Files, Horace Seldons collection and summary of research of The Liberator original copies at the Boston Public Library, Boston, Works by or about The Liberator at Internet Archive Works by The Liberator at LibriVox The Liberator at Newspapers. com
10.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
11.
Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
12.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
13.
Peace
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Peace is a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of violence between heterogeneous social groups. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace often involves compromise, Peace can be defined in a positive direction and in a negative sense. Positively, peace is a state of tranquility and stillness, however, in a negative sense, the term peace originates most recently from the Anglo-French pes, and the Old French pais, meaning peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement. But, Pes itself comes from the Latin pax, meaning peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony. At a personal level, peaceful behaviors are kind, considerate, respectful, just, and tolerant of others beliefs and behaviors — tending to manifest goodwill. This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individuals introspective sense or concept of her/himself, as in being at peace in ones own mind, as found in European references from c.1200. In many languages, the word for peace is used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian word aloha. In English the word peace is used as a farewell, especially for the dead. Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the problems of human life. Among pagan faiths, worship of personified Peace was organized in antiquity under the name Eirene in Greek-speaking areas and as Pax in Latin-speaking ones and her idols depicted a full-grown woman, usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves. Christians, who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace. Islam derived from the root word salam which literally means peace, muslims are called followers of Islam. Quran clearly stated Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah, hearts are assured and stated O you who have believed, and when you are told, Arise, then arise, Allah will raise those who have believed among you and those who were given knowledge, by degrees. And Allah is Acquainted with what you do, buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends. They regard all suffering as stemming from cravings, aversions, or delusions, to eliminate such suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths — a central tenet in Buddhist philosophy. Hindu texts contain the following passages, May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, may everything in the universe be at peace
14.
Disarmament
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Disarmament is the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons. Disarmament generally refers to a military or specific type of weaponry. Disarmament is often taken to mean total elimination of weapons of destruction, such as nuclear arms. ”Before World War I at the Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907 government delegations debated about disarmament. The court was considered necessary because it was understood that nation-states could not disarm into a vacuum, after the war revulsion at the futility and tremendous cost of the war was widespread. A commonly held belief was that the cause of the war had been the escalating buildup of armaments in the half century among the great powers. Although the Treaty of Versailles effectively disarmed Germany, a clause was inserted that called on all the powers to likewise progressively disarm over a period of time. One of the earliest successful achievements in disarmament was obtained with the Washington Naval Treaty, the size of the three countrys navies was set at the ratio 5-5-3. In 1921 the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments was set up by the League of Nations to explore possibilities for disarmament, proposals ranged from abolishing chemical warfare and strategic bombing to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal, although there were 65 signatories to the pact, it achieved nothing, as it set out no guidelines for action in the event of a war. A final attempt was made at the Geneva Disarmament Conference from 1932–37, Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany demilitarised for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany, the talks broke down in 1933, when Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the conference. Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. In the United Kingdom, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament held a public meeting at Central Hall, Westminster, on 17 February 1958. After the meeting a few hundred left to demonstrate at Downing Street, cNDs declared policies were the unconditional renunciation of the use, production of or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain and the bringing about of a general disarmament convention. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches, in 1961, US President John F. There have been many large demonstrations and protests. On June 12,1982, one million people demonstrated in New York Citys Central Park against nuclear weapons and it was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. He also notes, Now a freeze or a mutually agreed increase is not strictly speaking disarmament at all, and such measures may not even be intended to be a first step towards any kind of reduction or abolition
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United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
16.
Park Row (Manhattan)
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Park Row is a street located in the Financial District, Civic Center, and Chinatown sections of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The street runs east-west, sometimes called north-south because the end is nearer to Downtown Manhattan. At the north end of Park Row is the confluence of Bowery, East Broadway, St. James Place, Oliver Street, Mott Street, at the streets south end, Broadway, Vesey Street, Barclay Street, and Ann Street intersect. The intersection includes a bus turnaround loop designated as Millennium Park, in the late 18th century Eastern Post Road became the more important road connecting New York to Albany and New England. Early in the 19th century most of the Manhattan portion of road was suppressed, the Commons became City Hall Park. Part of the section of the street was known as Printing House Square. The New York Times was originally located at 113 Nassau Street in 1851, the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung moved to its own building at 17 Chatham Street at very nearly the same time. One of the first structures to be called a skyscraper, the Park Row Building is located at the end of Park Row. At 391 feet tall it was the tallest office building in the world from 1899 until 1908, the building is 29 stories tall, with 26 full floors and two, three-story cupolas. It has a frontage of 103 ft on Park Row,23 on Ann Street and 48 feet on Theater Alley, the base of the building covers a land area of approximately 15,000 square feet. The New York City Police Department is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza located on Park Row, across the street from the Manhattan Municipal Building, the segment of Park Row between Frankfort Street and Chatham Square is only open to MTA buses and government and emergency vehicles. The section of Park Row has been closed to traffic since 2001. The NYPD asserts that this is necessary to protect its headquarters from a bomb attack. Chinatown residents are increasingly frustrated at the disruption caused by the closure of the thoroughfare, members of the Civic Center Residents Coalition have been fighting the security perimeter around the building for years. The department also plans to redesign its guard booths and security barriers to make them more attractive, media related to Park Row at Wikimedia Commons Park Row, A New York Songline – virtual walking tour
17.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
18.
Edwin Lawrence Godkin
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Edwin Lawrence Godkin was an Irish-born American journalist and newspaper editor. He founded The Nation, and was editor-in-chief of the New York Evening Post 1883-1899, Godkin was born in Moyne, County Wicklow, Ireland. His father, James Godkin, was a Congregationalist minister and a journalist and he studied law at Queens College, Belfast, where he was the first president of the Literary and Scientific Society. After leaving Belfast in 1851 and studying law in London, he was the 1853-1855 Crimean War correspondent for the London Daily News in Turkey and Russia, being present at the Siege of Sevastopol. In 1856, he emigrated to the United States and wrote letters to the News and he studied law under David Dudley Field in New York City, and was admitted to the bar in 1859. Owing to impaired health, he travelled in Europe in 1860-1862 and he wrote for the News and the New York Times in 1862-1865. In 1865, Godkin was asked by a group of abolitionists led by the architect Frederic Law Olmstead to found a new weekly political magazine. Godkin, who had been considering starting such a magazine for some time, agreed, Charles Eliot Norton gained supporters for the magazine in Boston, and James Miller McKim in Philadelphia. In 1866, two others joined Godkin as proprietors, while he remained editor until the end of the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the Nation to the New York Evening Post, under Godkins tenure, The Nation supported free trade and was anti-imperialist, but opposed socialism and granting American women suffrage. Godkin was interested in Irish politics, and often wrote about the Irish Question, Godkin was initially hostile to Irish nationalism, identifying it with the violence of Fenianism. However, in the 1880s Godkin became a supporter of Irish Home Rule and this resulted in Godkin becoming engaged in a controversy with Goldwin Smith, who opposed Home Rule. Under Godkins leadership the Post broke with the Republican Party in the campaign of 1884. He consistently advocated currency reform, the standard, a tariff for revenue only. In 1896, Godkin broke with the Democratic party after it nominated William Jennings Bryan and he supported the National Democratic Party third ticket because it championed a gold standard, limited government, and opposed protectionism. His opposition to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and forcible and he retired from his editorial duties on the December 30,1899, and sketched his career in the Evening Post of that date. Although he recovered from an apoplectic stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered. He was buried at Saint Michaels Church in Haselbech, Daventry District, Northamptonshire, England, Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the Post and The Nation, which had a small but influential and intellectual class of readers
19.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
20.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
21.
Port Royal Experiment
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The Port Royal Experiment was a program begun during the American Civil War in which former slaves successfully worked on the land abandoned by planters. In 1861 the Union liberated the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and their main harbor, the white residents fled, leaving behind 10,000 black slaves. Several private Northern charity organizations stepped in to help the slaves become self-sufficient. The result was a model of what Reconstruction could have been, the African Americans demonstrated their ability to work the land efficiently and live independently of white control. They assigned themselves daily tasks for cotton growing and spent their extra time cultivating their own crops, by selling their surplus crops, the locals acquired small amounts of property. In 1862, General Ormsby M. Mitchel allowed African Americans to found the town of Mitchelville on Hilton Head Island, in 1865 President Andrew Johnson ended the experiment, returning the land to its previous white owners. In February 1862, a report was made to the Treasury Dept, the following islands are thus protected, and the estimated number of plantations upon each is given, Or about two hundred in all. There are several other islands thus protected, without plantations, as Otter, Pritchard, Fripp, Hunting, lemon and Daw have not been explored by the agents engaged in collecting cotton. The populous island of North Edisto, lying in the direction of Charleston, the number has within a few days been stated to have increased to 2300. The American Heritage Encyclopedia of American History, Henry Holt & Co.1998, the Civil War and the Story of American Freedom. Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, the Port Royal Experiment Revisited, Northern Visions of Reconstruction and the Land Question. Rehearsal for Reconstruction the Port Royal experiment, athens, University of Georgia Press,1999
22.
Freedmen's Bureau
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The Freedmens Bureau Bill, which established the Freedmens Bureau on March 3,1865, was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Freedmens Bureau was an important agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South, the Bureau was made a part of the United States Department of War, as it was the only agency with an existing organization that could be assigned to the South. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865, the Freedmens Bureau controlled limited arable land. The Bureaus powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write, considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as the government, Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both local and national courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. In 1866, Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau, by 1869, the Bureau had lost most of its funding and as a result been forced to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been weakened due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan violence in the South. In 1872, Congress abruptly abandoned the program, effectively shutting down the Bureau by refusing to approve renewal legislation and it did not inform Howard, who had been transferred to Arizona by President Ulysses S. Grant to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grants Secretary of War William W. Belknap, was hostile to Howards leadership and authority at the Bureau, the Bureau helped solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining clothing, food, water, health care, communication with family members, and jobs. It distributed 15 million rations of food to African Americans, although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this service, only $35,000 was borrowed by planters. Despite the good intentions, efforts, and limited success of the Bureau, most southern white doctors and nurses would not treat freedmen, infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had not had much opportunity to develop their own medical personnel, in this period epidemics of cholera and yellow fever were carried along the river corridors, breaking out across the South. Freedmans Bureau agents, at first, complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor, one of the first actions black families took was to withdraw womens labor from fieldwork. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, unworthy women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy. After the war, the Freedmens Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it, as many husbands and wives had been separated during wartime chaos, the Bureau agents helped families in their attempts to reunite after the war. The Bureau had a regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families, Freedmen and freed women turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce. The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedmans Bureau were in education, prior to the Civil War, no southern state had a system of universal, state-supported public education and prohibited slaves and free blacks from gaining education
23.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
24.
Free trade
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Free trade is one of the most debated topics in economics of the 19th, 20th, and 21st century. Arguments over free trade can be divided into economic, moral, the World Trade Organization was created to open up markets and promote international trade based on the Free Trade paradigm. The WTO creates and monitors agreements to reduce trade barriers, and arbitrates in disputes over foreign market access and its definition of Free Trade is trade on a level playing field, so that the unlimited exchange of goods between countries is not necessarily Free. Therefore, any import restriction makes the domestic society as a whole worse off than it would be with unlimited imports, the artificial handicap of a foreign subsidy seems much less just to local production than advantages deriving from geography, natural resources, or native skill. Electorates often prefer fairplay to Utilitarian considerations, if trade barriers are already low, the threat of a trade war of tit-for-tat tariff increases may reduce the temptation for either partner in bilateral trade to raise import barriers. It would tend to decrease the power and revenue flowing to government bureaucrats. In the history of trade, two types of arguments have been advanced in favor of allowing purchases from abroad, and free trade in the broader sense. One set of arguments for free trade could be classified as moral arguments listed below, another set of arguments is essentially economic, that free trade will make society more prosperous. These are mostly technical arguments from the discipline of economics, starting especially with Smiths The Wealth of Nations, the 18th and 19th century intellectuals who backed free trade rarely did so under the rubric of increasing material wealth. In many cases this was given as the least important reason for free trade, rather, they argued that international society would be improved by increased commerce. Some of these, and later, sociopolitical arguments are listed here, adam Smith thought that protectionism against free trade was a scam on the public on behalf of producers, carried out in the name of nationalism. Even if overall economic interests had not been harmed by tariffs, classical economic analysis shows that free trade increases the global level of output because free trade permits specialization among countries. Specialization allows nations to devote their resources to the production of the particular goods. The benefits of specialization, coupled with economies of scale, increase the production possibility frontier. An increase in the production possibility frontier indicates that the absolute quantity of goods. Not only are the quantity of goods and services higher. Free trade policies are often associated with general laissez-faire economic politics and parties, voluntary exchange, by virtue of its voluntary nature, is assumed to be beneficial to the parties involved—why else would they engage in the exchange. Thus, the restriction of voluntary exchange restricts commerce and ultimately the accumulation of wealth in the absence of real-world externalities such as infant industry protection, here is the production possibilities frontier for a fictional country, Country A
25.
Wendell Phillips Garrison
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Wendell Phillips Garrison was an American editor and author. He was born at Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, a son of William Lloyd Garrison and he graduated from Harvard in 1861 and was literary editor of the Nation from 1865 to 1906. As a young man, Garrison had adopted pacifist and anti-imperialist beliefs and he had assisted E. L. Godkin in establishing the magazine. Henry Villard, who merged the Nation with the New York Evening Post, was Garrisons brother-in-law, Garrison also wrote several books, including What Mr. Darwin Saw, an abridged and illustrated version of Darwins The Voyage of the Beagle for children. W. P. Garrison contributed to periodicals, compiled Bedside Poetry, a Parents Assistant, William Lloyd Garrison, Vol.2, Vol.3, Vol.4, Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1885-1889. The Reform of the Senate, Reprinted from the Atlantic Monthly,1891, parables for School and Home, Longmans, Green & Co.1897. The New Gulliver, The Marion Press,1898, memoirs of Henry Villard, Vol.2, Houghton, Mifflin & Company,1904. Letters and Memorials of Wendell Philips Garrison, Houghton Mifflin Company,1909, William Lloyd Garrison, The Century Magazine, August 1885. William James Stillman, The Century Magazine, September 1893, the Nation and The New Republic, in Liberalism in Contemporary America, Chap. V, Council for Social & Economic Studies,1992, works by or about Wendell Phillips Garrison at Internet Archive Correspondence of Garrison, Wendell Phillips, 1840-1907
26.
Henry Villard
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Henry Villard was an American journalist and financier who was an early president of the Northern Pacific Railway. As a teenager, he emigrated to the United States without his parents knowledge and he changed his name to avoid being sent back to Europe, and began making his way west, briefly studying law as he developed a career in journalism. Frémont of the newly established Republican Party in his campaign in 1856. Villard became a war correspondent, first covering the American Civil War and he became a pacifist as a result of his experiences covering the Civil War. In the late 1860s he married womens suffrage advocate Helen Frances Garrison, while in Germany, Villard became involved in investments in American railroads, and returned to the U. S. in 1874 to oversee German investments in the Oregon and California Railroad. He visited Oregon that summer, and being impressed with the natural resources. Villard returned to Europe, helping German investors acquire stakes in the transportation network, also in the 1880s, Villard acquired the New York Evening Post and The Nation, and established the predecessor of General Electric. He was the first benefactor of the University of Oregon, and contributed to other universities, churches, hospitals and he died of a stroke at his country home in New York in 1900. He was born in Speyer, Palatinate, Kingdom of Bavaria and his parents moved to Zweibrücken in 1839, and in 1856 his father, Gustav Leonhard Hilgard, became a justice of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, at Munich. He belonged to the Reformed Church and his mother, Katharina Antonia Elisabeth Pfeiffer, was Catholic. While he had aristocratic tendencies, he shared the republican interests of much of the Hilgard clan, Villard was also a distant relative of the physician and botanist George Engelmann who resided in St. Louis, Missouri. Villard entered a Gymnasium in Zweibrücken in 1848, which he had to leave because he sympathized with the revolutions of 1848 in Germany. He had broken up a class by refusing to mention the King of Bavaria in a prayer, another time, after watching a session of the Frankfurt Parliament, he came home in a Hecker hat with a red feather in it. Originally his punishment was to be apprenticed, but his father compromised on the military school, Villard showed up for classes a month early so he could be tutored in the French language beforehand by the novelist Alexandre Chatrian. He later attended the Gymnasium of Speyer in 1850-52, and the universities of Munich, in Munich he was a member of the student fraternity Corps Franconia. In 1853, having had a disagreement with his father, he emigrated—without his parents knowledge—to the United States. On emigrating to America, he adopted the name Villard, the surname of a French schoolmate at Phalsbourg, to conceal his identity from anyone intent on making him return to Germany. Making his way westward in 1854, he lived in turn at Cincinnati, Belleville, Illinois and Peoria, Illinois where he studied law for a time, and Chicago where he wrote for newspapers
27.
Tabloid (newspaper format)
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A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet. There is no standard size for this newspaper format, the term tabloid journalism refers to an emphasis on such topics as sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip and television, and is not a reference to newspapers printed in this format. Some small-format papers with a standard of journalism refer to themselves as compact newspapers. Larger newspapers, traditionally associated with higher-quality journalism, are called broadsheets, in common usage, tabloid and broadsheet are frequently more descriptive of a newspapers market position than physical format. The Berliner format used by many prominent European newspapers is sized between the tabloid and the broadsheet, in a newspaper context, the term Berliner is generally used only to describe size, not to refer to other qualities of the publication. The word tabloid comes from the name given by the London-based pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to the compressed tablets they marketed as Tabloid pills in the late 1880s, the connotation of tabloid was soon applied to other small compressed items. A1902 item in Londons Westminister Gazette noted, The proprietor intends to give in tabloid form all the news printed by other journals, thus tabloid journalism in 1901 originally meant a paper that condensed stories into a simplified, easily absorbed format. The term preceded the 1918 reference to smaller sheet newspapers that contained the condensed stories, a tabloid is defined as roughly 17 by 11 inches and commonly half the size of a broadsheet. Tabloid newspapers, especially in the United Kingdom, boast a very high degree of variation as far as target market, political alignment, editorial style, thus, various terms have been coined to describe the subtypes of this versatile paper format. There are, broadly, two types of tabloid newspaper, red top and compact. The distinction is largely of editorial style, both red top and compact tabloids span the width of the spectrum from socialism to capitalist conservatism. The red top tabloid is, for many, the example of the format. Red tops tend to be written with a simplistic, straightforward vocabulary and grammar, their layout, more often than not, in the extreme case, red top tabloids have been accused of lying or misrepresenting the truth to increase circulation. Poll results are often predicted by red top papers, examples of British red top newspapers include The Sun, the Daily Star, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Sport. In contrast to red top tabloids, compacts use a style more closely associated with broadsheet newspapers. In fact, most compact tabloids formerly used the paper size. The term compact was coined in the 1970s by the Daily Mail, one of the newspapers to make the change. The purpose behind this was to avoid the association of the word tabloid with the flamboyant, the early converts from broadsheet format made the change in the 1970s, two notable British papers that took this step at the time were the Daily Mail and the Daily Express
28.
New York Post
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New York Post is an American daily newspaper, primarily distributed in New York City and its surrounding area. It is the 13th-oldest and seventh-most-widely circulated newspaper in the United States, established in 1801 by federalist and Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, it became a respected broadsheet in the 19th century, under the name New York Evening Post. The modern version of the paper is published in tabloid format, in 1976, Rupert Murdoch bought Post for US$30.5 million. Since 1993, Post has been owned by News Corporation and its successor, News Corp and its editorial offices are located at 1211 Avenue of the Americas. New York Post, established on November 16,1801 as New-York Evening Post, the Hartford Courant, believed to be the oldest continuously published newspaper, was founded in 1764 as a semi-weekly paper, it did not begin publishing daily until 1836. The New Hampshire Gazette, which has trademarked its claim of being The Nations Oldest Newspaper, was founded in 1756, moreover, since the 1890s it has been published only for weekends. Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton with about US$10,000 from a group of investors in the autumn of 1801 as New-York Evening Post, the meeting at which Hamilton first recruited investors for the new paper took place in the then-country weekend villa that is now Gracie Mansion. Hamilton chose William Coleman as his first editor, the most famous 19th-century New-York Evening Post editor was the poet and abolitionist William Cullen Bryant. So well respected was New-York Evening Post under Bryants editorship, it received praise from the English philosopher John Stuart Mill, in the summer of 1829, Bryant invited William Leggett, the Locofoco Democrat, to write for the paper. There, in addition to literary and drama reviews, Leggett began to write political editorials, leggetts classical liberal philosophy entailed a fierce opposition to central banking, a support for voluntary labor unions, and a dedication to laissez-faire economics. He was a member of the Equal Rights Party, Leggett became a co-owner and editor at Post in 1831, eventually working as sole editor of the newspaper while Bryant traveled in Europe in 1834 through 1835. Another co-owner of the paper was John Bigelow, from 1849 to 1861, he was one of the editors and co-owners of New York Evening Post. In 1881 Henry Villard took control of New-York Evening Post, as well as The Nation, with this acquisition, the paper was managed by the triumvirate of Carl Schurz, Horace White, and Edwin L. Godkin. When Schurz left the paper in 1883, Godkin became editor-in-chief, White became editor-in-chief in 1899, and remained in that role until his retirement in 1903. Villard sold the paper in 1918, after allegations of pro-German sympathies during World War I hurt its circulation. The new owner was Thomas Lamont, a partner in the Wall Street firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. Conservative Cyrus H. K. Curtis—publisher of the Ladies Home Journal—purchased New-York Evening Post in 1924, in 1934, J. David Stern purchased the paper, changed its name to New York Post, and restored its broadsheet size and liberal perspective. In 1939, Dorothy Schiff purchased the paper and her husband, George Backer, was named editor and publisher
29.
Dorothy Schiff
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Dorothy Schiff was an owner and then publisher of the New York Post for nearly 40 years. She was a granddaughter of financier Jacob Schiff, Schiff was interested in social services and reform, and was involved in several welfare groups. Schiff was born in New York City into a prominent German Jewish banking family, the daughter of Mortimer Schiff and Adele Schiff, and she attended secondary school at Manhattans Brearley School and attended Bryn Mawr College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Afterward, she began living as a wealthy debutante, schiffs first marriage came in 1923, in spite of strong resistance by her parents, to Richard B. W. Hall, a broker. She was interested in social services and reform, and was involved in several welfare groups and she lived in New York City and had a countryhouse in Bernardsville, New Jersey. In 1939, Schiff bought control of the New York Post, at the urging of Backer, installing him as publisher, when he resigned in 1942, she took up the mantle and became New Yorks first female newspaper publisher. After divorcing Backer in 1943, she married Ted Thackrey, whom she had installed as editor. Under her tenure the Post was devoted to liberalism, supporting trade unions, during the 1940s, The Post featured the most popular columnists of the time, such as Drew Pearson, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Eric Sevareid. She also wrote her own column called Dear Reader, in 1945, Schiff launched the Paris Post, the second ever American newspaper to be published in Paris. Thackrey left the Post after a disagreement over whom to support for the presidency in 1948 and this caused Thackrey to resign in 1949, and they divorced a year later. Schiffs fourth husband was Rudolph G. Sonneborn, in 1958, Schiff caused controversy by withdrawing her support at the last minute of Governor Averell Harriman. Jeffrey Potters Men, Money and Magic, The Story of Dorothy Schiff, the book generated significant publicity after The New York Times reported on its front page that Schiff, in the book, claimed to have had an affair with Franklin D. Roosevelt. Schiff denied this, saying she only had a relationship with FDR, Schiff sold the Post to Rupert Murdoch, for a reported $31 million, in 1976. She remained as a consultant until 1981, although she played no actual role at the paper. She died at her home in New York City on August 30,1989, a more complete biography, The Lady Upstairs, Dorothy Schiff and the New York Post by Marilyn Nissenson, was published in 2007. The Post, 187-Year Fight to Survive Wildly Political and Violent Heritage, The New York Times, February 9,1988, retrieved March 23,2007 Sheehy, the Life of the Most Powerful Woman in New York, New York Magazine, December 10,1973
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Conservatism in the United States
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Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s. However they have stressed that a conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in the Republican Party, though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movements history, the history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies. Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism, they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage. Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed, the 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand in opposition to multiculturalism. Nationwide most factions, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, the conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of godless communism. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress, the growth of government must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations and we believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side, President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s, in the 2010s the Republican leaders typically claim fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 claimed to be standardbearers of Reagans ideological legacy, the 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era. Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagans ideals and policies on most social, economic and they support a strong policy of law and order to control crime, including long jail terms for repeat offenders. Most conservatives support the death penalty for particularly egregious crimes, the law and order issue was a major factor weakening liberalism in the 1960s. From 2001 to 2008, Republican President George W. Bush stressed cutting taxes and minimizing regulation of industry and banking, Conservatives generally advocate the use of American military power to fight terrorists and promote democracy in the Middle East. According to a 2014 poll, 38% of American voters identify as conservative or very conservative, 34% as moderate, although the study does show some distinction between the concentration of moderates and conservatives or liberals between the Republican and Democratic parties. Among Democrats, 44% are self-identified liberals, 19% as conservatives, for Republicans 70% self-identified as conservative, 24% as moderate, and 5% as liberal. Conservatism appears to be growing stronger at the state level, the trend is most pronounced among the least well-off, least educated, most blue collar, most economically hard-hit states. Conservatives generally believe that government action is not the solution to problems as poverty and inequality
31.
Rupert Murdoch
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Keith Rupert Murdoch /ˈmɜːrdɒk/, AC, KCSG is an Australian-born American media mogul. His father, Keith Murdoch, had been a reporter, editor, after his fathers death in 1952, Murdoch declined to join his late fathers registered public company and created his own private company, News Limited. Murdoch moved to New York City in 1974, to expand into the U. S. market, however, he retained interests in Australia and Britain. In 1981, Murdoch bought The Times, his first British broadsheet, in 1986, keen to adopt newer electronic publishing technologies, Murdoch consolidated his UK printing operations in Wapping, causing bitter industrial disputes. Murdochs News Corporation acquired Twentieth Century Fox, HarperCollins, and The Wall Street Journal, Murdoch formed the British broadcaster BSkyB in 1990, and during the 1990s expanded into Asian networks and South American television. By 2000, Murdochs News Corporation owned over 800 companies in more than 50 countries, Murdoch faces police and government investigations into bribery and corruption by the British government and FBI investigations in the U. S. On 21 July 2012, Murdoch resigned as a director of News International, on 1 July 2015, Murdoch left his post as CEO of 21st Century Fox. Murdoch and his own both 21st Century Fox and News Corp through the Murdoch Family Trust. In July 2016, after the resignation of Roger Ailes due to accusations of sexual harassment, Keith Rupert Murdoch was born on 11 March 1931 in Melbourne to Sir Keith Murdoch and Dame Elisabeth Murdoch. He is of English, Irish, and Scottish ancestry, Murdochs parents were also born in Melbourne. Keith Murdoch was a war correspondent and later a newspaper magnate owning two newspapers in Adelaide, South Australia, and a radio station in a faraway mining town. Later in life, Keith Rupert chose to use Rupert, the first name of his maternal grandfather. Keith Murdoch the elder asked to meet with his wife after seeing her debutante photograph in one of his own newspapers and they married in 1928. In addition to Rupert, the couple had three daughters, Janet Calvert-Jones, Anne Kantor and Helen Handbury, Murdoch attended Geelong Grammar School, where he was co-editor of the schools official journal The Corian and editor of the student journal If Revived. He took his schools cricket team to the National Junior Finals and he worked part-time at the Melbourne Herald and was groomed by his father to take over the family business. After her husbands death from cancer in 1952, Elisabeth Murdoch did charity work, as governor of the Royal Womens Hospital in Melbourne. At the age of 102, she had 74 descendants, Murdoch completed an MA before working as a sub-editor with the Daily Express for two years. Following his fathers death, when he was 21, Murdoch returned from Oxford to take charge of the family business News Limited, Rupert Murdoch turned its newspaper, Adelaide News, its main asset, into a major success
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Oswald Garrison Villard
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Oswald Garrison Villard was an American journalist and editor of the New York Evening Post. He was a rights activist, a founding member of the NAACP. In 1913 he wrote to President Woodrow Wilson to protest his administrations racial segregation of federal offices in Washington, DC, Villard also was a founder of the American Anti-Imperialist League, favoring independence for territories taken in the Spanish-American War. He provided a direct link between the anti-imperialism of the late 19th century and the conservative Old Right of the 1930s and 1940s. Villard was born in Wiesbaden, Germany, on March 13,1872 and he was the son of Henry Villard, an American newspaper correspondent who had been an immigrant from Germany, and Fanny Villard, daughter of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. Fanny Villard was a suffragist and one of the founders of the Womens Peace Movement and his father later invested in railroads, and bought The Nation and the New York Evening Post. The family returned to the United States soon after Villards birth, Villard graduated from Harvard University in 1893 and, after touring Europe with his father for a year, returned to Harvard to earn his graduate degree in American History. He served as an assistant, and could have pursued a career in academia. In 1896 he joined the staff of The Philadelphia Press, and he soon joined the staff of his father’s Evening Post, serving as the editor of the Saturday features page. He began to regularly for the New York Evening Post and The Nation. We were radical in our demand for trade and our complete opposition to the whole protective system. Villard was also a founder of the American Anti-Imperialist League, which favored independence for the territories captured in the Spanish–American War, to further the cause, he worked to organize a third ticket in 1900 to challenge William Jennings Bryan and William McKinley. He was joined in this effort by several key veterans of the 1896 National Democratic Party, not surprisingly, Villard made a personal appeal to ex-president Grover Cleveland, a hero of the gold Democrats, urging him to be the candidate. Cleveland demurred, asserting that no longer cared what he had to say. Villard also consistently used the page of the Evening Post to argue against imperialism and expansionism. Villard was a pioneer, and today largely unsung, civil rights leader, in 1910, he donated space in the New York Evening Post for the call to the meeting that formally organized the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Villard became a co-founder of the organization, along with W. E. B, du Bois and other influential individuals. For many years, Villard served as the NAACPs disbursing treasurer while Moorfield Storey, Villard supported Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 election, and during an interview with the president convinced Wilson to work to improve conditions for African Americans
33.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
34.
Maurice Wertheim
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Maurice Wertheim was an American investment banker, chess player, chess patron, environmentalist, and philanthropist. Wertheim founded Wertheim & Co. in 1927, born to Jacob Wertheim of Hartford, Connecticut, and his wife, Hannah Frank of Hoboken, New Jersey, Wertheim was educated at the Sachs School in New York. He then graduated from Harvard University in 1906 with a B. A. in his freshman year, he lived in Matthews Hall in Harvard Yard. He began work at his fathers firm, the United Cigar Manufacturers Company and he would later inherit nearly half a million dollars from his father, due to his success with the company. In 1915, he entered into a career as an investment banker in New York and he founded his own firm Wertheim & Company in 1927, developing a very successful business in mergers and acquisitions, and becoming wealthy in the process. During World War II, he served as a man on the War Production Board in the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Wertheim served on boards and as a trustee for various organizations. He was trustee of the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York, Mount Sinai Hospital and he also served as president of the American Jewish Committee. Wertheim was a chess player and patron of the game. He served as the president of the Manhattan Chess Club, which he assisted financially, Chess Championship match between Samuel Reshevsky and I. A. Horowitz, which was won by Reshevsky and he paid for all the costs, and personally led the team at the tournament. He was also interested in art, fishing, nature conservancy. He was a supporter of the New York Theatre Guild. He acquired 1,800 acres of land along the Carmans River on eastern Long Island for personal use to conserve waterfowl, in his will, he arranged for the donation of his collection of French Impressionist paintings to the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University. After his death from an attack in 1950, a memorial Maurice Wertheim chess tournament was organized in 1951 in New York in his memory. In 1963, Wertheims daughter, Barbara, established the Wertheim Study Room in the New York Public Library in honor of her father and he married Alma Morgenthau in 1909, and had three daughters, Josephine, historian Barbara W. Tuchman, and Anne. He began his marriage in March 1930 to Ruth White, they did not have children. He then remarried for a time in 1944 to Cecile Berlage
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Samuel Gompers
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Samuel Gompers was an English-born, American labor union leader and a key figure in American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor, and served as the president from 1886 to 1894. He promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL and he promoted thorough organization and collective bargaining to secure shorter hours and higher wages, the first essential steps, he believed, to emancipating labor. He also encouraged the AFL to take action to elect their friends. He mostly supported Democrats, but sometimes Republicans, during World War I, Gompers and the AFL openly supported the war effort, attempting to avert strikes and boost morale while raising wage rates and expanding membership. Samuel Gompers was born on January 27,1850, in London, when he was six, Samuel was sent to the Jewish Free School where he received a basic education. Gompers was able to continue his studies in school, however, during which time he learned Hebrew and studied the Talmud. Gompers learned Hebrew in his youth, he held Yiddish in low regard, owing to dire financial straits, the Gompers family immigrated to the United States in 1863, settling on Manhattans Lower East Side in New York City. Gompers father was engaged in the manufacture of cigars at home, assisted for the first year, in his free time, the young teenager formed a debate club with his friends, an activity which provided practical experience in public speaking and parliamentary procedure. The club drew Gompers into contact with other upwardly mobile young men of the city, in 1864, at the age of 14, Gompers joined and became involved in the activities of Cigarmakers Local Union No. 15, the English-speaking union of cigar makers in New York City, Gompers later recounted his days as a cigar maker at the bench in detail, emphasizing the place of craftsmanship in the production process, Any kind of an old loft served as a cigar shop. If there were enough windows, we had sufficient light for our work, if not, Cigar shops were always dusty from the tobacco stems and powdered leaves. Benches and work tables were not designed to enable the workmen to adjust bodies, each workman supplied his own cutting board of lignum vitae and knife blade. The tobacco leaf was prepared by strippers who drew the leaves from the heavy stem, the leaves had to be handled carefully to prevent tearing. These things a good cigarmaker learned to do more or less mechanically, I loved the freedom of that work, for I had earned the mind-freedom that accompanied skill as a craftsman. I was eager to learn from discussion and reading or to pour out my feelings in song, the day after his 17th birthday, he married his co-worker, 16-year-old Sophia Julian. They had a series of children in rapid succession, with six surviving infancy, in 1873, Gompers moved to the cigarmaker David Hirsch & Company, a high-class shop where only the most skilled workmen were employed. Gompers later recalled, I remember asking Laurrell whether in his opinion I ought to keep in touch with the Socialist movement and he replied, Go to their meetings by all means, listen to what they have to say and understand them, but do not join the Party
36.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
37.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
38.
Fascism
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Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
39.
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9,1945, respectively, during the final stage of World War II. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement, the two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history. In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This was preceded by a U. S. conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities, the war in Europe had concluded when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8,1945, just after Hitler committed suicide. The Japanese, facing the fate, refused to accept the Allies demands for unconditional surrender. The Allies called for the surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945—the alternative being prompt. The Japanese response to this ultimatum was to ignore it, orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, in both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison. Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki, on September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The justification for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is still debated to this day, in 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. The Japanese fought fiercely, ensuring that U. S. victory would come at an enormous cost, December 1944 saw American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5,1 in the Philippines to 2,1 on Okinawa, although some Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99% of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed, of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April–June 1945, 94% were killed. American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the invasion of Japan. As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people, Japans merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945
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