1.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
2.
Rembrandt
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Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. A prolific and versatile master across three media, he is considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. Having achieved youthful success as a painter, Rembrandts later years were marked by personal tragedy. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, Rembrandts portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and his reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime, and never questioned since. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic whilst he lived, but his prints were circulated throughout Europe, because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called one of the great prophets of civilization. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic and he was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do, his father was a miller, religion is a central theme in Rembrandts paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend, in 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens, as a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, Saskia came from a good family, her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandts relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and he also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck. In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat, in 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house in the upscale Breestraat, today known as Jodenbreestraat in what was becoming the Jewish quarter, then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes, in 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month
3.
Oil painting
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Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil, poppy seed oil, walnut oil, the choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium, the oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages, Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. In recent years, water miscible oil paint has come to prominence and, to some extent, water-soluble paints contain an emulsifier that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows very fast drying times when compared with traditional oils. Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint, Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. A basic rule of oil paint application is fat over lean and this means that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the painting will crack. This rule does not ensure permanence, it is the quality and type of oil leads to a strong. There are many media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was transferred to the surface using paintbrushes. Oil paint remains wet longer than other types of artists materials, enabling the artist to change the color. At times, the painter might even remove a layer of paint. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year, art conservators do not consider an oil painting completely dry until it is 60 to 80 years old
4.
Amsterdam Museum
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The Amsterdam Museum, until 2011 called the Amsterdams Historisch Museum, is a museum about the history of Amsterdam. Since 1975, it is located in the old city orphanage between Kalverstraat and Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal, the museum opened in 1926 in the Waag, one of Amsterdams 15th-century city gates. It has been located since 1975 in a building that was constructed in 1580 as Amsterdams municipal orphanage. The building was extended by Hendrick and his son Pieter de Keyser, the orphanage operated in this building until 1960. The museum exhibits items related to the history of Amsterdam. As of 2011, the museum manages 70,000 objects kept in various buildings, of those, approximately 25,000 have been photographed and are available to the public online. This includes all objects that were already free of copyright. The museum has on display paintings, models, archeological findings, photographs, but also less likely items such as a carillon, a Witkar
5.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
6.
Dutch Golden Age painting
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The new Dutch Republic was the most prosperous nation in Europe, and led European trade, science, and art. Most work, including that for which the period is best known, a distinctive feature of the period is the proliferation of distinct genres of paintings, with the majority of artists producing the bulk of their work within one of these. The full development of specialization is seen from the late 1620s. A distinctive feature of the period, compared to earlier European painting, was the amount of religious painting. Dutch Calvinism forbade religious painting in churches, and though biblical subjects were acceptable in private homes, the development of many of these types of painting was decisively influenced by 17th-century Dutch artists. The widely held theory of the hierarchy of genres in painting, whereby some types were regarded as more prestigious than others, however this was the hardest to sell, as even Rembrandt found. Many were forced to produce portraits or genre scenes, which much more easily. In descending order of status the categories in the hierarchy were, history painting, including allegories, most paintings were relatively small – the only common type of really large paintings were group portraits. Painting directly onto walls hardly existed, when a wall-space in a public building needed decorating fitted framed canvas was normally used, painted delftware tiles were very cheap and common, if rarely of really high quality, but silver, especially in the auricular style, led Europe. With this exception, the best artistic efforts were concentrated on painting and printmaking, the volume of production meant that prices were fairly low, except for the best known artists, as in most subsequent periods there was a steep price gradient for more fashionable artists. In particular the French invasion of 1672, brought a depression to the art market. The distribution of pictures was very wide, yea many tymes, blacksmithes, cobblers etts. will have some picture or other by their Forge, such is the generall Notion, enclination and delight that these Countrie Native have to Painting reported an English traveller in 1640. There were for virtually the first time many professional art dealers, several significant artists, like Vermeer and his father, Jan van Goyen. Rembrandts dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh and his son Gerrit were among the most important, typically workshops were smaller than in Flanders or Italy, with only one or two apprentices at a time, the number often being restricted by guild regulations. In many cases involved the artists extricating themselves from medieval groupings where they shared a guild with several other trades. Several new guilds were established in the period, Amsterdam in 1579, Haarlem in 1590, the Leiden authorities distrusted guilds and did not allow one until 1648. The Hague, with the court, was an early example, there were many dynasties of artists, and many married the daughters of their masters or other artists. Many artists came from families, who paid fees for their apprenticeships
7.
Tenebrism
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The technique was developed to add drama to an image through a spotlight effect, and was popular during the Baroque period of painting. The artist Caravaggio is generally credited with the invention of the style, although this technique was used earlier by various artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, Tintoretto. The term is applied to artists from the seventeenth century onward. Artemisia Gentileschi, one of the few artists of the Baroque. El Greco painted three versions of a composition with a boy, a man, and a monkey grouped in darkness around a single flame. Among the most well-known tenebrist artists are, Italian and Dutch followers of Caravaggio, Francisco Ribalta, Jusepe de Ribera, Tenebrism is most often applied to seventeenth-century Spanish painters. It is sometimes applied to other painters including Georges de La Tour, who painted many images lit by a single candle, Gerrit van Honthorst. In Flanders Adam de Coster was recognized as a leading tenebrist who excelled in scenes in which a single candle has its light blocked by an object. The term is not often used of Adam Elsheimer, although he was an important innovator in painting night-scenes with a few lighted areas and his dark areas are always full of detail and interest. Later, similar compositions were painted by Joseph Wright of Derby and other artists of the Romantic Movement, more details Art Lexicon Jusepe de Ribera, 1591-1652, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes material on Ribera and Tenebrism
8.
Schutterij
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Schutterij refers to a voluntary city guard or citizen militia in the medieval and early modern Netherlands, intended to protect the town or city from attack and act in case of revolt or fire. Their training grounds were often on open spaces within the city, near the city walls, but and they are mostly grouped according to their district and to the weapon that they used, bow, crossbow or gun. Together, its members are called a Schuttersgilde, which could be translated as a shooters guild. It is now a title applied to ceremonial shooting clubs and to the countrys Olympic rifle team, the schutterij, civic guard, or town watch, was a defensive military support system for the local civic authority. Its officers were wealthy citizens of the town, appointed by the city magistrates and its captain was usually a wealthy inhabitant of the district, and the groups ensign was a wealthy young bachelor. Joining as an officer for a couple of years was often a stepping-stone to other important posts within the city council, the members were expected to buy their own equipment, this entailed the purchase of a weapon and uniform. Each night two men guarded their district in two shifts, from 10,00 p. m. until 2,00 a. m. at a set time each month, the schutters would parade under the command of an officer. The ideal was that, for every hundred inhabitants, three would belong to the schutterij, the Dutch Mennonites were excluded from a position in the schutterij in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and paid a double tax in lieu of service. Roman Catholics were permitted in the lower regions, persons in the service of the city, and the citys Jews, did not need to serve. The beer and peat bearers had to serve as the towns firefighters instead, the schutters or cloveniers met at target practice grounds called Doelen. These fields were generally adjoining a building where they met indoors for gymnastic exercises. It was in great halls where the large group portraits hung for centuries. These locations were not the place the schutters met each other. These guilds also kept altars in churches, where they met for religious reasons. Most schutterij guilds had as patron saints Saint Sebastian, Saint Anthony, Saint George and these religious duties were a significant part of the guild membership since that is also where they paid their dues. After the Protestant Reformation, all the altars were disbanded in the Dutch Reformed churches in the Northern Netherlands, and membership dues were no longer paid in church, but at the city hall. After 1581, the schutterij were officially prohibited from influencing city politics, but since the ruling regenten were all members of these guilds, once a year they held a banquet, with beer and a roasted ox. Whenever a changeover of the leading officers occurred, a painter was invited to paint the members
9.
Frans Banning Cocq
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Frans Banninck Cocq was a burgemeester of Amsterdam in the mid-17th century. He is best known as the figure in Rembrandts masterpiece The Night Watch. Frans was the son of Jan Jansz Cock, a local pharmacist in the Warmoesstraat and he was baptized on 27 February 1605 in the nearby Old Church. As his parents were not married, it caused a scandal, both were related to Cornelis Hooft. Frans, who seems to have had one deaf brother studied law in Poitiers and he became captain of the militia after returning to Amsterdam. When his father-in-law died, Banninck Cocq inherited his properties, including a canal house, Banninck Cocq decorated the main hall with portraits of his wifes ancestors. Around 1630 Banninck Cocq succeeded his father-in-law as a member of the city councel, in 1651 he was appointed burgemeester of Amsterdam. He was an advisor to his brothers-in-law Cornelis and Andries de Graeff, Banninck Cocq is known today primarily for a painting commissioned in 1638 from Rembrandt van Rijn which shows Cocq and his company of civil guards. The painting is notable, among other things, for its huge size, Banninck Cocq also figures in the Bartholomeus van der Helst portrait of The Governors of the Longbow Civic Guards,1653, now in the Amsterdam Museum. Banningh Cock was buried on 6 January 1655, his tomb chapel is located in the Oude Kerk, media related to Frans Banning Cocq at Wikimedia Commons Marriage portraits of Frans Banning Cocq and his wife Maria Overlander by an unknown painter
10.
Sash
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A sash is a large and usually colorful ribbon or band of material worn around the body, draping from one shoulder to the opposing hip, or else running around the waist. The sash around the waist may be worn in daily attire, ceremonial sashes are also found in a V-shaped format, draping from both shoulders to the stomach like a large necklace. In Latin America and some countries of Africa, a presidential sash indicates a presidents authority. Sashes traditionally form part of military attire. Most of the European Royal families wear sashes as a part of their royal regalia, some orders such as the Légion dhonneur include sashes as part of the seniormost grades insignia. Likewise Italian military officers wear light blue sashes over the shoulder on ceremonial occasions. Sashes are a feature of some regiments of the modern French Army for parade dress. In its traditional Franco-Algerian or zouave form the sash was four metres in length, in the historic French Army of Africa, sashes were worn around the waist in either blue for European or red for indigenous troops. At the time of the American Civil War silk sashes in crimson were authorized for officers, generals continued to wear buff silk sashes in full dress until 1917. In the Confederate Army of the Civil War period sash colour indicated the corps or status of the wearer. For example, gold for cavalry, burgundy for infantry, black for chaplains, red for sergeants, green or blue for medics, and grey or cream for general officers. With the exception of the West Point Band Drum Major, today the West Point cadet officer is the person in the US Army who wears a sword and sash. The modern British Army retains a scarlet sash for wear in certain orders of dress by sergeants and above serving in infantry regiments, over the right shoulder to the left hip. A similar crimson silk net sash is worn around the waist by officers of the Foot Guards in scarlet full dress, the same practice is followed in some Commonwealth armies. The present day armies of India and Pakistan both make use of waist-sashes for ceremonial wear. The colours vary according to regiment or branch and match those of the turbans where worn. Typically two or more colours are incorporated in the sash, in vertical stripes, one end hangs loose at the side and may have an ornamental fringe. The practice of wearing distinctive regimental sashes or cummerbunds goes back to the nineteenth century
11.
Arquebusiers
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The arquebus is an early muzzle-loaded firearm that appeared in late 15th century Europe, and was until the 17th century the primary firearm used in European armies. The arquebus was originally a hand cannon with a hook, a matchlock mechanism was added to it around 1475 and it became the first firearm with a trigger. The heavy arquebus, known as the musket, was developed around 1521 to penetrate plate armor, a standardized arquebus, the caliver, was introduced in the early 16th century. The name caliver is derived from the English corruption of calibre, the smoothbore matchlock arquebus is considered the forerunner to the rifle and other long gun firearms. Heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc and these carried a ball of about 3.5 ounces. In the early 16th century, the arquebus had a confusing variety of meanings. Some writers used it to denote any matchlock shoulder gun, referring to light versions as caliver and heavier pieces fired from a fork rest as musket, others treated the arquebus and caliver synonymously, both referring to the lighter, forkless shoulder-fired matchlock. As the 16th century progressed, the term came to be clearly reserved for the lighter forkless weapon. When the wheel lock was introduced, wheel-lock shoulder arms came to be called arquebuses, while lighter, in the mid-17th century, the light flintlock versions came to be called fusils or fuzees. As a low-velocity firearm, the arquebus was used against enemies who were partially or fully protected by steel-plate armor. Plate armor worn upon the torso was standard in European combat from about 1400 until the middle of the 17th century, good suits of plate would usually stop an arquebus ball at long range. It was a practice to proof armor by firing a pistol or arquebus at a new breastplate. The small dent would be circled by engraving to call attention to it, however, at close range, it was possible to pierce even heavy cavalry armor, although penetration is heavily dependent on the power of the arquebus and the quality of the armor. This led to changes in usage, such as the three-quarter plate. The development of volley fire — by the Dutch in Europe, and by the Japanese, just as soon as the first rank has fired, then by the drill they will march to the back. The second rank either marching forward or standing still, will then fire just like the first, after that the third and following ranks will do the same. When the last rank has fired, the first will have reloaded, once volley firing had been developed, the rate of fire and efficiency was greatly increased and the arquebus went from being a support weapon to the primary focus of most early modern armies. The arquebus had a larger bore than its predecessors, until the middle of the 16th century, they were fired by a matchlock mechanism, after which the newer wheellock mechanisms were used instead
12.
National Gallery, London
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The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the century to 1900. The Gallery is a charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Culture, Media. Its collection belongs to the public of the United Kingdom and entry to the collection is free of charge. It is among the most visited art museums in the world, after the Musée du Louvre, the British Museum, unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein, after that initial purchase the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, notably Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which comprise two-thirds of the collection. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition, the present building, the third to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins from 1832 to 1838. Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, wilkinss building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space, the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, an extension to the west by Robert Venturi, the current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi. The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe, great Britain, however, did not emulate the continental model, and the British Royal Collection remains in the sovereigns possession today. In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature, the MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this invaluable treasure and suggested that it be housed in a noble gallery. The twenty-five paintings from that now in the Gallery, including NG1, have arrived by a variety of routes. This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school, Dulwich College, the collection opened in Britains first purpose-built public gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery, in 1814. The British Institution, founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs, the members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually, while an art school was held in the summer months. However, as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre, some resented the Institution. One of the Institutions founding members, Sir George Beaumont, Bt, in 1823 another major art collection came on the market, which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein. Angerstein was a Russian-born émigré banker based in London, his collection numbered 38 paintings, including works by Raphael, on 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis, a Whig politician, proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection. The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumonts offer, which came with two conditions, that the government buy Angersteins collection, and that a building was to be found
13.
Guilders
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Guilder is the English translation of the Dutch and German gulden, originally shortened from Middle High German guldin pfenninc gold penny. This was the term became current in the southern and western parts of the Holy Roman Empire for the Fiorino doro. Hence, the name has often been interchangeable with florin, the term gulden was used in the Holy Roman Empire during the 14th to 16th centuries in generic reference to gold coins. Currency became more standardized with the reform of 1559. In the early period, the value of a gulden was expressed in standardized form. The Rhenish gulden was issued by Trier, Cologne and Mainz in the 14th and 15th centuries, basel minted its own Apfelgulden between 1429 and 1509. The Netherlands Indies gulden was introduced in 1602, at the start of the United East Indies Company, the Dutch guilder originated in 1680 as a 10. 61g.910 silver coin, minted by the States of Holland and West Friesland. The British Guianan guilder was in use in British Guiana,1796 to 1839, in 1753, Bavaria and Austria-Hungary agreed to use the same conventions. The result was the Austro-Hungarian gulden, and the Bavarian gulden, a Danzig gulden was in use 1923 to 1939. The Dutch guilder remained the currency of the Netherlands until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2002. Surinamese guilder Netherlands Indies gulden Netherlands New Guinean gulden The Caribbean guilder is a currency for Curaçao. Other coin names that are derived from the gold of which they were once made, Öre, øre Złoty Hungarian forint
14.
Schuttersstuk
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Schutterij refers to a voluntary city guard or citizen militia in the medieval and early modern Netherlands, intended to protect the town or city from attack and act in case of revolt or fire. Their training grounds were often on open spaces within the city, near the city walls, but and they are mostly grouped according to their district and to the weapon that they used, bow, crossbow or gun. Together, its members are called a Schuttersgilde, which could be translated as a shooters guild. It is now a title applied to ceremonial shooting clubs and to the countrys Olympic rifle team, the schutterij, civic guard, or town watch, was a defensive military support system for the local civic authority. Its officers were wealthy citizens of the town, appointed by the city magistrates and its captain was usually a wealthy inhabitant of the district, and the groups ensign was a wealthy young bachelor. Joining as an officer for a couple of years was often a stepping-stone to other important posts within the city council, the members were expected to buy their own equipment, this entailed the purchase of a weapon and uniform. Each night two men guarded their district in two shifts, from 10,00 p. m. until 2,00 a. m. at a set time each month, the schutters would parade under the command of an officer. The ideal was that, for every hundred inhabitants, three would belong to the schutterij, the Dutch Mennonites were excluded from a position in the schutterij in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and paid a double tax in lieu of service. Roman Catholics were permitted in the lower regions, persons in the service of the city, and the citys Jews, did not need to serve. The beer and peat bearers had to serve as the towns firefighters instead, the schutters or cloveniers met at target practice grounds called Doelen. These fields were generally adjoining a building where they met indoors for gymnastic exercises. It was in great halls where the large group portraits hung for centuries. These locations were not the place the schutters met each other. These guilds also kept altars in churches, where they met for religious reasons. Most schutterij guilds had as patron saints Saint Sebastian, Saint Anthony, Saint George and these religious duties were a significant part of the guild membership since that is also where they paid their dues. After the Protestant Reformation, all the altars were disbanded in the Dutch Reformed churches in the Northern Netherlands, and membership dues were no longer paid in church, but at the city hall. After 1581, the schutterij were officially prohibited from influencing city politics, but since the ruling regenten were all members of these guilds, once a year they held a banquet, with beer and a roasted ox. Whenever a changeover of the leading officers occurred, a painter was invited to paint the members
15.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
16.
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
17.
August Jernberg
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August Jernberg was a Swedish artist who emigrated to Germany. He was mainly painter of portraits in his years, he also painted historical and biblical pictures. In the 1860s he became a genre and landscape painter and he studied at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts in Stockholm from 1843 to 1846 and then went to Paris, where he studied under Thomas Couture from 1847 to 1853. In 1854 he settled down in Düsseldorf, and remained there until his death, with the exceptions of some shorter trips and his son Olof Jernberg was also an artist. Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon ( Lexikonett Amanda och Kultur1
18.
Royal Palace (Amsterdam)
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The Royal Palace in Amsterdam is one of three palaces in the Netherlands which are at the disposal of the monarch by Act of Parliament. The palace was built as a city hall during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, the building became the royal palace of King Louis Napoleon and later of the Dutch Royal House. It is situated on the west side of Dam Square in the centre of Amsterdam, opposite the War Memorial and next to the Nieuwe Kerk. The palace was built as the Town Hall of the City of Amsterdam and was opened as such on 29 July 1655 by Cornelis de Graeff and it was built by Jacob van Campen, who took control of the construction project in 1648. It was built on 13,659 wooden piles and cost 8.5 million gulden, a yellowish sandstone from Bentheim in Germany was used for the entire building. The stone has darkened considerably in the course of time, marble was the chosen material for the interior. Jacob van Campen was inspired by Roman administrative palaces and public buildings and he wanted to build a new capitol for the Amsterdam burgomasters who thought of themselves as the consuls of the new Rome of the North. The technical implementation was looked after by the town construction master Daniël Stalpaert, the sculptures were executed by Artus Quellijn. The central hall is 120 feet long,60 feet wide and 90 feet high, on the marble floor there are two maps of the world with a celestial hemisphere. The Western and Eastern hemispheres are shown on the maps, the hemispheres detail the area of Amsterdams colonial influence. The terrestrial hemispheres were made in the mid-18th century and they replaced an earlier pair made in the late 1650s. The originals showed the regions explored by the Dutch East India Companys ships in the first half of the 17th century. This feature may have inspired by the map of the Roman Empire that had been engraved on marble and placed in the Porticus Vipsania. On top of the palace is a domed cupola, topped by a weather vane in the form of a cog ship. This ship is a symbol of Amsterdam, just underneath the dome there are a few windows. From here one could see the ships arrive and leave the harbour, in the cupola is the famous carillon by François and Pieter Hemony cast in 1664 in Amsterdam. It was renovated by Eijsbouts in 1965, only 9 bells by François and Pieter Hemony remained. 38 new bells by Eijsbouts were made and tuned in meantone temperament, the old corroded Hemony bells are kept inside the palace
19.
Trippenhuis
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The Trippenhuis is a neoclassical canal mansion in the centre of Amsterdam. It was built in 1660–1662 for the wealthy Amsterdam weapons traders Louis, many references to weaponry can be seen on its facade. Since 1887 it has been the seat of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, the building was designed by the architect Justus Vingboons. It is a house, two large homes built behind one single seven-window-wide facade for the sons Louis and Hendrick of Jacob Trip. It is the largest facade from the period in Amsterdam. In 1730 the house on the right was remodelled for Elisabeth van Loon, in 1812 the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten moved there, the origin of the KNAW founded in 1808 by Louis Bonaparte. The other half was in use by the art dealer Cornelis Sebille Roos and it became quickly too small and the modern paintings were sent to the Museum van Levende Meesters located in Haarlem. The painting called the Nightwatch, by Rembrandt hung here until 1885 when it moved to the new Rijksmuseum, since 1938 the society has been called Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, though the Royal predicate was dropped during World War II
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Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
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The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences is an organization dedicated to the advancement of science and literature in the Netherlands. The Academy is housed in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the Academy advises the Dutch government on scientific matters. The Academy offers solicited and unsolicited advice to parliament, ministries, universities and research institutes, funding agencies, nominations for candidate membership by persons or organizations outside the Academy are accepted. The acceptance criterion is delivered scientific achievements, Academy membership is therefore regarded as a great honor, and prestigious. Besides regular members, there are members and corresponding members. Since a new system was introduced in 2011 there will be no new corresponding members. Each year a maximum of sixteen members is appointed to the Academy, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has long embraced the entire field of learning. The Royal Academy comprises two departments, consisting of around 500 members, Science Humanities and Social Sciences Both departments have their own board, the departments, in turn, are divided into sections. The highest organ in the Academy is the meeting of members. The president was Frits van Oostrom until 1 May 2008, after which he was succeeded by Robbert Dijkgraaf, in March 2012, Hans Clevers was elected president and took office in June 2012. In 2015 he was succeeded by José van Dijck, during the French occupation of the Dutch Republic, it was founded as the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten by Lodewijk Napoleon on May 4,1808. In 1816, after the occupation had ended, it was renamed to Koninklijk-Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schoone Kunsten, in 1851 it was disbanded and re-established as the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen and in 1938 obtained its present name. Since 1812 the Academy has resided in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the institute was awarded the Gouden Ganzenveer in 1955. De Jonge Akademie is a society of younger researchers, founded in 2005 as part of the KNAW. Ten members are elected each year for a term of five years, members are scientists between 25 and 45 years old and are selected for a record of excellence in their research. It was modelled after the similar German Junge Akademie, and both of these academies in turn were used as models for the Global Young Academy, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, official website
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Kasteel Radboud
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Radboud Castle is a castle on the east bank of the harbour in Medemblik. Radboud Castle is one of a number of castles in North Holland, the exact date of building is not known but the castle was completed before the St. Lucias Flood of 13 December 1287. On 24 June 1517 the castle saved some of the Medemblik townsfolk from the raids of Grutte Pier, on 12 August 1588 the castle surrendered to Diederik Sonoy and the Geuzen. In 1889 the control of the property was returned to the state, restorations were done by the State architect J. van Lokhorst with advice from R. J. H. Cuypers and the castle was used for the court of justice until 1934. In 1931 a cannery near the burnt down exposing the foundations of a tower on the north west of the site. From 1964 to 1965 further restorations were done with a historical and architectural correctness. On 4 September 1939 Nachtwacht by Rembrandt was stored here temporarily before being moved in May 1940 to a bunker in the dunes near Castricum, official website Dwangburchten van West-Friesland en Alkmaar Huys te Medemblik
23.
Medemblik
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Medemblik is a municipality and a town in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland and the region of West-Frisia. It lies immediately south of the polder and former municipality of Wieringermeer, Medemblik was a prosperous trading town, when in 1282, Floris V, Count of Holland, successfully invaded West Friesland. He built several fortresses to control the region, one of which was Kasteel Radboud in Medemblik, several more attacks took place in the following centuries. Many citizens fled to the castle, which the pirates unsuccessfully besieged, eventually, they took out their fury on the town, which burned to the ground. After this the band continued their path on land throughout present day North Holland. Medemblik obtained town walls in 1572, so that the castle lost its roll as a refuge for the citizens, which led to its partially dismantling in 1578. Over the centuries the fell into decay, but in 1889 it became property of the crown and was restored to be used as a courthouse. Anticipating the German invasion, the Rijksmuseum in September 1939 chose the castle as the hiding place of Rembrandts Night Watch. Again on 1 January 2011 Medemblik merged with Andijk and Wervershoof into the municipality Medemblik, the new city hall is the former office building of the DSB Bank in Wognum. Medemblik is best known in Europe for its sailing events
24.
KLM
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KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, legally Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N. V. is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. KLM is headquartered in Amstelveen, with its hub at nearby Amsterdam Airport Schiphol and it is part of the Air France–KLM group, and is a member of the SkyTeam airline alliance. KLM was founded in 1919, it is the oldest airline in the still operating under its original name and had 32,505 employees as of 2013. KLM operates scheduled passenger and cargo services to approximately 130 destinations, in 1919, a young aviator lieutenant named Albert Plesman sponsored the ELTA aviation exhibition in Amsterdam. The exhibition was a success, after it closed several Dutch commercial interests intended to establish a Dutch airline. In September 1919, Queen Wilhelmina awarded the yet-to-be-founded KLM its Royal predicate, Plesman became its first administrator and director. The first KLM flight took place on 17 May 1920, KLMs first pilot, Jerry Shaw, flew from Croydon Airport, London, to Amsterdam. The flight was using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel De Haviland DH-16, registration G-EALU. In 1920, KLM carried 440 passengers and 22 tons of freight, in April 1921, after a winter hiatus, KLM resumed its services using its own pilots, and Fokker F. II and Fokker F. III aircraft. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services, KLMs first intercontinental flight took off on 1 October 1924. The final destination was Jakarta, Java, in the Dutch East Indies, in September 1929, regular scheduled services between Amsterdam and Batavia commenced. Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, this was the worlds longest-distance scheduled service by airplane. By 1926, it was offering flights to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Brussels, Paris, London, Bremen, Copenhagen, in 1930, KLM carried 15,143 passengers. The Douglas DC-2 was introduced on the Batavia service in 1934, the first experimental transatlantic KLM flight was between Amsterdam and Curaçao in December 1934 using the Fokker F. XVIII Snip. The first of the airlines Douglas DC-3 aircraft were delivered in 1936, KLM was the first airline to serve Manchesters new Ringway airport, starting June 1938. When Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, a number of KLM aircraft—mostly DC-3s, five DC-3s and one DC-2 were taken to England. During the war, these aircraft and crew members flew scheduled flights between Bristol and Lisbon under BOAC registration. Some KLM aircraft and their crews ended up in the Australia-Dutch East Indies region, after the end of the Second World War in August 1945, KLM immediately started to rebuild its network
25.
Anthony van Dyck
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Sir Anthony van Dyck was a Flemish Baroque artist who became the leading court painter in England, after enjoying great success in Italy and Flanders. He also painted biblical and mythological subjects, displayed outstanding facility as a draughtsman, the Van Dyke beard is named after him. Antoon van Dyck was born to parents in Antwerp. By the age of fifteen he was already an accomplished artist, as his Self-portrait, 1613–14. He was admitted to the Antwerp painters Guild of Saint Luke as a master by February 1618. His influence on the young artist was immense, Rubens referred to the nineteen-year-old van Dyck as the best of my pupils. At the same time the dominance of Rubens in the small and declining city of Antwerp probably explains why, despite his periodic returns to the city, van Dyck spent most of his career abroad. In 1620, at the instigation of George Villiers, Marquess of Buckingham, van Dyck went to England for the first time where he worked for King James I of England, receiving £100. After about four months he returned to Flanders, but moved on in late 1621 to Italy and he was already presenting himself as a figure of consequence, annoying the rather bohemian Northern artists colony in Rome, says Giovan Pietro Bellori, by appearing with the pomp of Zeuxis. He was mostly based in Genoa, although he travelled extensively to other cities. In 1627, he went back to Antwerp where he remained for five years, a life-size group portrait of twenty-four City Councillors of Brussels he painted for the council-chamber was destroyed in 1695. He was evidently very charming to his patrons, and, like Rubens, well able to mix in aristocratic and court circles, by 1630 he was described as the court painter of the Habsburg Governor of Flanders, the Archduchess Isabella. In this period he produced many religious works, including large altarpieces. King Charles I was the most passionate and generous collector of art among the British monarchs, and saw art as a way of promoting his elevated view of the monarchy. In 1628, he bought the collection that the Gonzagas of Mantua were forced to dispose of. In 1626, he was able to persuade Orazio Gentileschi to settle in England, later to be joined by his daughter Artemisia and some of his sons. Rubens was a target, who eventually came on a diplomatic mission, which included painting, in 1630. He was very well-treated during his visit, during which he was knighted
26.
Newsreel
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A newsreel is a form of short documentary film prevalent between 1910s to 1960s, regularly released in a public presentation place and containing filmed news stories and items of topical interest. It was a source of news, current affairs, and entertainment for millions of moviegoers until television supplanted its role in the 1950s, newsreels are now considered significant historical documents, since they are often the only audiovisual record of historical and cultural events of those times. Newsreels were typically exhibited as short subjects preceding the main feature film into the 1960s, the first official British news cinema that only showed newsreels was the Daily Bioscope that opened in London on May 23,1909. In 1929 William Fox purchased a former Broadway theater called the Embassy and he changed the format from a $2 show twice a day to a continuous 25 cent programme establishing the first newsreel theater in the USA. The idea was such a success that Fox and his backers announced they would start a chain of theaters across the USA. The newsreels were often accompanied by cartoons or short subjects, in some countries, newsreels generally used music as a background for usually silent on-site film footage. In some countries, the narrator used humorous remarks for light-hearted or non-tragic stories, in the U. S. newsreel series included The March of Time, Pathé News, Paramount News, Fox Movietone News, Hearst Metrotone News, and Universal Newsreel. Pathé News was distributed by RKO Radio Pictures from 1931 to 1947 and their strike lasted through to at least Tuesday August 16, the Tuesday being the last day for production on new newsreels shown on the Thursday. Events of the resulted in over three hundred cinemas across Britain having to go without newsreels that week. An example of a story is in the film Citizen Kane. Citizen Kane includes a fictional newsreel News on the March that summarizes the life of title character Charles Foster Kane while parodying The March of Time, a 1978 Australian film, Newsfront, is a drama about the newsreel business. On February 16,1948, NBC launched a television program called Camel Newsreel Theatre with John Cameron Swayze that featured newsreels with Swayze doing voiceovers. Also in 1948, the DuMont Television Network launched two short-lived newsreel series, Camera Headlines and I. N. S, telenews, the latter in cooperation with Hearsts International News Service. On August 15,1948, CBS started their evening news program Douglas Edwards. Later the NBC, CBS, and ABC news shows all produced their own news film, newsreels died out because of technological advances such as electronic news-gathering for television news, introduced in the 1970s, rendered them obsolete. Nonetheless, some such as Cuba, Japan, and Spain continued producing newsreels into the 1980s and 1990s. Newsreel-producing companies excluded television companies from their distribution, but the television companies countered by sending their own cameramen to film news events, an international newsfilm conference, London, BUFVC,1998 Fielding, Raymond. The American Newsreel, A Complete History, 1911-1967, 985–991 The Newsreel Archive News on Screen
27.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
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Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art and he was on the editorial board of Les Temps modernes, the leftist magazine established by Jean-Paul Sartre in 1945. At the core of Merleau-Pontys philosophy is an argument for the foundational role perception plays in understanding the world as well as engaging with the world. Like the other major phenomenologists, Merleau-Ponty expressed his philosophical insights in writings on art, literature, linguistics and he was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the twentieth century to engage extensively with the sciences and especially with descriptive psychology. Maurice Merleau-Ponty was born in 1908 in Rochefort-sur-Mer, Charente-Maritime, France and his father died in 1913 when Merleau-Ponty was five years old. He attended Edmund Husserls Paris Lectures in February 1929, in 1929, Merleau-Ponty received his DES degree from the University of Paris, on the basis of the thesis La Notion de multiple intelligible chez Plotin, directed by Émile Bréhier. He passed the agrégation in philosophy in 1930, an article published in French newspaper Le Monde in October 2014 makes the case of recent discoveries about Merleau-Pontys likely authorship of the novel Nord. Convergent sources from close friends seem to leave little doubt that Jacques Heller was a pseudonym of the 20-year-old Merleau-Ponty, Merleau-Ponty taught first at the Lycée de Beauvais and then got a fellowship to do research from the Caisse nationale de la recherche scientifique. From 1934–1935 he taught at the Lycée de Chartres, after teaching at the University of Lyon from 1945 to 1948, Merleau-Ponty lectured on child psychology and education at the Sorbonne from 1949 to 1952. He was awarded the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France from 1952 until his death in 1961, besides his teaching, Merleau-Ponty was also political editor for Les Temps modernes from the founding of the journal in October 1945 until December 1952. In his youth he had read Karl Marxs writings and Sartre even claimed that Merleau-Ponty converted him to Marxism and their friendship ended over a quarrel as he became disillusioned about communism, while Sartre still endorsed it. Merleau-Ponty died suddenly of a stroke in 1961 at age 53 and he is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. In his Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian cogito and this distinction is especially important in that Merleau-Ponty perceives the essences of the world existentially. Consciousness, the world, and the body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined. The phenomenal thing is not the object of the natural sciences. Things are that upon which our body has a grip, while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the worlds things, the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in an ongoing becoming. The thing transcends our view, but is manifest precisely by presenting itself to a range of possible views, the object of perception is immanently tied to its background—to the nexus of meaningful relations among objects within the world. Because the object is inextricably within the world of meaningful relations, each object is a mirror of all others
28.
Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism to secure the regular opposition. Late in his life he was director of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Mahlers œuvre is relatively limited, for much of his composing was necessarily a part-time activity while he earned his living as a conductor. Some of Mahlers immediate musical successors included the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten are among later 20th-century composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler. The International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955 to honour the composers life, the Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances, the composers grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire, the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, from this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, always an intruder, never welcomed. Bernhard Mahler, the son and the composers father, elevated himself to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie by becoming a coachman. He bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt, halfway between Prague in Bohemia and Brno in Moravia, in the center of todays Czech Republic. Bernhards wife, Marie, gave birth to the first of the couples 14 children, a son Isidor, two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born. In December 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau,25 km to the south-east, the family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. All of these elements would later contribute to his musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents piano and he developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind and gave his first public performance at the town theatre when he was ten years old. Although Gustav loved making music, his reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portrayed him as absent-minded. In 1871, in the hope of improving the results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague. In 1874 he suffered a personal loss when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music, with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he work on an opera
29.
Symphony No. 7 (Mahler)
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Symphony No.7 by Gustav Mahler was written in 1904–05, with repeated revisions to the scoring. It is sometimes referred to by the title Song of the Night, although the symphony is often described as being in the key of E minor, its tonal scheme is more complicated. The symphonys first movement moves from B minor to E minor, thus, as Dika Newlin has pointed out, in this symphony Mahler returns to the ideal of progressive tonality which he had abandoned in the Sixth. The complexity of the tonal scheme was analysed in terms of interlocking structures by Graham George. In 1904, Mahler was enjoying great success as a conductor. He then worked on the Seventh intensively the following summer, claiming to take just four weeks to complete the first, third and fifth movements. The completed score was dated 15 August 1905, and the orchestration was finished in 1906,6, while rehearsing for its premiere in May 1906. The Seventh had its premiere on 19 September 1908, in Prague with the Czech Philharmonic, the three years which elapsed between the completion of the score and the symphonys premiere witnessed dramatic changes in Mahlers life and career. The symphony is scored for the following orchestra, the duration of the symphony is around 80 minutes. The work is in five movements, The movement is in sonata form and it begins with a slow introduction in B minor, launched by a dark melody played by a tenor horn. The accompaniment rhythm was said to have come to Mahler whilst rowing on the lake at Maiernigg after a period of compositional drought, the principal theme, presented by horns in unison in E minor, is accompanied similarly, though much faster and in a higher register. The second theme is presented by violins, accompanied by sweeping cello arpeggios. This theme is infected with chromatic sequences, at one point the violins reach an F♯7. The exposition is wrapped up with a theme from the introduction. This section has been interpreted as a religious vision and it has also been asserted that this section contains the chains of fourths that impressed Arnold Schoenberg. After this section plays itself out, a harp glissando propels the music into a new section based on the second theme, but before a climax can be articulated, the final cadence is interrupted by the music from the introduction and the baritone horn arioso. This leads into the recapitulation, but before the recapitulation occurs. In fact, the trumpet for the works premiere even confronted Mahler
30.
Ayreon
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Ayreon /ˈɛriən/ is a musical project by Dutch songwriter, singer, multi-instrumentalist musician and record producer Arjen Anthony Lucassen. Ayreons music is described as rock, progressive metal and power metal sometimes combined with genres such as folk, electronica. The majority of Ayreons albums are dubbed rock operas because the albums contain complex storylines featuring a host of characters, Ayreons music is characterized by the use of traditional instruments in rock music mixed with instruments more native to folk and classical music. Lucassen writes the music and the lyrics, sings and plays most of the instruments on all of the Ayreon albums and his most regular collaborator is drummer Ed Warby. The first Ayreon CD, released in 1995, is The Final Experiment, the album features thirteen singers and seven instrumentalists, most of them Dutch. The Final Experiment is often mentioned as one of the first metal operas, Actual Fantasy from 1996 is the only Ayreon album without a continuous story. With its individual fantasy stories, it can still be considered a concept album, there are only three singers and three instrumentalists on Actual Fantasy. Themes inspired by songs on this album can be found on later Ayreon releases, the album did not sell as well as its predecessor. The double album Into the Electric Castle followed in 1998, the album features eight singers, each playing a role of a single character, and eleven instrumentalists. The album was a success and is widely regarded as one of Ayreons best albums. The twin Universal Migrator albums were released in 2000, the first album, The Dream Sequencer consists of soft, atmospheric progressive rock, whereas the second album, Flight of the Migrator, consists of a more heavy-metal theme. Both of the feature around ten singers supported by many instrumentalists. One of the notable guests was Bruce Dickinson of Iron Maiden. Shortly following Universal Migrator came Ayreonauts Only, an album generally meant to be only for fans of Ayreon. The album itself was the second to not follow a storyline, it instead contained alternate versions of existing songs. In addition, it contained a preview of Arjens then-upcoming project and it is the only Ayreon album not to see re-release on InsideOut. In 2004 came The Human Equation, as on Into the Electric Castle, there are several singers, each playing their own role. With The Human Equation, Ayreon turned away from the science fiction
31.
Universal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer
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Universal Migrator Part 1, The Dream Sequencer is a progressive rock album released in 2000 by Dutch multi-instrumentalist and songwriter Arjen Lucassen, and is the fourth album of his Ayreon project. Both albums were released simultaneously, sold well and were received positively, in 2004, Lucassen moved to a new record label - InsideOut Music - and with this move came re-issues of all the previous Ayreon releases, including The Dream Sequencer. The special edition re-issue merged both albums into a release, titled Universal Migrator, Parts I & II. The album was released on vinyl in December 2012. To this end, he made fundamental changes to his previous composition process. Arjen decided to have each vocalist only sing one track each, as opposed to the almost conversational, as Universal Migrator had enough content to form a two-CD album, Arjen made a key decision to sell each disc as a separate release. He believed his fans to be divided into two groups by genre of choice, being either progressive rock or heavy metal fans. The story of The Dream Sequencer continues the plot found in The Final Experiment, starting in the year 2084, during the final years of fighting on Earth, a number of humans escaped to live on Mars. These people brought supplies with them, but with Earth ravaged, there was no way to replenish their resources, the Dream Sequencer tells the story of the last human being alive, living alone on the Martian colony. Born of the earliest settlers on Mars, the colonist never lived on Earth, each track on The Dream Sequencer revisits one of these past lives. The digitized voices on this song were provided by Lana Lane and this song is about the Colonists preparation to use the Dream Sequencer, and the orders given by the machine. After the spoken words, the Dream Sequencer plays a music that, supposedly, finishes on the eleventh track. Vocals on this song were provided by Johan Edlund and Floor Jansen, Edlund is also the composer of the songs vocal melody. The song is apparently about the character of the story as a child, with his sister, mourning the death of his father in the war on Earth. By the end of the song, he has forgiven his father for leaving him, vocals on this song were provided by Lana Lane. This song is about the war which leads to mankinds destruction, referenced in The Final Experiment. Still, the character speaking here is not the main protagonist himself, according to Arjen Lucassen, the song tells of the events he lived during first manned lunar landing - the Apollo 11 mission. It uses the words of Neil Armstrong, Thats one small step for a man
32.
King Crimson
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King Crimson are an English rock band formed in London in 1968. Fripp is the only consistent member of the group, and is considered the bands leader, the band has earned a large cult following. King Crimsons debut album, In the Court of the Crimson King, remains its most successful and influential, with its elements of jazz, classical and their success increased following an opening act performance for the Rolling Stones at Hyde Park, London, in 1969. Following the less successful In the Wake of Poseidon, Lizard, and Islands, the reached a new creative peak with Larks Tongues in Aspic, Starless and Bible Black. Fripp disbanded the group in 1974, in 1981, King Crimson reformed with a change in musical direction which lasted for three years, resulting in the trio of albums Discipline, Beat, and Three of a Perfect Pair. Following a decade-long hiatus, Fripp revived the group in 1994, since 1997, several musicians have pursued aspects of the bands work and approaches through a series of related bands collectively referred to as ProjeKCts. In 2000, the band reunited once more and released The Construkction of Light, the bands most recent album is The Power to Believe. In 2009 the band undertook a tour to celebrate their 40th Anniversary, fellow Dorset musician Robert Fripp – a guitarist who did not sing – responded and the trio formed the band Giles, Giles and Fripp. Based on a format of pop songs and complex instrumentals. The band hovered on the edge of success, with several radio sessions and a television appearance, the album was no more of a success than the singles, and was even disparaged by Keith Moon of the Who in a magazine review. Attempting to expand their sound, the three recruited Ian McDonald on keyboards, reeds and woodwinds, McDonald brought along his then-girlfriend, former Fairport Convention singer Judy Dyble, whose brief tenure with the group ended when the two split. Would you like to get together on a couple of songs, Fripp, meanwhile, saw Clouds perform at the Marquee Club in London which inspired him to incorporate classical melodies and jazz-like improvisation in his song writing. No longer interested in pursuing Peter Giles more whimsical pop style, Fripp recommended his friend, singer and guitarist Greg Lake, join, Peter Giles later called it one of Fripps cute political moves. But he had become disillusioned with the lack of success and departed, leaving Lake to become bassist. The first incarnation of King Crimson formed in London on 30 November 1968, the bands name was coined by Sinfield, though it is not meant to be a synonym for Beelzebub, prince of demons. McDonald suggested the purchase a Mellotron, and they began using it to create an orchestral rock sound. Sinfield described Crimson thus, If it sounded at all popular, so it had to be complicated, it had to be more expansive chords, it had to have strange influences. If it sounded, like, too simple, wed make it more complicated, wed play it in 7/8 or 5/8, just to show off
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Starless and Bible Black
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Starless and Bible Black is the sixth studio album by English progressive rock band King Crimson, released in March 1974 by record label Island. Much of the album was recorded live, but edited and blended with studio material, King Crimsons previous album, Larks Tongues in Aspic, had been recorded by a quintet lineup of the band, including experimental percussionist Jamie Muir. Early in 1973, Muir abruptly left the band – ostensibly due to an onstage injury, Muirs departure turned out to be permanent. The bands drummer, Bill Bruford, absorbed Muirs percussion role in addition to his own kit drumming, and these upheavals and the pressure of touring left King Crimson short of new written material when it came to the time to record their next album. Having increased their level of improvisation during recent tours, the band opted to take advantage of this to solve the problem. New compositions tried out in concert and captured on live recordings were presented as part of the new album material, alternating. The only songs recorded entirely in the studio were the first two tracks, The Great Deceiver and Lament, well Let You Know was an entirely improvised piece recorded in Glasgow. The Mincer was another improvised piece, originally recorded in concert in Zürich, trio, Starless and Bible Black and Fracture were recorded live at the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam. Also recorded at the Concertgebouw was the introduction to The Night Watch, in all cases, live applause was removed from the recordings wherever possible. The complete Amsterdam Concertgebouw concert was released by the band in 1997 as The Night Watch. Trio was notable for being a piece with only three active players – John Wetton on bass guitar, David Cross on viola and Robert Fripp on flute Mellotron. Bruford spent the entire piece with his drumsticks crossed over his chest, waiting for the moment to join in. His decision not to add any percussion was seen by the rest of the band as a crucial choice, only four tracks on the album have lyrics. As had been the case with Larks Tongues in Aspic, these were written by John Wettons friend Richard Palmer-James, the Great Deceiver refers to The Devil and is an ironic commentary on commercialism. The Night Watch is an essay on Rembrandts painting of the same name, describing the painting as an observer sees it. The phrase Starless and Bible Black is a quotation from the first two lines of poet Dylan Thomass play, Under Milk Wood. The bands next album, Red, contains a song called Starless, the title track on both the album and the compact disk is an edit of the original Amsterdam improvisation as performed at the Concertgebouw, which presumably ran several minutes longer. All currently-available master tapes contain the 9,11 version, the album art is by painter Tom Phillips
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Alexander Korda
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Sir Alexander Korda was a Hungarian-born British film producer and director. He first worked in Hollywood during the transition to talkies, from 1926 to 1930, the change led to divorce from his first wife, popular Hungarian actress María Corda, who could not make the transition because of her strong accent in English. From 1930, Korda became a figure in the British film industry, the founder of London Films and the owner of British Lion Films. Korda was the first filmmaker to have been officially knighted, the elder brother of filmmakers Zoltan and Vincent, Korda was born Sándor László Kellner to a Jewish family in Pusztatúrpásztó in what is now Hungary, where he worked as a journalist. After the death of his father Korda began writing film reviews to support his family, Korda changed his family name from Kellner to Korda—from the Latin phrase sursum corda which means lift up your hearts. Korda became an important film figure through his film magazines Pesti Mozi, Mozihét and this led to invitations to write film screenplays. Kordas first film script was for Watchhouse in the Carpathians, when the First World War broke out, Korda was excused from military service in the Austrian Army because of his bad eyesight. Korda went to work at the Pedagogical Studio in Budapest and co-directed three films with Gyula Zilahy, Korda established a film company named Corvin Film, building it into one of the largest in Hungary. After his release, he left Hungary for Austria, and never returned to his country of birth, during the next eleven years, Korda made films in several countries, working in Vienna, Berlin, London and Paris before moving to Hollywood in 1940. He worked closely with artists on his films, including his Hungarian friend, painter. After leaving Hungary, Korda accepted an invitation from Count Alexander Kolowrat to work for his company Sascha-Film in the Austrian capital Vienna. Korda worked alongside Kolowrat, who had attracted several leading Hungarian and German directors into his employment, on the 1920 historical epic The Prince, the film was a major international success and inspired Korda with the idea of making international films with global box office appeal. Kordas next two films, Masters of the Sea and A Vanished World, were both nautical-set adventures based on Hungarian novels. By that stage, Korda had grown irritated with Kolowrats interference with his work and left Sascha to make an independent film, Samson and Delilah, the film was made on a lavish scale, with large crowd scenes. The lengthy shooting schedule lasted 160 working days, the film was not a success. Unable to find backing for his film projects, Korda left Vienna. Korda raised funding for the melodrama The Unknown Tomorrow, with backing from Germanys biggest film company, UFA, Korda returned to Vienna to make Everybodys Woman. While there, he work on his next film, the historical Tragedy in the House of Habsburg
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Jean-Luc Godard
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Jean-Luc Godard is a French-Swiss film director, screenwriter and film critic. He is often identified with the 1960s French film movement La Nouvelle Vague, as a result of such argument, he and like-minded critics started to make their own films. Many of Godards films challenge the conventions of traditional Hollywood in addition to French cinema, along with showing knowledge of film history through homages and references, several of his films expressed his political views, he was an avid reader of existential and Marxist philosophy. Since the New Wave, his politics have been less radical and his recent films are about representation and human conflict from a humanist. In a 2002 Sight & Sound poll, Godard ranked third in the critics top-ten directors of all time and he is said to have created one of the largest bodies of critical analysis of any filmmaker since the mid-twentieth century. He and his work have been central to narrative theory and have challenged both commercial narrative cinema norms and film criticisms vocabulary, in 2010, Godard was awarded an Academy Honorary Award, but did not attend the award ceremony. Jean-Luc Godard was born on 3 December 1930 in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, the son of Odile and Paul Godard and his wealthy parents came from Protestant families of Franco–Swiss descent, and his mother was the daughter of Julien Monod, a founder of the Banque Paribas. She was the great-granddaughter of theologian Adolphe Monod, relatives on his mothers side include also composer Jacques-Louis Monod, naturalist Théodore Monod and pastor Frédéric Monod. Four years after Jean-Lucs birth, his father moved the family to Switzerland, at the outbreak of the Second World War, Godard was in France and returned to Switzerland with difficulty. He spent most of the war in Switzerland, although his family made trips to his grandfathers estate on the French side of Lake Geneva. Godard attended school in Nyon, Switzerland, in 1946, he went to study at the Lycée Buffon in Paris and, through family connections, mixed with members of its cultural elite. He lodged with the writer Jean Schlumberger, having failed his baccalaureate exam in 1948 he returned to Switzerland. He studied in Lausanne and lived with his parents, whose marriage was breaking up and he spent time in Geneva also with a group that included another film fanatic, Roland Tolmatchoff, and the extreme rightist philosopher Jean Parvulesco. His older sister Rachel encouraged him to paint, which he did, after time spent at a boarding school in Thonon to prepare for the retest, which he passed, he returned to Paris in 1949. He registered for a certificate in anthropology at the University of Paris and he got involved with the young group of film critics at the ciné-clubs that started the New Wave. Godard originally held only French citizenship, then in 1953, he became a citizen of Gland, canton of Vaud, Switzerland, in Paris, in the Latin Quarter just prior to 1950, ciné-clubs were gaining prominence. Godard began attending these clubs - the Cinémathèque, the CCQL, Work and Culture ciné Club, at these clubs he met fellow film enthusiasts including Jacques Rivette, Claude Chabrol, and François Truffaut. Godard was part of a generation for whom cinema took on a special importance and he has said, In the 1950s cinema was as important as bread—but it isnt the case any more
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Passion (1982 film)
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Passion is a 1982 film by Jean-Luc Godard, and the second feature film made during his return to relatively mainstream filmmaking in the 1980s, sometimes referred to as the Second Wave. Like most of Godards work from this period, Passion is shot in color with a 1.37 aspect ratio, cinematographer Raoul Coutard, collaborating with Godard for the first time since 1967, won the Technical Grand Prize for cinematography at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival. The film had 207,294 admissions in France, Jerzy is a Polish filmmaker working at a big studio in Switzerland shooting a series of tableaux vivants for a feature film. His producer Lászlo is impatient because there is no apparent story to film and Jerzy keeps canceling the shoot. Hanna is married to Michel, an arrogant man with a chronic cough who owns the factory where Isabelle works, Isabelle is fired from her job and attempts to organize her fellow workers to strike – not for her sake, but for their own. The film crew is meanwhile recruiting factory workers as extras for the series of tableau that Jerzy is shooting, Jerzy continues to search for the right lighting in the studio and to try to manage an increasingly unruly group of extras. At the same time he is trying to continue his relationship with Hanna, Jerzy is also taken with Isabelle, who also wants to merge love and work. She tries to get Jerzy involved with her cause and to make connections with the film crew. Finally, Isabelle and Jerzy have an encounter and Isabelle gives up her virginity. She accepts a payoff from Michel, her fellow workers having abandoned their attempt at a strike. Lászlo secures more money for the film but Jerzy feels the tug of the Solidarity events, resolving to finish his project by other means, Jerzy leaves for Poland with neither Isabelle nor Hanna but with a waitress from the hotel. Isabelle and Hanna connect with other and also decide to go to Poland. Godard had met Hanna Schygulla in Hollywood when she was shooting One from the Heart with Francis Ford Coppola, Godard asked Schygulla at once if she wanted to participate in his new film but she first wanted to see a synopsis. Soon after Godard sent her a three-page summary in English titled Passion, Work, the film marks Godards reunion with cinematographer Raoul Coutard, the last time they had worked together was on Week-end, which is usually considered the end of the French New Wave. The narrative part of the film is about love and work in general, in the film, the two notions get mixed up. Love and work are not separated anymore as Hanna is Jerzy’s lover, on the other hand, Jerzy is living in Hanna’s hotel but having an affair with her at the same time. The process of making as a kind of work is paralleled with Isabelle’s work in the factory. At one point, Isabelle even claims that the gestures of love, the opposition of light and dark first appears in the Night Watch, which is the first of the tableaux vivants represented in the film, in the context of light in a painting
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Eponymous
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An eponym is a person, place, or thing for whom or for which something is named, or believed to be named. For example, Elizabeth I of England is the eponym of the Elizabethan era, recent usage, especially in the recorded-music industry, also allows eponymous to mean named after its central character or creator. In ancient Greece, the eponymous archon was the highest magistrate in classical Athens, Eponymous archons served a term of one year which took the name of that particular archon. Later historians provided yet another case of eponymy by referring to the period of Fifth-century Athens as The Age of Pericles after its most influential statesman Pericles. In Ptolemaic Egypt, the head priest of the Cult of Alexander, the Hebrew Bible explains the origins of peoples through individuals who bear their name. In most cases, the experiences and behavior of the ancestor is meant to indicate the characteristics of the people who take their name, in ancient Rome, one of the two formal ways of indicating a year was to cite the two annual consuls who served in that year. For example, the year we know as 59 BC would have described as the consulship of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus and Gaius Julius Caesar. Under the empire, the consuls would change as often as two months, but only the two consuls at the beginning of the year would lend their names to that year. During the Christian era, itself eponymous, many households used eponymous dating by regnal years. The Roman Catholic Church, however, eventually used the Anno Domini dating scheme based on the birth of Christ on both the public and royalty. Government administrations may become referred to eponymously, such as Kennedys Camelot, British monarchs have become eponymous throughout the English-speaking world for time periods, fashions, etc. Elizabethan, Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian are examples of these, trends Political trends or movements often become eponymous with a government leader. Examples include Jacksonian democracy, Stalinism, Maoism, Obamacare, in intellectual property law an eponym can refer to a generic trademark or brand name, a form of metonymy, such as aspirin, heroin and thermos in the United States. In geography, places and towns can also be given a name through a relationship to an important figure. Peloponnesus, for instance, was said to derive its name from the Greek hero Pelops, in historical times, new towns have often been named after their founders, discoverers, or notable individuals. In science and technology, discoveries and innovations are often named after the discoverer or a figure influential in their advance, examples are Avogadros number, the Diesel engine, meitnerium, Alzheimers disease, and the Apgar score. For a different view of the process see Stiglers law of eponymy, the term is also applied to music, usually with regard to record titles, where it is prevalent and leads to confusion. For example, Bad Companys first album was entitled Bad Company, titled a 1988 compilation album Eponymous
38.
Night Watch (1995 film)
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Night Watch is a 1995 American television spy film directed by David Jackson starring Pierce Brosnan and Alexandra Paul. The film, also known as Alistair MacLeans Nightwatch, was shot in Hong Kong, the film aired on the USA Network. It is a sequel to the earlier Brosnan vehicle Death Train, UN agents Mike Graham and Sabrina Carver are sent by their director Nick Caldwell to investigate the theft of Rembrandts painting, The Night Watch. Technician Detonator II, Night Watch is available on Region 1 DVD both individually and bundled as a pack with Detonator. Nightwatch at the Internet Movie Database
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Terry Pratchett
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Sir Terence David John Terry Pratchett, OBE was an English author of fantasy novels, especially comical works. He is best known for his Discworld series of 41 novels, Pratchetts first novel, The Carpet People, was published in 1971. The first Discworld novel, The Colour of Magic, was published in 1983 and his 2011 Discworld novel Snuff was at the time of its release the third-fastest-selling hardback adult-readership novel since records began in the UK, selling 55,000 copies in the first three days. His final Discworld novel, The Shepherds Crown, was published in August 2015, Pratchett, with more than 85 million books sold worldwide in 37 languages, was the UKs best-selling author of the 1990s. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1998 and was knighted for services to literature in the 2009 New Year Honours, in 2001 he won the annual Carnegie Medal for The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents, the first Discworld book marketed for children. He received the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2010, in December 2007, Pratchett announced that he had been diagnosed with early-onset Alzheimers disease. Pratchett died on 12 March 2015 at age 66, Pratchett was born on 28 April 1948 in Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire, England, the only child of David and Eileen Pratchett, of Hay-on-Wye where he attended Holtspur School. Pratchett described himself as a student and, in his Whos Who entry. He collected Brooke Bond tea cards about space, owned a telescope and wanted to be an astronomer and he developed an interest in reading science fiction and began attending science fiction conventions from about 1963–1964, but stopped when he got his first job a few years later. His early reading included the works of H. G. Wells, Arthur Conan Doyle, and every book you ought to read. Pratchett published his first short story entitled Business Rivals in the High Wycombe Technical School magazine in 1962 and it is the tale of a man named Crucible who finds the Devil in his flat in a cloud of sulphurous smoke. The Hades Business, which was published in the magazine when he was 13 was published commercially when he was 15. Pratchett earned five O-levels and started A-level courses in Art, English, One of these episodic stories contains characters found in his novel, The Carpet People. The stories are part of a project by the Bucks Free Press to make them available online. While on day release he finished his A-Level in English and took a course for journalists. Pratchett had his breakthrough in 1968 when he interviewed Peter Bander van Duren, co-director of a small publishing company. During the meeting, Pratchett mentioned he had written a manuscript, Colin Smythe Ltd published the book in 1971, with illustrations by Pratchett. The book received strong, if few, reviews and was followed by the science fiction novels The Dark Side of the Sun, after various positions in journalism, in 1980 Pratchett became Press Officer for the Central Electricity Generating Board in an area which covered four nuclear power stations
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Night Watch (Discworld)
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Night Watch is the 29th novel in Terry Pratchetts Discworld series, published in 2002. The protagonist of the novel is Sir Samuel Vimes, commander of the Ankh-Morpork City Watch, a five-part radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Night Watch placed second in the annual Locus Poll for best fantasy novel, on the morning of the 30th anniversary of the Glorious Revolution of the Twenty-Fifth of May, Sam Vimes is caught in a magical storm while pursuing Carcer, a notorious criminal. He awakens to find that he has rescued by Miss Palm. He determines that he has somehow been sent back in time, vimess first idea is to ask the wizards at the Unseen University to send him home, but before he can act on this, he is arrested for breaking curfew by a younger version of himself. Incarcerated in a next to his is Carcer, who after being released joins the Unmentionables. It is stated that the event which caused Vimes and Carcer to be sent into the past was a major temporal shattering, Vimes then returns to the office, time restarts and he convinces the captain that he is Keel. Young Vimes believes Vimes to be Keel, allowing Vimes to teach Young Vimes the lessons for which Vimes idolized Keel, the novel climaxes in the Revolution. Vimes, taking command of the watchmen, successfully avoids the major bloodshed erupting all over the city, after dealing with the Unmentionables headquarters he has his haphazard forces barricade a few streets to keep people safe from the fighting between rebels and soldiers. The ruler, Lord Winder, is assassinated by the young Assassins Guild student Havelock Vetinari. However, he sees Keel as a threat and sends Carcer to lead a squad of Unmentionables, watchmen. Vimes son is born, with the help of Doctor Mossy Lawn, whom Vimes met while in the past, a subsequent conversation with Lord Vetinari reveals that the Patrician alone knows Vimes took Keels place, also that he fought alongside Keels men against Carcers death squad. He proposes that the old Watch House at Treacle Mine Road be rebuilt, Night Watch is the twenty-ninth novel in the comic fantasy Discworld series, written by Terry Pratchett, and the sixth to focus on the character of Sam Vimes. Pratchett called the humour in the book the humour comes out of bad situations. The contents of the book, such as the secret police, paul Kidby illustrated the cover of British edition, with Night Watch being the first main-sequence Discworld novel not to have a cover by Josh Kirby. Kidby had previously worked on Discworld in The Last Hero, The Pratchett Portfolio and Nanny Oggs Cookbook, Kidby choose to parody Rembrandts painting Night Watch, an idea hed had since first reading Guards. Guards. and discussed with Pratchett over what characters to include, Kidby pays tribute to the late artist by placing him in the picture, in the position where Rembrandt is said to have painted himself. At the time, Kidby recalls being criticised for making the cover too brown and he criticised the books slow start, but called the book intriguing for its Chestertonian common-sense morality and drew comparison to the books events to the Bloody Sunday
41.
Josh Kirby
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Ronald William Josh Kirby was a commercial artist born on the outskirts of Liverpool in the town of Waterloo, Lancashire, in the U. K. With a career spanning 60 years, he is known for being the original artist for Terry Pratchetts Discworld novels, born Ronald William Kirby in 1928 at 58 Argo Road, Waterloo, Liverpool, to Charles William and Ellen Kirby. His father was a ship owners freight clerk, and his parents ran a grocery shop, Kirby lived at this address while studying at Liverpools School of Art. Kirby dreamed of his career early on, so that at age 7. As a boy, Kirby found a magazine for people called The Modern World. Science fiction fascinated him from that point on and it was the genre in which the realm of the possible was extended. As a young adult he spent six years studying various art techniques at the Liverpool City School of Art, gaining a certificate and it was here that his Old Master-style portraits earned him the nickname Josh when colleagues likened his work to that of the famous painter Sir Joshua Reynolds. The nickname stuck and, from that time forward, few people ever called him by his original name, after leaving art school, Liverpool City Council commissioned him to paint the Mayor in 1950 – an honour for a 22-year old artist starting out. Kirby ultimately decided against portraiture as a career and turned to illustration and his professional freelance career started in the early 1950s when Kirby illustrated film posters for studios in both London and Paris. His first published cover art was for the 1955 science fiction novel Cee-Tee Man and his next milestone was in 1956 when he created an emblematic Bond for the cover of Ian Flemings book, Moonraker. Kirby began to produce artwork for book covers ranging from westerns and crime novels to non-fiction, as well as painting covers and interior art for science fiction magazines. His groundbreaking illustrations appear on the covers of some of the greatest literary science fiction, fantasy, G. Wells, Robert Rankin, Craig Shaw Gardner, Stephen Briggs, Ron Goulart, Brian Aldiss as well as Terry Pratchett. In the 70s, Kirby returned to film art for publicity agency FEREF. When the market for poster illustration dried up in the mid 80s, Kirby switched his attention and he provided cover art for Duelmasters, Tunnels & Trolls and Wizards & Warriors. Kirby’s most significant move of the 80s was teaming up with the Pratchett and he was eventually commissioned to produce the covers for all the Discworld books - more than 25 covers in total. With the Discworld series, Josh found the perfect canvas for his larger-than-life talent, Pratchett said, I only invented the Discworld, Josh created it. ”This partnership led to more people from around the world marvelling at Kirby’s unmistakable, epic creations. Throughout his career, Kirby used oils, acrylics, gouache, or watercolor, ultimately, he preferred oils as they wouldn’t dry too quickly and could be manipulated and applied in layers. This allowed for them to be retouched or entirely painted over, whatever it took to achieve the result and it would take him four to eight weeks to complete a single painting because his process included reading each novel before illustrating it
