1.
The Scarlet Letters
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The Scarlet Letters is an English language novel published in 1953 by American author Ellery Queen. It is a novel set primarily in New York City. Dirk and Martha Lawrence are apparently not the happiest couple in New York, despite her millions of dollars, Dirk apologizes the next day, telling the story of how his father had killed his mothers lover, thereby causing his over-reaction. Ellerys secretary and inamorata Nikki Porter urges him to stay involved in the situation, Nikki soon reports that Martha actually is having a series of clandestine meetings with romantic actor Van Harrison. The meetings are arranged with innocuous envelopes that look like advertising, also, the envelopes contain only a day, time and a sequential letter of the alphabet—a code that is soon linked to a New York Guidebook. By the time the meetings have progressed from A through to W, Dirk has found out about the affair and he breaks in, confronts the pair and shoots them both, seriously wounding Martha, who nearly dies. Van Harrison has just enough time before he dies to leave a dying clue—using his own blood, he writes an X, then a Y on the wall, and dies. Ellery must consider the significance of this message and finally solves it. After Ellery gets a private conversation with the judge, a criminal then receives justice, after numerous popular mystery novels, a radio program and a number of movies, the character of Ellery Queen was at this point firmly established. This novel is more frank about sexual matters than earlier Queen works, the plot device of the dying clue had been used in Queens short stories but this is the first novel that relies on such a device. Ellery Queen is the American detective story
2.
Nathaniel Hawthorne
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Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist, dark romantic, and short story writer. He was born in 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, to Nathaniel Hathorne and his ancestors include John Hathorne, the only judge involved in the Salem witch trials who never repented of his actions. Nathaniel later added a w to make his name Hawthorne in order to hide this relation and he entered Bowdoin College in 1821, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1824, and graduated in 1825. Hawthorne published his first work, a novel titled Fanshawe, in 1828, he tried to suppress it. He published several stories in periodicals, which he collected in 1837 as Twice-Told Tales. The next year, he engaged to Sophia Peabody. He worked at the Boston Custom House and joined Brook Farm, the couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, later moving to Salem, the Berkshires, then to The Wayside in Concord. The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850, followed by a succession of other novels, a political appointment as consul took Hawthorne and family to Europe before their return to Concord in 1860. Hawthorne died on May 19,1864, and was survived by his wife, much of Hawthornes writing centers on New England, many works featuring moral allegories with a Puritan inspiration. His fiction works are considered part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically and his themes often center on the inherent evil and sin of humanity, and his works often have moral messages and deep psychological complexity. His published works include novels, short stories, and a biography of his college friend Franklin Pierce, Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4,1804, in Salem, Massachusetts, his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. William Hathorne, the authors great-great-great-grandfather, a Puritan, was the first of the family to emigrate from England, first settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts, before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held political positions including magistrate and judge. Williams son and the authors great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem witch trials. Hawthornes father, Nathaniel Hathorne, Sr. was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Suriname, he had been a member of the East India Marine Society. After his death, young Nathaniel, his mother, and two sisters moved in with relatives, the Mannings, in Salem, where they lived for 10 years. In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. In spite of his homesickness, for the sake of having fun, he distributed seven issues of The Spectator to his family in August, the homemade newspaper was written by hand
3.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
4.
Ticknor and Fields
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Ticknor and Fields was an American publishing company based in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1832 William Davis Ticknor and John Allen began a publishing business which operated out of the Old Corner Bookstore located on Washington and School Streets in Boston. The space had previously used by publishers Carter & Hendee. When Ticknor and Allen began their business, Fields joined them, a year later, Allen withdrew from the firm and Ticknor continued business under William D. Ticknor and Company. When John Reed and Fields became partners in 1845 the imprint was changed to Ticknor, Reed, Reed Retired in 1854 and the imprint became the well-known Ticknor and Fields. During these years the firm purchased and printed the Atlantic Monthly, also in 1842 Ticknor became the first American publisher to pay foreign writers for their works, beginning with a check to Tennyson. The Old Corner Bookstore had become the house and meeting place for these authors. The success of the firm was largely in part to the perfectly matched but widely varied talents of Ticknor, Ticknor gave his attention to the financial and manufacturing departments while Fields focused on literary relations and social aspects of the business. It was also during these years that Ticknor and Fields developed a relationship with the Riverside Press. In the spring of 1864, Ticknor accompanied Nathaniel Hawthorne on a trip to restore the authors health, during the trip, Ticknor became ill with pneumonia. Hawthorne wrote to Fields that our friend Ticknor is suffering under a billious attack and he had previously seemed uncomfortable, but not to an alarming degree. Ticknor died on the morning of April 10,1864, upon Ticknors sudden and unexpected death, interests in the firm were carried on by his son Howard M. Ticknor. During these years the business had outgrown the Old Corner Bookstore and Fields and he sold the Old Corner Bookstore on November 12,1864, and moved the publishing house to 124 Tremont Street. The firm also began to publish Our Young Folks edited by Howard M. Ticknor. The younger Ticknor soon retired and, in 1868, the firm was reorganized as Fields, Osgood, & Co. Benjamin Holt Ticknor, son of William Davis Ticknor, was admitted at a partner in 1870. On New Years Day,1871, Fields announced his retirement from the business at a gathering of friends. On January 2,1871, the partners bought out Fieldss share of the company for $120,000 and was renamed James R. Osgood & Co. The firm invested in heliotype printing technology, various periodicals, within a few years, the company was in financial difficulty and Osgood and B. H. Ticknor were forced to sell off various assets, including many stereotype plates
5.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
6.
Puritans
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Puritanism in this sense was founded as an activist movement within the Church of England. The founders, clergy exiled under Mary I, returned to England shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Puritanism played a significant role in English history during the first half of the 17th century. One of the most effective stokers of anti-Catholic feeling was John Pym, Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system and they largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. Consequently, they became a political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War. Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the Restoration of 1660, the nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England. Puritans by definition were dissatisfied with the extent of the English Reformation. They formed and identified with various groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology and, in sense, were Calvinists. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other established Christian denominations in favor of autonomous gathered churches. The Puritans were never a formally defined sect or religious division within Protestantism, the Congregationalist tradition, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, claims descent from the Puritans. Historically, the word Puritan was considered a term that characterized Protestant groups as extremists. According to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, the dates to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that used it and precisian with the sense of the modern stickler. In modern times, the word puritan is often used to mean against pleasure, in this sense, the term Puritan was coined in the 1560s, when it first appeared as a term of abuse for those who found the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 inadequate. The term Puritan, therefore, was not intended to refer to strict morality, a common modern misunderstanding, the word Puritan was applied unevenly to a number of Protestant churches from the late 16th century onwards. Puritans did not originally use the term for themselves, the practitioners knew themselves as members of particular churches or movements, and not by a single term. Precise men and Precisians were other early derogatory terms for Puritans, seventeenth century English Puritan preacher Thomas Watson used the godly to describe Puritans in the title of one of his more famous works The Godly Mans Picture
7.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
8.
Hester Prynne
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Hester Prynne is the protagonist of Nathaniel Hawthornes novel The Scarlet Letter. She is portrayed as a woman condemned by her Puritan neighbors, the character has been called among the first and most important female protagonists in American literature. A resident of Colonial America, Hester is sent ahead to the New World by her husband, after he is shipwrecked and captured by Native Americans and presumed dead, Hester continues to live her life as a seamstress in the town. She looks to the local pastor Arthur Dimmesdale for comfort, somewhere along the way passion emerges, culminating in the conception and subsequent birth of their child, Pearl. Because Hester has no husband with her, she is imprisoned, convicted of the crime of adultery, though scorned by her fellow citizens, Hester continues to lead a relatively uneventful life. Shortly after the birth of the child and her punishment, Hesters husband reappears, Hester refuses but swears not to reveal the fact that Chillingworth is her husband to the town folk. Hester continues living her life as a seamstress, providing for herself, novelist John Updike said of Prynne, Shes such an arresting and slightly ambiguous figure. Shes a funny mix of a liberated, defiantly sexual woman. And I dont know, I suppose shes an epitome of female predicaments and she is a mythic version of every womans attempt to integrate her sexuality with societal demands. One analyst wrote, All the contradictions of Hester Prynne – guilt and honesty, sin and holiness, sex and she is flawed, complex, and above all fertile. According to popular tradition, the gravestone of Elizabeth Pain in Bostons Kings Chapel Burying Ground was the inspiration for Hester Prynnes grave, scholar Laurie Rozakis has argued that an alternate or additional source for the story may be Hester Craford, a woman flogged for fornication with John Wedg. In various film adaptations of the novel, Prynne has been portrayed by such as Lillian Gish, Sommer Parker, Meg Foster, Mary Martin, Sybil Thorndike, Senta Berger. In the cult television series Twin Peaks the name was adopted as a pseudonym by the character Audrey Horne. In the musical The Music Man, Harold Hill refers to Hester Prynne in the song Sadder but Wiser Girl and he sings that he wants a girl with a touch of sin, remarking I hope, and I pray, for a Hester to win just one more A. Nathaniel Hawthorne The Scarlet Letter Notes Hester Prynne on IMDB The Scarlet Letter on Project Gutenberg Hester Prynne, Sinner, Victim, Object, Winner on NPR. org
9.
Repentance
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Repentance is the activity of reviewing ones actions and feeling contrition or regret for past wrongs. Today, it is seen as involving a commitment to personal change. In other words, being sorry for ones misdeeds, but it can also involve sorrow over a specific sin or series of sins that an individual feels he or she has committed. The practice of repentance plays an important role in the doctrines of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Analogous practices have been found in world religions as well. In religious contexts it often involves an act of confession to God or to a spiritual elder, as such, it can be seen as having a certain relationship to modern day therapeutic practices though it clearly differs in its particulars. In Biblical Hebrew, the idea of repentance is represented by two verbs, שוב shuv and נחם nacham. In the New Testament, the word translated as repentance is the Greek word μετάνοια, after/behind ones mind, which is a word of the preposition meta. In this compound word the preposition combines the two meanings of time and change, which may be denoted by after and different, so that the compound means. Metanoia is therefore primarily an after-thought, different from the former thought, the doctrine of repentance as taught in the Bible is a call to persons to make a radical turn from one way of life to another. The repentance called for throughout the Bible is a summons to a personal, though it includes sorrow and regret, it is more than that. It is a call to conversion from self-love, self-trust, and self-assertion to obedient trust, in repenting, one makes a complete change of direction toward God. The words repent, repentance, and repented are mentioned over 100 times in the Bible, ezekiel 14,6 says, Thus saith the Lord GOD, Repent, and turn yourselves from your idols, and turn away your faces from all your abominations. Rabbinic Jewish literature contains extensive discussions on the subject of repentance, many rabbinic sources state that repentance is of paramount importance to the existence of this world, so that it was one of the seven provisions which God made before the Creation. The Holy One, blessed be His name, said to Elijah, Behold, the gift which I have bestowed on my world, though a man sins again and again. Great is repentance, it brings healing into the world, it reaches to the throne of the Lord, it brings redemption, it prolongs mans life, Repentance and works of charity are mans intercessors before Gods throne. Sincere repentance is equivalent to the rebuilding of the Temple, the restoration of the altar, sincere repentance is manifested when the same temptation to sin, under the same conditions, is ever after resolutely resisted. According to Jewish doctrine, repentance is the prerequisite of atonement, no one need despair on account of his or her sins, for every penitent sinner is graciously received by God
10.
Dignity
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Moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions use the concept of dignity to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment. In the modern context dignity can function as an extension of the Enlightenment-era concepts of inherent, Dignity also has descriptive meanings pertaining to human worth. In general, the term has various functions and meanings depending on how the term is used, the English word dignity, attested from the early 13th century, comes from Latin dignitas by way of French dignité. There is also a history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it is rarely defined outright in political, legal, Human dignity can be violated in multiple ways. The main categories of violations are, Humiliation Violations of human dignity in terms of humiliation refer to acts that humiliate or diminish the self-worth of a person or a group, acts of humiliation are context dependent but we normally have an intuitive understanding where such a violation occurs. As Schachter noted, “it has been assumed that a violation of human dignity can be recognized even if the abstract term cannot be defined. ‘I know it when I see it even if I cannot tell you what it is’” and this approach is common in judicial decisions where judges refer to violations of human dignity as injuries to peoples self-worth or their self-esteem. Instrumentalization or objectification This aspect refers to treating a person as an instrument or as means to some other goal. Degradation Violations of human dignity as degradation refer to acts that degrade the value of human beings and these are acts that, even if done by consent, convey a message that diminishes the importance or value of all human beings. Dehumanization These are acts that strip a person or a group of their human characteristics and it may involve describing or treating them as animals or as a lower type of human beings. This has occurred in such as the Holocaust and in Rwanda where the minority were compared to insects. Some of the practices that violate human dignity include torture, rape, social exclusion, labor exploitation, bonded labor, both absolute and relative poverty are violations of human dignity, although they also have other significant dimensions, such as social injustice. Involuntary poverty is unusual among violations of dignity because it is usually the result of acts of omission rather than acts of commission. Another example of violation of human dignity, especially for women in developing countries, is lack of sanitation, a further example of violation of human dignity, affecting women mainly in developing countries, is female genital mutilation. The movie The Magic Christian depicts a man and his son who test the limits of dignity by forcing people to perform self-degrading acts for money. A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola, granted dignity to ideas, in his Oration on the Dignity of Man, he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels. His comments implied the dignity of philosophers and this oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance, intimately tied with the growth of humanist philosophies
11.
Legalism (theology)
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Legalism is alleged against any view that obedience to law, not faith in Gods grace, is the pre-eminent principle of redemption. On the Biblical viewpoint that redemption is not earned by works, the words legalism or legalist do not occur in the Old or New Testaments. Legalisms root word, law, occurs frequently in the New Testament, in 1921, Ernest De Witt Burton stated that in Gal. 2,16, nomou is here evidently used and this is divine law as the legalist defined it. The Greek of Pauls day lacked any term corresponding to the position of legalism, legalist, or legalistic. One concept of legalism, the belief that salvation can be earned by obedience to laws, is referred to in various New Testament books, generally, however, these cases are referred to as the Judaizer controversy, rather than a legalism controversy, but the two are related. Legalism refers to any doctrine which states salvation comes strictly from adherence to the law and it can be thought of as a works-based religion. Groups in the New Testament said to be falling into this category include the Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes, Judaizers, and Nicolaitans. They are legalists because they emphasized obeying the Law of Moses, in the case of the Pharisees and Scribes, Jesus condemned their legalism in Matthew 23. The Pharisees love of the praises of men for their strict adherence is said to be an example of legalism. Legalism is sometimes confused with obedience, New Testament books such as Romans, speak of grace and obedience together. An example is found in Romans 1,5 speaking of Christ through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles, the goal of receiving the grace was to bring about obedience of faith. Here grace, faith and obedience are tied together, other references are in Acts 5,29,32, Romans 16,19,2 Corinthians 7,15, Hebrews 5,9. Legalism is also confused with discipline, which is spoken of in a positive light. See 1 Corinthians 9,17,1 Timothy 4,7,2 Timothy 1,7 and Hebrews 12, a third common misunderstanding of legalism is the word law. Law in many places in the Bible refers to the Law of Moses, in Galatians the Judaizers were trying to insist that salvation required that a person be circumcised prior to obeying the Law of Christ. The faith here is the Law of Christ and the law here is the Law of Moses, the legalism of the Judaizers was that obedience to the law of Moses was necessary to be saved. Legalism in the New Testament is believed by some as being revealed by the life of Saul prior to his conversion, some believe that Saul sought to redeem himself by his works of persecution of the church and its ultimate destruction
12.
Sin
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In a religious context, sin is the act of violating Gods will by transgressing his commandments. Sin can also be viewed as any thought or action that endangers the ideal relationship between an individual and God, or as any diversion from the ideal order for human living. To sin has been defined as to miss the mark, the word derives from Old English syn, for original *sunjō. The stem may be related to that of Latin sons, sont-is guilty, in Old English there are examples of the original general sense, ‘offence, wrong-doing, misdeed. e. In the Baháí Faith, humans are considered good, fundamentally spiritual beings. Human beings were created because of Gods immeasurable love, however, the Baháí teachings compare the human heart to a mirror, which, if turned away from the light of the sun, is incapable of receiving Gods love. Buddhism believes in the principle of karma, whereby suffering is the consequence of greed, anger. While there is no direct Buddhist equivalent of the Abrahamic concept of sin, the concept of Buddhist ethics is consequentialist in nature and is not based upon duty towards any deity. Karma means action, and in Buddhist context, motivation is the most important aspect of an action, whether karma done with mind, body and/or speech is called good or bad, depends on whether it would bring pleasant or unpleasant results to the person who does the action. One needs to purify negative karma Four Satipatthanas to free oneself from obstacles to liberation from the circle of rebirth. The purification reduces suffering and in the end one reaches Nirvana, an enlightened being is free of all the suffering and karmas, and will not be automatically born again. In the Old Testament, some sins were punishable by death in different forms, christians consider the Old Covenant to be fulfilled by the Gospel. In the New Testament however, the forgiveness of sin is effected through repentance which involves confessing the sin, Sin is forgiven, when the sinner acknowledges, confesses, and repents for their sin. The unregenerate man is expected to confess his sins to God through repentance in order to be restored to relationship with God. The unregenerate man has never before been in a relationship with God. When, as a part of his salvation, he is forgiven, he enters into a union with God which abides forever. In the Epistle to the Romans 6,23, it is mentioned that the wages of sin is death, in Jewish Christianity, sin is believed to alienate the sinner from God even though He has extreme love for mankind. It has damaged and completely severed the relationship of humanity to God and that relationship can only be restored through acceptance of Jesus Christ and his death on the cross as a satisfactory sacrifice for the sins of humanity
13.
Guilt (emotion)
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It is closely related to the concept of remorse. Guilt is an important factor in perpetuating obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms, Guilt and its associated causes, merits, and demerits are common themes in psychology and psychiatry. Both in specialized and in language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done. It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting. Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness, while removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. For his later explicator, Lacan, guilt was the companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order. This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called the disease of false guilt. At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must be true, if you feel guilty, you must be guilty. The philosopher Martin Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on conflicts, and existential guilt, based on actual harm done to others. Guilt is often associated with anxiety, in mania, according to Otto Fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation. re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings. In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of ones personality. The methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple and they include, Repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself. If the defence fails, then one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time, projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. Alternatively, not the guilt, but the agency itself, may be projected onto other people. Feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior, people who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint, avoid self-indulgence, and exhibit less prejudice. Guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders, people appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended. Individuals high in psychopathy lack any sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others. Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright, a person with psychopathy has a tendency to be harmful to his or herself and to others. They have little ability to plan ahead for the future, an individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation
14.
Hugues Merle
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Hugues Merle was a French painter who mostly depicted sentimental or moral subjects. He has often compared with William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Hugues Merle was born in 1823 in Saint Martin and he studied painting with Léon Cogniet. Merle started exhibiting at the Salon in 1847 and he received second class prizes in 1861 and 1863. In 1866 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, hugues Merle became a friend of Paul Durand-Ruel in the early 1860s. Durand-Ruel had started buying paintings by Merle in 1862 and introduced the artist to painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Merle was later often compared to Bouguereau and “became a considerable rival of Bouguereau in subject and treatment”. In the mid-1860s, Merle painted several portraits of Paul Durand-Ruel, his wife, hugues Merle died in 1881 in Paris. His son Georges Merle also became a painter
15.
Scaffolding
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Bamboo scaffolding is a type of scaffolding made from bamboo and widely used in construction work for centuries. Many famous landmarks, notably The Great Wall of China, were built using bamboo scaffolding and it was first introduced into the building industry in Hong Kong immediately after colonization in the 1800s. It was widely used in the building of houses and multi-story buildings prior to the development of metal scaffolding and it was also useful for short-term construction projects, such as framework for temporary sheds for Cantonese Opera performances. There is three types of scaffolding in Hong Kong,1, in 2013, there were 1,751 registered bamboo scaffolders and roughly 200 scaffolding companies in Hong Kong. The use of scaffolding is diminishing due to shortages in labor. Despite the lack of force and material, recently the safety problem has become another serious concern. The labor shortage may be due to the reluctance of younger generations to become scaffolders, “They even think that it’s a dirty and dangerous job. “They refuse to step in, although we give them high pay. Young generations do not like jobs that involve hard work. ”Another reason fewer people are becoming scaffolders is that new recruits need to undergo training with the Hong Kong Construction Industry Council in order to acquire a license. Older scaffolders generally learned in apprenticeships, and may have been able to gather more hands-on experience, material shortages are also a contributing factor to the decline. The bamboo scaffolding material was imported from mainland China, bamboo—which matures after three years to the wide diameter and thick skin perfect for scaffolding—came from the Shaoxing area in Guangdong. Over the past two decades, firms have had to look to Guangxi instead, the industrys fear is that one day supplies will be blocked due to export embargoes and environmental concerns. Attempts to import bamboo from Thailand, or switch to synthetic or plastic bamboo, have so far proved unsuccessful, in many African countries, notably Nigeria, bamboo scaffolding is still used in small scale construction in urban areas. In rural areas, the use of scaffolding for construction is common. Some of the structures in relaxation and recreation centres both in urban and rural areas of Nigeria are put in place using bamboo materials and this is not for reasons of poverty but to add more aesthetics to these centres. Bamboo materials are used in the construction of some bukas in rural areas. Content about specifications Double-row Scaffold Only double-row bamboo scaffold is allowed to use for working at height, nylon Mesh The perimeter of bamboo scaffold shall be covered by nylon mesh against falling objects. The lapping of nylon mesh should be at least 100mm wide, access and Egress Suitable means of access shall be provided from the building or ground level to the scaffold such as gangway, stairs and ladder etc
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Escutcheon (heraldry)
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In heraldry, an escutcheon is a shield that forms the main or focal element in an achievement of arms. The word is used in two related senses, firstly, as the shield on which a coat of arms is displayed. Escutcheon shapes are derived from actual shields used by knights in combat, other shapes are in use, such as the roundel commonly used for arms granted to Aboriginal Canadians by the Canadian Heraldic Authority. Secondly, a shield can itself be a charge within a coat of arms, more often, a smaller shield is placed over the middle of the main shield as a form of marshalling. In either case, the shield is usually given the same shape as the main shield. When there is one such shield, it is sometimes called an inescutcheon. The word escutcheon is derived from Middle English escochon, from Anglo-Norman escuchon, from Vulgar Latin scūtiōn-, from Latin scūtum, from its use in heraldry, escutcheon can be a metaphor for a familys honour. The idiom a blot on the escutcheon is used to mean a stain on somebodys reputation, by about 1250 the shields used in warfare were almost triangular in shape, referred to as heater shields. That on the monument to the latters grandfather Geoffrey V. This almost equilateral shape is used as a setting for armorials from this classical age of heraldry. In the Tudor era the heraldic escutcheon took the shape of an inverted Tudor arch, continental European designs frequently use the various forms used in jousting, which incorporate mouths used as lance rests into the shields, such escutcheons are known as à bouche. The mouth is correctly shown on the side only, as jousting pitches were designed for right-handed knights. Heraldic examples of English shields à bouche can be seen in the spandrels of the timber roof of Lincolns Inn Hall. In this case the lozenge is without crest or helm, again objects of manly warfare, however, for the practical purpose of categorisation the lozenge may be treated as a variety of heraldic escutcheon. In general a female was represented by her paternal arms impaled by the arms of her husband on an escutcheon, in modern Canadian heraldry, and certain other modern heraldic jurisdictions, women may be granted their own arms and display these on an escutcheon. Life peeresses in England display their arms on a lozenge, an oval or cartouche is occasionally also used instead of the lozenge for armigerous women. Divorced women may theoretically until remarriage use their ex-husbands arms differenced with a mascle, the lozenge shape of quasi-escutcheon is also used for funerary hatchments for both men and women. Pretoria High School for Girls in South Africa is one of the few schools that was granted permission to use the lozenge as part of its coat of arms
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Sable (heraldry)
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In heraldry, sable is the tincture black, and belongs to the class of dark tinctures, called colours. In engravings and line drawings, it is depicted as a region of crossed horizontal and vertical lines or else marked with sa. as an abbreviation. The name derives from the fur of the sable, a species of marten. Centuries ago, arms were often described poetically and the tinctures were connected to different gemstones, flowers, however, in the heraldry of Germany, Polish heraldry and other parts of central Europe, sable is not infrequently placed on colour fields. As a result, a cross may appear on a red shield, or a sable bird may appear on a blue or a red field. Polish examples abound as early as the fifteenth century, józef Szymański includes no fewer than seven examples of sable primary charges on either gules or azure fields out of the approximately 200 shields from this period whose blazons are known. In addition to the seven major examples, he describes occasional variants for the arms of some rody which also use sable charges on azure or gules fields, sable charges on gules fields also appear in the armory used in Lithuania. This is not surprising, since a significant fraction of Lithuanias personal coats of arms are of Polish origin, among these coats are those of Great Žemaitija, a black bear with an argent chain on its neck on a field gules
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Gules
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In heraldry, gules is the tincture with the colour red, and belongs to the class of dark tinctures called colours. In engraving, it is depicted as a region of vertical lines or else marked with gu. as an abbreviation. In Polish heraldry, gules is the most common tincture of the field, through the sixteenth century, nearly half of all noble coats of arms in Poland had a field gules with one or more argent charges on them. The original coat of arms of the family was plain gules. Sometimes, the different tinctures are said to be connected with special meanings or virtues, even if this is an idea mostly disregarded by serious heraldists throughout the centuries, it may be of anecdotal interest to see what they are, since people often ask for this information. Many sources give different meanings, but the gules tincture is said to represent the following, of jewels. The term gules derives from the Old French word goules, literally meaning throats, for many decades, heraldic authors have believed that the term may have arisen from the Persian word گل, but according to Brault there is no evidence to support this derivation
19.
Adam and Eve
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Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman and the ancestors of all humans. It provides the basis for the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. It also provides much of the basis for the doctrines of the fall of man and original sin that are important beliefs in Christianity. In the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, chapters one through five, in the first, Adam and Eve are not mentioned. Instead, God created humankind in Gods image and instructed them to multiply, in the second narrative, God fashions Adam from dust and places him in the Garden of Eden. Adam is told that he can till the ground and eat freely of all the trees in the garden, except for a tree of the knowledge of good, subsequently, Eve is created from one of Adams ribs to be Adams companion. They are innocent and unashamed about their nakedness, however, a serpent deceives Eve into eating fruit from the forbidden tree, and she gives some of the fruit to Adam. These acts give them additional knowledge, but it gives them the ability to conjure negative and destructive concepts such as shame, God later curses the serpent and the ground. God prophetically tells the woman and the man what will be the consequences of their sin of disobeying God, then he banishes them from the Garden of Eden. The story underwent extensive elaboration in later Abrahamic traditions, and it has been analyzed by modern biblical scholars. The story of Adam and Eve is often depicted in art, the story of the fall of Adam is often understood to be an allegory. There is no evidence that Adam and Eve ever literally existed. In the Book of Genesis, the Genesis creation narrative tells of the creation of the first humans, humankind, in Genesis 1, scholars recognize two separate accounts of the creation in the Old Testament. In the Priestly narrative, God creates the world in six days, culminating in the creation of humanity, here, in the Priestly narrative, the emphasis is on the entirety of the universe and its creation. Here, in the Jahwist narrative, the emphasis is on the Earth within the universe, and humankinds residence on the Earth. Contrast, for example, the order of terms in Genesis 1,1 where it says that God made the heavens and the Earth with Genesis 2,4 where it says God made the Earth and the heavens. In the Jahwist version of the story, God places the man in a garden in Eden where he is permitted to till the land and tend the garden and animals, Genesis 2, 8–15. But none of the animals are found to be a companion for the man, so God causes the man to sleep
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Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
21.
Pilgrimage
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A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a persons beliefs and faith, a person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. As a common experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift. The Holy Land acts as a point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity. Baháulláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the House of Baháulláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Báb in Shiraz, later, Abdul-Bahá designated the Shrine of Baháulláh at Bahji, Israel as a site of pilgrimage. Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepal connected to the life of Gautama Buddha are, Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali, Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha, Varanasi, other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimage include, India, Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta. Thailand, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep, tibet, Lhasa, Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso. Sri Lanka, Polonnaruwa, Temple of the Tooth, Anuradhapura, malaysia, Kek Lok Si, Cheng Hoon Teng, Maha Vihara Myanmar, Bagan, Sagaing Hill. The Four Sacred Mountains Japan, Shikoku Pilgrimage,88 Temple pilgrimage in the Shikoku island, Japan 100 Kannon, pilgrimage composed of the Saigoku, Bandō and Chichibu pilgrimages. Saigoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kansai region, Bandō33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kantō region. Chichibu 34 Kannon, pilgrimage in Saitama Prefecture, Chūgoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Chūgoku region. Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with the birth, life, pilgrimages were, and are, also made to Rome and other sites associated with the apostles, saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. A popular pilgrimage journey is along the Way of St. James to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in Galicia, Spain, chaucers The Canterbury Tales recounts tales told by Christian pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Thomas Becket. According to Karel Werners Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, most Hindu places of pilgrimage are associated with events from the lives of various gods. Almost any place can become a focus for pilgrimage, but in most cases they are sacred cities, rivers, lakes, Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimages during their lifetime, though this practice is not considered absolutely mandatory. Most Hindus visit sites within their region or locale, Kumbh Mela, Kumbh Mela is one of the largest gatherings of humans in the world. The location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Char Dham, The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath compose the Char Dham pilgrimage circuit. Kanwar Pilgrimage, The Kanwar is Indias largest annual religious pilgrimage, as part of this phenomenon, millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines
22.
Edgar Allan Poe
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Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and he is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the countrys earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a difficult life. Poe was born in Boston, the child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year, thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but Poe was with them well into young adulthood, tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money, Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at time that his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with the anonymous collection of poems Tamerlane and Other Poems. With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement, however, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the several years working for literary journals and periodicals. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, in Richmond in 1836, he married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845, Poe published his poem The Raven to instant success and his wife died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. For years, he had been planning to produce his own journal The Penn, Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, a number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre. He was born Edgar Poe in Boston on January 19,1809 and he had an elder brother William Henry Leonard Poe, and a younger sister Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather David Poe Sr. had emigrated from Cavan, Ireland to America around the year 1750, Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeares King Lear, a play that the couple were performing in 1809
23.
Stocks
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Stocks are devices that were used internationally, in medieval, Renaissance and colonial American times as a form of physical punishment involving public humiliation. The stocks partially immobilized its victims and they were exposed in a public place such as the site of a market to the scorn of those who passed by. This scorn was commonly represented by throwing food at the victim. With stocks, boards are placed around the ankles and the wrists in some cases, whereas in the pillory they are placed around the arms and neck and fixed to a pole, and the victim stands. However, the terms can be confused, and many refer to the pillory as the stocks. The victims feet were bare, this caused heightened humiliation. Since stocks served a public form of punishment, its victims were subjected to the daily and nightly weather. As a consequence it was common for people kept in stocks over several days to die from exposure, the practice of using stocks continues to be cited as an example of torture and cruel and unusual punishment. Victims may be insulted, kicked, tickled, spat on, one of the earliest references to the stocks in literature appears in the Bible. Paul and Silas, disciples of Jesus, were arrested and their treatment by their jailer was detailed in the Book of Acts, Having received such a charge, he put them into the inner prison and fastened their feet in the stocks. The Old Testaments book of Job also describes the stocks, referring to God, He puts my feet in the stocks, he watches all my paths. The stocks were popular among civil authorities from medieval to early modern times. In the stocks, an offenders ankles, and sometimes wrists, the stocks were popular during the Colonial days in America. Public punishment in the stocks was an occurrence from around 1500 until at least 1748. The stocks were popular among the early American Puritans, who frequently employed the stocks for punishing the lower class. In the American colonies, the stocks were used, not only for punishment. They would eventually be brought before a judge, the offender would be exposed to whatever treatment those who passed by could imagine. This could include tickling of the feet, englands second Statute of Labourers prescribed the use of the stocks for unruly artisans in 1350, and required that every town and village erect a set of stocks
24.
James Thomas Fields
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James Thomas Fields was an American publisher, editor, and poet. He was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire on December 31,1817 and named James Field and his father was a sea captain and died before Fields was three. He and his brother were raised by their mother and her siblings, their aunt Mary, at the age of 14, Fields took a job at the Old Corner Bookstore in Boston as an apprentice to publishers Carter and Hendee. In 1839, he joined William Ticknor and became partner in the publishing and bookselling firm known after 1845 as Ticknor. Ticknor oversaw the business side of the firm while Fields was its literary expert and he became known for being likable, for his ability to find creative talent, and for his ability to promote authors and win their loyalty. With this company, Fields became the publisher of leading contemporary American writers and he was also the American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of his time, some of whom he also knew intimately. The company paid royalties to these British authors, including Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray, the first collected edition of Thomas de Quinceys works was published by his firm. Sometime in 1844, Fields was engaged to Mary Willard, a woman six years younger than him. Before they could be married, she died of tuberculosis on April 17,1845 and he maintained a close friendship with her family and, on March 13,1850, married her 18-year-old sister Eliza Willard at Bostons Federal Street Church. Also sick with tuberculosis, she died on July 13,1851, grief-stricken, he left the United States for a time and traveled to Europe. In 1854, Fields married Annie Adams, who was an author herself, mrs. Fields was instrumental in helping Mr. Fields establish literary salons at their home at 37 Charles Street in Boston, where they entertained many well-known writers. One such writer was Nathaniel Hawthorne, in 1867, he performed the same role after the death of Nathaniel Parker Willis, along with Holmes, Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Samuel Gridley Howe. Ticknor and Fields purchased The Atlantic Monthly for $10,000 and, at a New Years Eve party in 1865, he met William Dean Howells and 10 days later offered him a position as assistant editor of the Atlantic. Howells accepted but was dismayed by Fieldss close supervision. Ticknor died in 1864, leaving Fields the senior partner for the firm, Fields was less concerned with the retail store owned by the company and wanted to focus on publishing. On November 12,1864, he sold the Old Corner Bookstore and moved Ticknor, in 1868 the business became Fields, Osgood, and Company, recognizing James R. Osgood. On New Years Day,1871, Fields announced his retirement at a gathering of friends. No longer involved with editorial duties, he devoted himself to lecturing and writing
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Sophia Hawthorne
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Sophia Amelia Peabody Hawthorne was a painter and illustrator as well as the wife of American author Nathaniel Hawthorne. She also published her journals and various articles, Sophia Amelia Peabody was born September 21,1809, in Salem, Massachusetts, and named after two of her aunts. Peabodys father was the dentist Nathaniel Peabody, while her mother was the strong Unitarian Elizabeth Palmer and she had three brothers, her sisters were Elizabeth Palmer Peabody and Mary Tyler Peabody Mann, later Horace Manns wife. Sophias health had been questionable since infancy, and she was an occasional invalid, one possible cause was a fashionable treatment her dentist father prescribed for her teething pains that included mercury. In later life, she was a frequent user of calomel and opium to relieve her pain, when doctors pronounced Sophia had no discernible illness, she sought the rest therapy. She left for Cuba on December 4,1833, with her sister Mary, Sophia first met Nathaniel Hawthorne through her sister, Elizabeth. When the author came to visit once, Elizabeth is said to have reported, when she urged Sophia to come downstairs to meet him, she laughed and said, If he has come once he will come again. After meeting her, Nathaniel wrote the tale Edward Randolph’s Portrait, Sophia had originally objected to marriage, partly because of her health. They became secretly engaged by New Years Day,1839, Sophia gave two of her paintings to Hawthorne in 1840 on the first anniversary of their engagement. Hawthorne valued the paintings so much that he hid them behind curtains to enjoy when he was alone, a wedding was scheduled for June 27,1842, but was postponed when Sophia fell ill. On July 9,1842, five years after first meeting, she and Nathaniel were married at 13 West Street in Boston, the day before, Nathaniel wrote to James Freeman Clarke asking him to oversee the ceremony. I am to be married to Miss Sophia Peabody tomorrow, and it is our mutual desire that you should perform the ceremony, both were considered relatively old for marriage, but the coupling proved happy for both of them. Immediately after their wedding, they rented and moved into The Old Manse in Concord, together the couple etched their impressions of their new married life in the glass of a window in the study using Sophias diamond ring, Mans accidents are Gods purposes. Methinks this birth-day of our life is like a cape. The Hawthornes first child was born March 3,1844, after a difficult 10-hour delivery and they named her Una, a reference to The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, to the disapproval of many family members. Sophia wrote in her journal, It was a great happiness to be able to put her to my breast immediately, john L. OSullivan served as her godfather and gave her a Newfoundland dog named Leo when she was two months old. Nathaniel wrote that fatherhood brought a very sober and serious kind of happiness, Sophia also had a recurrence of her migraines after Unas birth. The family was soon kicked out of the Old Manse, left with only 10 dollars and they moved in with family on Herbert Street in Salem while Nathaniel awaited a government job appointment
26.
Edwin Percy Whipple
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Edwin Percy Whipple was an American essayist and critic. He was born in Gloucester, Massachusetts in 1819, for a time, he was the main literary critic for Philadelphia-based Grahams Magazine. Later, in 1848, he became the Boston correspondent to The Literary World under Evert Augustus Duyckinck, historian Perry Miller called Whipple Bostons most popular critic. Whipple was also a public lecturer, in 1850, he defended the intelligence of George Washington and compared him to other brilliant men of his time in a speech which later became known as The Genius of Washington. Whipple was a friend of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Whipples close relationship with other Boston-area authors occasionally tinted his reviews, edward Emerson later noted, No other member of the Saturday Club has ever been more loyally felicitous in characterizing the literary work of his associates. Whipple died in 1886 and was interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Cousin, John William. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, london, J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, Whipple biography at the Boston Public Library web site Works by Edwin Percy Whipple at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Edwin Percy Whipple at Internet Archive The Genius of Washington speech
27.
Salem, Massachusetts
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Salem is a coastal city in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States, located on Massachusetts North Shore. It is a New England bedrock of history and is considered one of the most significant seaports in Puritan American history, the citys reported population was 41,340 at the 2010 census. Salem and Lawrence are the county seats of Essex County, though the county government was abolished in 1999, much of the citys cultural identity reflects its role as the location of the Salem witch trials of 1692, as featured in Arthur Millers The Crucible. Tourists know Salem as a mix of important historical sites and a vibrant downtown that has more than 60 restaurants, cafes, in 2012, the Retailers Association of Massachusetts chose Salem for their inaugural Best Shopping District award. President Barack Obama signed executive order HR1339 on January 10,2013, more than one million tourists from all around the world visit Salem annually, bringing in at least $100 million in tourism spending each year. More than 250,000 visited Salem over Halloween weekend in 2016, Salem is located at the mouth of the Naumkeag river at the site of an ancient American Indian village and trading center. It was first settled by Europeans in 1626, when a company of fishermen arrived from Cape Ann, led by Roger Conant. Conants leadership provided the stability to survive the first two years, but he was replaced by John Endecott, one of the new arrivals, Conant graciously stepped aside and was granted 200 acres of land in compensation. These New Planters and the Old Planters agreed to cooperate, in part due to the diplomacy of Conant. In 1628, Endecott ordered that the Great House be moved from Cape Ann, when Higginson arrived in Salem, he wrote that we found a faire house newly built for the Governor which was remarkable for being two stories high. A year later, the Massachusetts Bay Charter was issued creating the Massachusetts Bay Colony with Matthew Craddock as its governor in London, John Winthrop was elected Governor in late 1629, and arrived with the Winthrop Fleet in 1630, beginning the Great Migration. In 1639, Endecotts was one of the signatures on the contract for enlarging the meeting house in Town House Square for the First Church in Salem. This document remains part of the records at City Hall. He was active in the affairs of the town throughout his life, Samuel Skelton was the first pastor of the First Church of Salem, which is the original Puritan church in North America. Endecott already had a relationship with Skelton, having been converted by him. Roger Conant died in 1679 at the age of 87, a statue commemorating him stands overlooking Salem Common. Salem originally included much of the North Shore, including Marblehead, most of the accused in the Salem witch trials lived in nearby Salem Village, now known as Danvers, although a few lived on the outskirts of Salem. Salem Village also included Peabody and parts of present-day Beverly, Middleton, Topsfield, Wenham, and Manchester-by-the-Sea were once parts of Salem
28.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
29.
Evert Augustus Duyckinck
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Evert Augustus Duyckinck was an American publisher and biographer. He was associated with the side of the Young America movement in New York. He was born on November 23,1816, in New York City to Evert Duyckinck, Evert the younger graduated from Columbia College, where he was a member of the Philolexian Society, in 1835. He then studied law with John Anthon, and was admitted to the bar in 1837 and he spent the next year in Europe. Before he went abroad he wrote articles on the poet George Crabbe, the works of George Herbert, in 1840 he started a monthly magazine with Cornelius Mathews called Arcturus, which ran until 1842. The New York Tribune commented on the important partnership by referring to Duyckinck and Mathews as the Castor, Duyckinck wrote articles on other authors while at home and in Europe. Between 1844 and 1846, Evert became the editor of John L. OSullivans The United States Magazine and Democratic Review. On April 22,1840 in Connecticut he married Margaret Wolfe Panton, and they had as their children, Evert Augustus Duyckinck II, George Duyckinck, all of his children died when they were young. In 1845, he assisted Edgar Allan Poe in printing his Tales collection, the collection was a critical success, though Poe was somewhat disappointed by Duyckincks choices. In 1847 he became the editor of The Literary World, a review of books written with his brother George Long Duyckinck until 1853. The two brothers became the leaders of the New York literary scene in the 1840s into the 1850s. In 1854 the brothers were united in the preparation of The Cyclopaedia of American Literature. He published Wit and Wisdom of Sydney Smith, with a memoir and his last literary work was the preparation, with William Cullen Bryant, of an edition of William Shakespeare. He died on August 13,1878 in New York City, on 18 February 1865, author Duyckinck sent President Abraham Lincoln a letter. Duyckinck signed the letter “Asmodeus”, with his initials below his pseudonym and his letter enclosed a newspaper clipping about an inappropriate joke allegedly told by Lincoln at the Hampton Roads Peace Conference. The purpose of Duyckinck’s letter was to advise Lincoln of “an important omission” about the history of the conference and he advised that the newspaper clipping be added to the “Archives of the Nation”. In January 1879, a meeting in his memory was held by the New York historical society, herman Melville, a close friend of Duyckincks with whom he corresponded often, refers in his book Mardi to Duyckincks highbrow magazine Arcturus by naming a ship in the book Arcturion. Referring to it as dull, the author notes the low literary level of its crew
30.
Washington Irving
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Washington Irving was an American short story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Irving served as the U. S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846. He made his debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle. After moving to England for the business in 1815, he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. He continued to publish regularly—and almost always successfully—throughout his life, and just eight months before his death, Irving was also admired by some European writers, including Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Thomas Campbell, Francis Jeffrey, and Charles Dickens. Washington Irvings parents were William Irving, Sr. originally of Quholm, Shapinsay, Orkney and they married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy. They had eleven children, eight of whom survived to adulthood and their first two sons, each named William, died in infancy, as did their fourth child, John. Their surviving children were, William, Jr. Ann, Peter, Catherine, Ebenezer, John Treat, Sarah, and Washington. At age six, with the help of a nanny, Irving met his namesake, the president blessed young Irving, an encounter Irving later commemorated in a small watercolor painting, which still hangs in his home today. The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington Irvings birth, the family later moved across the street to 128 William St. An uninterested student, Irving preferred adventure stories and drama and and it was in Tarrytown that Irving became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow, with its quaint Dutch customs and local ghost stories. Irving made several trips up the Hudson as a teenager, including an extended visit to Johnstown, New York, where he passed through the Catskill mountain region. F all the scenery of the Hudson, Irving wrote later, the 19-year-old Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802, submitting commentaries on the citys social and theater scene under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle. The name, which evoked the writers Federalist leanings, was the first of many pseudonyms Irving would employ throughout his career. The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety, concerned for his health, Irvings brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806. Irving bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the development of an upwardly mobile young man, William wrote that, though he was pleased his brothers health was improving, he did not like the choice to gallop through Italy. Leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right, instead, Irving honed the social and conversational skills that would later make him one of the worlds most in-demand guests. I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness, Irving wrote, while visiting Rome in 1805, Irving struck up a friendship with the American painter Washington Allston, and nearly allowed himself to be persuaded into following Allston into a career as a painter
31.
George Eliot
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Mary Anne Evans, known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. She used a pen name, she said, to ensure that her works would be taken seriously. Female authors were published under their own names during Eliots life and she also wished to have her fiction judged separately from her already extensive and widely known work as an editor and critic. Eliots Middlemarch has been described by Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language, Mary Ann Evans was born in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England. She was the child of Robert Evans and Christiana Evans. Mary Anns name was shortened to Marian. Her full siblings were Christiana, known as Chrissey, Isaac and she also had a half-brother, Robert, and half-sister, Fanny, from her fathers previous marriage to Harriet Poynton. Robert Evans, of Welsh ancestry, was the manager of the Arbury Hall Estate for the Newdigate family in Warwickshire, in early 1820 the family moved to a house named Griff House, between Nuneaton and Bedworth. The young Evans was obviously intelligent, a voracious reader, at Mrs. Wallingtons school, she was taught by the evangelical Maria Lewis — to whom her earliest surviving letters are addressed. In the religious atmosphere of the Miss Franklins school, Evans was exposed to a quiet, after age sixteen, Evans had little formal education. Thanks to her fathers important role on the estate, she was allowed access to the library of Arbury Hall and her classical education left its mark, Christopher Stray has observed that George Eliots novels draw heavily on Greek literature, and her themes are often influenced by Greek tragedy. The other important early influence in her life was religion and she was brought up within a low church Anglican family, but at that time the Midlands was an area with a growing number of religious dissenters. In 1836 her mother died and Evans returned home to act as housekeeper, when she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry. The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles, Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in the building of schools and in other philanthropic causes. The people whom the woman met at the Brays house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau. Through this society Evans was introduced to more liberal theologies and to such as David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. As a product of their friendship, Bray published some of Evanss earliest writing, such as reviews, in his newspaper the Coventry Herald and Observer. When Evans began to question her religious faith, her father threatened to throw her out of the house, instead, she respectfully attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849, when she was 30
32.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Reveres Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy, Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later and his first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems. Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854, to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts and his first wife Mary Potter died in 1835, after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861, after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire, after her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages. Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and he became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and his father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mothers brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli, Longfellow was the second of eight children, his siblings were Stephen, Elizabeth, Anne, Alexander, Mary, Ellen and Samuel. Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s, Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and his mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He published his first poem, a patriotic and historical four-stanza poem called The Battle of Lovells Pond and he stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Pelegs farm in the western Maine town of Hiram, in the fall of 1822, the 15-year-old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, along with his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee, there Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming in 1823 on the floor of what is now known as Winthrop Hall. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings, in his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations, I will not disguise it in the least. The fact is, I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature, my whole soul burns most ardently after it, and every earthly thought centres in it. I am almost confident in believing, that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the field of literature. He pursued his goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines
33.
The Song of Hiawatha
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The Song of Hiawatha is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that features Native American characters. The epic relates the adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha, events in the story are set in the Pictured Rocks area on the south shore of Lake Superior. Longfellows poem, though based on oral traditions surrounding the figure of Manabozho, represents not a work of transmission. In sentiment, scope, overall conception, and many particulars, Longfellow insisted, I can give chapter and their chief value is that they are Indian legends. But in his entry for June 28,1854, he wrote, Work at Manabozho, or, as I think I shall call it. Longfellow, following Schoolcraft, was mistaken in thinking the names were synonyms, in Ojibwe lore the figure of Manabozho is legendary but the name Hiawatha is unknown. The name Hiawatha derives from the name of a figure associated with the League of the Iroquois. The poem was published on November 10,1855, and was an immediate success, in 1857, Longfellow calculated that it had sold 50,000 copies. Longfellow chose to set The Song of Hiawatha at the Pictured Rocks, the Song presents a legend of Hiawatha and his lover Minnehaha in 22 chapters. Hiawatha is not introduced until Chapter III, in Chapter I, Hiawathas arrival is prophesied by a mighty peace-bringing leader named Gitche Manito. Chapter II tells a legend of how the warrior Mudjekeewis became Father of the Four Winds by slaying the Great Bear of the mountains and his son Wabun, the East Wind, falls in love with a maiden whom he turns into the Morning Star, Wabun-Annung. Wabuns brother, Kabibonokka, the North Wind, bringer of autumn and winter, attacks Shingebis, Shingebis repels him by burning firewood, and then in a wrestling match. A third brother, Shawondasee, the South Wind, falls in love with a dandelion, in Chapter III, in unremembered ages, a woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah, who grows to be a young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind but she does not heed her mother, becomes pregnant and bears Hiawatha. In the ensuing chapters, Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl-Feather, invents written language, discovers corn, Minnehaha dies in a severe winter. The poem closes with the approach of a canoe to Hiawathas village, containing the Priest of Prayer. Hiawatha welcomes him joyously, and the Black-Robe chief brings word of Jesus Christ, Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message
34.
Orestes Brownson
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Orestes Augustus Brownson was a New England intellectual and activist, preacher, labor organizer, and noted Catholic convert and writer. Brownson was a publicist, a career which spanned his affiliation with the New England Transcendentalists through his subsequent conversion to Roman Catholicism, Brownson was born on September 16,1803 to Sylvester Augustus Brownson and Relief Metcalf, who were farmers in Stockbridge, Vermont. Sylvester Brownson died when Orestes was young and Relief decided to give her son up to an adoptive family when he was six years old. The family raised him under the strict confines of Calvinist Congregationalism on a farm in Royalton. He did not receive much schooling but he enjoyed reading books. Among these were volumes by Homer and Locke and the Bible, in 1817, when he was fourteen, Orestes attended an academy briefly in New York. This was the extent of his formal education, after withdrawing from Presbyterianism in 1824 and teaching at various schools in upstate New York and Detroit, Brownson applied to be a Universalist preacher. Universalism, for Orestes, represented the only variety of Christianity he knew of. However, Universalism also did not quell his desire for religious understanding and he became the editor of a Universalist journal, Gospel Advocate and Impartial Investigator in which he wrote about his own religious doubt and criticized organized faiths and mysticism in religion. Later, rejecting Universalism, he associated with Robert Dale Owen and Fanny Wright in New York City. In 1831, he moved to Ithaca, New York, where he became the pastor of a Unitarian community, there, he began publishing the magazine the Philanthropist. In it, he could express his ideas outside of the pulpit since he thought of himself as a better journalist than preacher. After the demise of the Philanthropist in 1832, Brownson moved to Walpole and he read in English Romanticism and English and French reports on German Idealist philosophy, and was passionate about the work of Victor Cousin and Pierre Leroux. In 1836, the year of Emersons Nature, Brownson participated in the founding of the Transcendental Club, after President Martin Van Buren appointed George Bancroft as Collector of Customs at Boston in 1837, Bancroft in turn gave jobs to Brownson and to Nathaniel Hawthorne. In 1838, he founded the Boston Quarterly Review, and served as its editor, other contributors included George Bancroft, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, and Elizabeth Peabody. Brownson originally offered use of the Boston Quarterly Review as the vehicle for the transcendentalists, they declined, Brownsons writing contributions were political, intellectual, and religious essays. Among these was a review of Thomas Carlyles Chartism, separately published as The Laboring Classes, the article is sometimes blamed for causing Van Buren, whom Brownson avidly supported, to lose the 1840 election to William Henry Harrison. In fact, Van Buren himself is said to have blamed as the cause of his defeat
35.
D. H. Lawrence
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David Herbert Richards D. H. Lawrence was an English novelist, poet, playwright, essayist, literary critic and painter. His collected works represent, among other things, a reflection upon the dehumanising effects of modernity. Some of the issues Lawrence explores are sexuality, emotional health, vitality, spontaneity, at the time of his death, his public reputation was that of a pornographer who had wasted his considerable talents. E. M. Forster, in a notice, challenged this widely held view. Later, Cambridge critic F. R. Leavis championed both his artistic integrity and his seriousness, placing much of Lawrences fiction within the canonical great tradition of the English novel. The house in which he was born, in Eastwood, 8a Victoria Street, is now the D. H. Lawrence Birthplace Museum and his working-class background and the tensions between his parents provided the raw material for a number of his early works. The young Lawrence attended Beauvale Board School from 1891 until 1898 and he left in 1901, working for three months as a junior clerk at Haywoods surgical appliances factory, but a severe bout of pneumonia ended this career. During his convalescence he often visited Haggs Farm, the home of the Chambers family, an important aspect of this relationship with Chambers and other adolescent acquaintances was a shared love of books, an interest that lasted throughout Lawrences life. In the years 1902 to 1906 Lawrence served as a teacher at the British School. He went on to become a student and received a teaching certificate from University College, Nottingham. During these early years he was working on his first poems, some stories, and a draft of a novel, Laetitia. At the end of 1907 he won a short story competition in the Nottingham Guardian, in the autumn of 1908 the newly qualified Lawrence left his childhood home for London. While teaching in Davidson Road School, Croydon, he continued writing, Jessie Chambers submitted some of Lawrences early poetry to Ford Madox Ford, editor of the influential The English Review. Hueffer then commissioned the story Odour of Chrysanthemums which, when published in magazine, encouraged Heinemann. His career as an author now began in earnest, although he taught for another year. Shortly after the final proofs of his first published novel, The White Peacock, appeared in 1910, the young man was devastated, and he was to describe the next few months as his sick year. The hurt caused to Jessie by this and finally by her portrayal in the novel caused the end of their friendship and after it was published they never spoke to each other again. In 1911 Lawrence was introduced to Edward Garnett, a reader, who acted as a mentor, provided further encouragement
36.
Henry James
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Henry James, OM was an American-born British writer. He is regarded as one of the key figures of 19th-century literary realism and he was the son of Henry James, Sr. and the brother of philosopher and psychologist William James and diarist Alice James. He is best known for a number of novels showing Americans encountering Europe and his method of writing from a characters point of view allowed him to explore issues related to consciousness and perception, and his style in later works has been compared to impressionist painting. His imaginative use of point of view, interior monologue and unreliable narrators brought a new depth to narrative fiction, James contributed significantly to literary criticism, particularly in his insistence that writers be allowed the greatest possible freedom in presenting their view of the world. James claimed that a text must first and foremost be realistic, good novels, to James, show life in action and are, most importantly, interesting. In addition to his voluminous works of fiction he published articles and books of travel, biography, autobiography, and criticism, and wrote plays. James alternated between America and Europe for the first twenty years of his life, eventually he settled in England, becoming a British subject in 1915, James was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1911,1912, and 1916. James was born at 2 Washington Place in New York City on 15 April 1843 and his parents were Mary Walsh and Henry James Sr. His father was intelligent, steadfastly congenial, and a lecturer and philosopher who had inherited independent means from his father, Mary came from a wealthy family long settled in New York City, and her sister Katherine lived with the family for an extended period of time. Henry, Jr. had three brothers, William who was one year his senior and younger brothers Wilkinson and Robertson, the family first lived in Albany and then moved to Fourteenth Street in New York City when James was still a young boy. His education was calculated by his father to him to many influences, primarily scientific and philosophical, it was described as extraordinarily haphazard. James did not share the usual education in Latin and Greek classics, Henry studied primarily with tutors and briefly attended a few schools while the family traveled in Europe. Their longest stays were in France, where Henry began to feel at home and became fluent in French, in 1860 the family returned to Newport. There Henry became a friend of the painter John La Farge, who introduced him to French literature, James later called Balzac his greatest master, and said that he had learned more about the craft of fiction from him than from anyone else. In the autumn of 1861 Henry received an injury, probably to his back and this injury, which resurfaced at times throughout his life, made him unfit for military service in the American Civil War. In 1864 the James family moved to Boston, Massachusetts to be near William, in 1862 Henry attended Harvard Law School, but realized that he was not interested in studying law. The future Supreme Court Justice, and with James and Annie Fields and his first published work was a review of a stage performance, Miss Maggie Mitchell in Fanchon the Cricket, published in 1863. About a year later, A Tragedy of Error, his first short story, was published, Jamess first payment was for an appreciation of Sir Walter Scotts novels, written for the North American Review
37.
Anne Hutchinson
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Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan spiritual adviser, mother of 15, and an important participant in the Antinomian Controversy which shook the infant Massachusetts Bay Colony from 1636 to 1638. She was eventually tried and convicted, then banished from the colony with many of her supporters. Hutchinson was born in Alford, Lincolnshire, England, the daughter of Francis Marbury and she lived in London as a young adult, and there married her old friend from home William Hutchinson. The couple moved back to Alford where they began following dynamic preacher John Cotton in the port of Boston. Cotton was compelled to emigrate in 1633, and the Hutchinsons followed a year later with their 11 children, Anne was a midwife and very helpful to those needing her assistance, as well as forthcoming with her personal religious understandings. Soon she was hosting women at her weekly, providing commentary on recent sermons. These meetings became so popular that she began offering meetings for men as well, as a follower of Cotton, she espoused a covenant of grace, while accusing all of the local ministers of preaching a covenant of works. This was followed by a March 1638 church trial in which she was excommunicated, after her husbands death a few years later, threats of Massachusetts taking over Rhode Island compelled Hutchinson to move totally outside the reach of Boston into the lands of the Dutch. Tensions were high at the time with the Siwanoy Indian tribe, in August 1643, Hutchinson, six of her children, and other household members were massacred by Siwanoys during Kiefts War. The only survivor was her nine year-old daughter Susanna, who was taken captive, Hutchinson is a key figure in the development of religious freedom in Englands American colonies and the history of women in ministry, challenging the authority of the ministers. She is honored by Massachusetts with a State House monument calling her a courageous exponent of civil liberty and she has been called the most famous—or infamous—English woman in colonial American history. Anne Hutchinson was born Anne Marbury in Alford, Lincolnshire, England, and baptised there on 20 July 1591 and her father was an Anglican cleric in London with strong Puritan leanings, who felt strongly that clergy should be well educated and clashed with his superiors on this issue. Marburys repeated challenges to the Anglican authorities led to his censure, in 1578, he was given a public trial, of which he made a transcript from memory during a period of house arrest. He later used this transcript to educate and amuse his children, he being the hero, for his conviction of heresy, Marbury spent two years in Marshalsea Prison on the south side of the River Thames across from London. In 1580, at the age of 25, he was released and was considered sufficiently reformed to preach and teach and he moved to the remote market town of Alford in Lincolnshire, about 140 miles north of London. About this time, Marbury married his first wife Elizabeth Moore, within a year of his first wifes death, Marbury married Bridget Dryden, about ten years younger than he and from a prominent Northampton family. Bridgets brother Erasmus was the grandfather of John Dryden, the famous playwright, Anne was the third of 15 children born to this marriage,12 of whom survived early childhood. Education at that time was almost exclusively offered to boys and men, One possible reason why Marbury taught his daughters may have been that six of his first seven children were girls
38.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
39.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
40.
Ann Hibbins
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Ann Hibbins was executed for witchcraft in Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on June 19,1656. Her execution by hanging was the third for witchcraft in Boston, Hibbins was later fictionalized in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter. A wealthy widow, Hibbins was the sister in law by marriage of Massachusetts governor and her sentence was handed down by Governor John Endicott. Ann was twice widowed, first by a man named Moore, together they had three sons who were all living in England at the time of her death. One son, Jonathan, was favored in her will. Ann was widowed, secondly, by a merchant, William Hibbins whose first wife, Hester Bellingham, was the sister of Richard Bellingham. He had been a deputy to the General Court and became assistant governor in 1643, Hibbins held the powerful position of assistant until his death in 1654. Humphrey Atherton, who is said to have been instrumental in bringing about the execution of Ann Hibbins, in 1640, Hibbins sued a group of carpenters, whom she had hired to work on her house, accusing them of overcharging her. She won the lawsuit, but her actions were viewed as abrasive, refusing to apologize to the carpenters for her actions, Hibbins was admonished and excommunicated. The church cited her for usurping her husbands authority, within months of her husbands death, proceeding against her for witchcraft began. Hibbins was tried and convicted in 1655, but her conviction was set aside, the case was heard again by the General Court. She had some supporters, at least initially, among them selectman Joshua Scottow and he further stated that Hibbins had unhappily guessed that two of her persecutors, whom she saw talking in the street, were talking of her, — which cost her her life. Hibbins was fictionalized in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter, according to one analysis, Hibbins embodies the stereotype of the aged witch who tries to use Hesters stigma, the scarlet A, as an item to seduce Hester to join the Covenant with the Devil. This is presented, in contrast, by the depiction of Ann Hutchinson. Historian Clarence F. Jewett included a list of people executed in New England in The Memorial History of Boston, Including Suffolk County. He wrote, The following is the list of the persons who were executed for witchcraft in New England before 1692. 1648, — Margaret Jones, of Charlestown, at Boston,1648 — Mary Johnson, at Hartford. 1650 — Goodwife Lake, wife of Henry, of Dorchester,1650 — Goodwife Kendall, of Cambridge
41.
Richard Bellingham
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Richard Bellingham was a colonial magistrate, lawyer, and several-time governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and the last surviving signatory of the colonial charter at his death. He was one of the architects of the Massachusetts Body of Liberties, Bellingham notably refused a direct order from the king to appear in England, an action that may have contributed to the eventual revocation of the colonial charter in 1684. He was twice married, survived by his wife and his only son Samuel. He died in 1672, leaving an estate in present-day Chelsea, Massachusetts, the estate became embroiled in legal action lasting more than 100 years after his will was challenged by his son and eventually set aside. Bellingham is immortalized in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter and Henry Wadsworth Longfellows The New England Tragedies, richard Bellingham, the son of William Bellingham and Frances Amcotts, was born in Lincolnshire, England, in about 1592. The family was well to do, they resided in a manor at Bromby Wood near Scunthorpe. He studied law at Brasenose College, Oxford, matriculating on 1 December 1609, in 1625 he was elected Recorder of Boston, a position he held until 1633. He represented Boston as a member of Parliament in 1628 and 1629 and he was first married to Elizabeth Backhouse of Swallowfield, Berkshire, with whom he had a number of children, although only their son Samuel survived to adulthood. In 1628 he became an investor in the Massachusetts Bay Company and his name also appears on the royal charter issued for the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. In 1633 he resigned as recorder of Boston and began selling off his properties, the next year he sailed for the New World with his wife and son, Elizabeth died not long after their arrival in Boston, Massachusetts. Bellingham immediately assumed a prominent role in the colony, serving on the committee oversaw the affairs of Boston. In this role he participated in the division of community lands that included the establishment of Boston Common, not long after his arrival, he purchased the ferry service between Boston and Winnessimmett from Samuel Maverick, along with tracts of land that encompass much of Chelsea. In addition to his house in Boston, he also established a country home near the ferry in Winnessimmett. A house he built in 1659 still stands in Chelsea, and is known as the Bellingham-Cary House. He was first elected deputy governor of the colony in 1635, at a time when the dominant John Winthrop was out of favor, and was elected to the post again in 1640. In 1637, during the Antinomian Controversy, he was one of the magistrates that sat during the trial of Anne Hutchinson, according to historian Francis Bremer, Bellingham was somewhat brash and antagonistic, and he and Winthrop repeatedly clashed on political matters. During these early years Bellingham was chosen to be on the first board of overseers of Harvard College and he also contributed to the development of the colonys first legal code, known as the Massachusetts Body of Liberties. This work was opposed and repeatedly stalled by Winthrop, who favored a common law approach to legislation, in 1641 Bellingham was elected governor for the first time, running against Winthrop
42.
Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
43.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
44.
Thomas Overbury
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Sir Thomas Overbury was an English poet and essayist, also known for being the victim of a murder which led to a scandalous trial. His poem A Wife, which depicted the virtues that a man should demand of a woman. Thomas Overbury was born at Compton Scorpion, near Ilmington in Warwickshire, a son of the marriage of Nicholas Overbury, of Bourton-on-the-Hill, Gloucester, and Mary Palmer. In the autumn of 1595, he became a commoner of Queens College, Oxford, took his degree of BA in 1598. He soon found favour with Sir Robert Cecil, travelled on the Continent, about 1601, whilst on holiday in Edinburgh, he met Robert Carr, then an obscure page to the Earl of Dunbar. A great friendship was struck up between the two youths, and they came up to London together, the early history of Carr remains obscure, and it is probable that Overbury secured an introduction to court before his young associate contrived to do so. At all events, when Carr attracted the attention of James I in 1606 by breaking his leg in the tilt-yard, in June 1608, Overbury was knighted by the king. From October 1608 to August 1609 he traveled to the Netherlands and France, staying in Antwerp, when the latter was made Viscount Rochester in 1610, the intimacy seems to have been sustained. With Overburys aid, the young Carr caught the eye of the King, Overbury had the wisdom and Carr had the Kings ear into which to pour it. The combination took Carr swiftly up the ladder of power, soon he was the most powerful man in England next to Robert Cecil. But Carr was now infatuated, and he repeated to the Countess what Overbury had said, Lady Essex believed that Overburys object in writing this poem was to open the eyes of his friend to her defects. The situation now turned into a duel between the mistress and the friend. The Countess tried to manipulate Overbury into seeming to be disrespectful to the queen, James I was instigated to offer him an assignment as ambassador to the court of Michael of Russia. Overbury declined, as he sensed the urgency to remain in England, James I was so irate at Overburys arrogance in declining the offer that he had him thrown into the Tower of London on 22 April 1613, where he died on 14 September. The Howards won Jamess support for an annulment of Francess marriage to Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, on grounds of impotence, with Jamess assistance, the marriage was duly annulled on 25 September 1613, despite Essexs opposition to the charge of impotence. The marriage two months later of Frances Howard and Robert Carr, now the Earl of Somerset, was the event of the season. The Howards rise to power seemed complete, rumours of foul play in Overburys death began circulating. James showed a disinclination to delve into the matter, but the refused to go away
