1.
W. E. B. Du Bois
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William Edward Burghardt W. E. B. Du Bois was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909, Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation and he referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. Racism was the target of Du Boiss polemics, and he strongly protested against lynching, Jim Crow laws. His cause included people of color everywhere, particularly Africans and Asians in colonies and he was a proponent of Pan-Africanism and helped organize several Pan-African Congresses to fight for independence of African colonies from European powers. Du Bois made several trips to Europe, Africa and Asia, after World War I, he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread bigotry in the United States military. Du Bois was a prolific author and he wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology, and he published three autobiographies, each of which contains insightful essays on sociology, politics and history. In his role as editor of the NAACPs journal The Crisis, Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism, and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life. He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament, the United States Civil Rights Act, embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life, was enacted a year after his death. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23,1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to Alfred, Mary Silvina Burghardts family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state. She was descended from Dutch, African and English ancestors, William Du Boiss maternal great-great-grandfather was Tom Burghardt, a slave, who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt. Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and his son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt, who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt. William Du Boiss paternal great-grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie, New York, One of James mixed-race sons was Alexander. He traveled and worked in Haiti, where he fathered a son, Alfred, Alexander returned to Connecticut, leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother. Sometime before 1860, Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States and he married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5,1867, in Housatonic. Alfred left Mary in 1870, two years after their son William was born, Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents house in Great Barrington until he was five. She worked to support her family, until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s, Great Barrington had a majority European American community, who treated Du Bois generally well
2.
Race and ethnicity in the United States
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The United States has a racially and ethnically diverse population. In fact, the Census asks an Ancestry Question which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to 13. 2% of the population, Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to 17% of the population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 62. 6% of the nations total, Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79% of the Midwests population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35% of White Americans live in the South, the most of any region, 55% of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West, Black or African American, those having origins in any of the native peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa. Asian American, those having origins in any of the peoples of the Far East, Central Asia, North Asia, Southeast Asia. Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islander, those having origins in any of the peoples of Polynesia, Melanesia. Some other race, respondents may write how they identify themselves, however, 95% of the people who report in this category are Hispanic Mestizos. This is not a standard OMB race category, two or more races, widely known as multiracial, those who check off and/or write in more than one race. Any respondent may identify with any number, up to all six, each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature and they have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both racial and national-origin groups. In 2007 the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO-1 report format, in particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial/ethnic categories. The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race, Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Andorra, Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse, consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans, see the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article. Self-identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither allowed nor explicitly prohibited. In the United States since its history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races
3.
Essay
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An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the authors own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal, Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays, while brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas Malthuss An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries, essays have become a part of formal education. The concept of an essay has been extended to other mediums beyond writing, a film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking styles, and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea. A photographic essay covers a topic with a series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways, one definition is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion or a long, systematic discourse. It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall, aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that the essay is a device for saying almost everything about almost anything, and adds that by tradition, almost by definition. Furthermore, Huxley argues that essays belong to a species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference. Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, the abstract-universal, In this pole we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions, who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience. Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays. make the best not of one, the word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, to try or to attempt. In English essay first meant a trial or an attempt, for the rest of his life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacons essays, published in form in 1597,1612. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, English essayists included Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne. In France, Michel de Montaignes three volume Essais in the mid 1500s contain over 100 examples widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay, in Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il Libro del oregano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art, whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays
4.
A. C. McClurg
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McClurg was a Chicago, Illinois based publisher made famous by their original publishing of the Tarzan of the Apes novels and other stories of Edgar Rice Burroughs. The company was founded in Chicago, Illinois in 1844 as S. C. Griggs & Co and it was briefly known as Griggs, Bross & Co. after William Bross was admitted as a partner in 1848, the partnership dissolved after eighteen months. McClurg, a law student who moved to Chicago to join the mercantile trade. McClurg joined Griggs as a partner after he returned a general from the Civil War. The company building was burned down in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, after the fire, Griggs sold his share of the company and it became Jansen, McClurg & Co. McClurg became senior partner in 1887 and the company took the name of A. C, the company was again destroyed in a fire in 1899, but McClurg financed a new building. McClurg died in 1901, but the company retained his name in subsequent decades, McClurg revitalized The Dial magazine in 1880 as a platform of politics and literary criticism. Under Francis Fisher Browne, the magazine gained national prominence, McClurg published its first Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan of the Apes book. McClurg would publish the first ten novels of the series, by 1923, the companys operations focused exclusively on wholesaling. The company remained in business until 1962, records of the A. C. McClurg Co. at The Newberry Library
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American literature
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American literature is the literature written or produced in the area of the United States and its preceding colonies. For more specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States, during its early history, America was a series of British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United States. Therefore, its literary tradition begins as linked to the tradition of English literature. However, unique American characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a separate path, the New England colonies were the center of early American literature. The revolutionary period contained political writings by Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, in the post-war period, Thomas Jeffersons United States Declaration of Independence solidified his status as a key American writer. It was in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the nations first novels were published, in 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson started a movement known as Transcendentalism. Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden, which urges resistance to the dictates of organized society, the political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Toms Cabin. Nathaniel Hawthorne is notable for his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne influenced Herman Melville who is notable for the books Moby-Dick and Billy Budd. Americas two greatest 19th-century poets were Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, American poetry reached a peak in the early-to-mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, and E. E. Cummings. Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be away from the East Coast. Henry James was notable for novels like The Turn of the Screw, at the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists included Edith Wharton, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Jack London. Experimentation in style and form is seen in the works of Gertrude Stein, American writers expressed disillusionment following WW I. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald capture the mood of the 1920s, ernest Hemingway became notable for The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms, in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner is notable for novels like The Sound and the Fury, American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene ONeill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, Depression era writers included John Steinbeck, notable for his novel The Grapes of Wrath. Henry Miller assumed a place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels were banned from the US. From the end of World War II up until, roughly, Americas involvement in World War II influenced the creation of works such as Norman Mailers The Naked and the Dead, Joseph Hellers Catch-22 and Kurt Vonnegut Jr. s Slaughterhouse-Five. John Updike was notable for his novel Rabbit, Run, Philip Roth explores Jewish identity in American society
6.
History of sociology
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Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged primarily out of enlightenment thought, shortly after the French Revolution, as a positivist science of society. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science, Social analysis in a broader sense, however, has origins in the common stock of philosophy and necessarily pre-dates the field. Modern academic sociology arose as a reaction to modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy. Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses and organizations, divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, social science has come to be appropriated as a term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction. Sociological reasoning may be traced back at least as far as the ancient Greeks, proto-sociological observations are to be found in the founding texts of Western philosophy, as well as in the non-European thought of figures such as Confucius. The characteristic trends in the thinking of the ancient Greeks can be traced back to their social environment. Because there was rarely any extensive or highly centralized political organization within states this allowed the tribal spirit of localism and provincialism to have free play and this tribal spirit of localism and provincialism pervaded most of the Greek thinking upon social phenomena. The origin of the survey can be traced back to the Domesday Book ordered by king William I in 1086, there is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century. He is thus considered by some to be the forerunner of sociology, concerning the discipline of sociology, he conceived a dynamic theory of history that involved conceptualizations of social conflict and social change. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a generation, following a contemporary Arab scholar, Sati al-Husri, the Muqaddimah may be read as a sociological work, six books of general sociology. Topics dealt with in this work include politics, urban life, economics, the work is based around Ibn Khalduns central concept of asabiyyah, which has been translated as social cohesion, group solidarity, or tribalism. This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other kinship groups. The term was first coined by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, from the Latin, socius, companion, and the suffix -ology, in 1838, the French-thinker Auguste Comte ultimately gave sociology the definition that it holds today. Comte had earlier expressed his work as physics, but that term had been appropriated by others, most notably a Belgian statistician. He argued that scientists could distract groups from war and strife, in turn, this would bring multiple cultures and societies together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had encouraged from the Enlightenment, which was the belief in science, saint-Simons main idea was that industrialism would create a new launch in history. He saw that people had been seeing progress as an approach for science, Society was making a crucial change at the time since it was growing out of a declining feudalism
7.
African-American literature
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African-American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley, before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. African-American literature reached early high points with slave narratives of the 19th century, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a time of flowering of literature and the arts. Writers of African-American literature have been recognized by the highest awards, among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and social equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues, as African Americans place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African-American literature. There was a distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks who had been born in the North. Free blacks had to express their oppression in a different narrative form, free blacks in the North often spoke out against slavery and racial injustices using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the themes of slave narratives. At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racist attitudes in the United States, during the Civil Rights Movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States, African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American study speaks to the meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the claims to freedom, democracy, equality. African-American literature presents the African-American experience from an African-American point of view, in the early Republic, African-American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their new identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public, thus, an early theme of African-American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. African-American literature has both influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and shaped it in many countries. African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music, blues and this oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry and these characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers
8.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
9.
The Atlantic
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The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and poets. It has published leading writers commentary on abolition, education, the periodical has won more National Magazine Awards than any other monthly magazine. The first issue of the magazine was published on November 1,1857, the magazines initiator and founder was Francis H. Underwood, an assistant to the publisher, who received less recognition than his partners because he was neither a humbug nor a Harvard man. After experiencing financial hardship and a series of changes, the magazine was reformatted as a general editorial magazine. Focusing on foreign affairs, politics, and the cultural trends, it is now primarily aimed at a target audience of serious national readers. In 2010, The Atlantic posted its first profit in a decade, in profiling the publication at the time, The New York Times noted the accomplishment was the result of a cultural transfusion, a dose of counterintuition and a lot of digital advertising revenue. The magazine, subscribed to by over 425,000 readers, the Atlantic features articles in the fields of the arts, the economy, foreign affairs, political science, and technology. The Atlantics president is Bob Cohn, in April 2005, The Atlantics editors decided to cease publishing fiction in regular issues in favor of a newsstand-only annual fiction issue edited by longtime staffer C. Michael Curtis. They have since re-instituted the practice, on January 22,2008, TheAtlantic. com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. TheAtlantic. com covers politics, business, entertainment, technology, health, international affairs, and more. In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic. com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as related to the mind, body, sex, family. TheAtlantic. com has expanded to visual storytelling with the addition of the In Focus photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor. A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published significant works. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, for example, Emily Dickinson, after reading an article in The Atlantic by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, asked him to become her mentor. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction, the magazine also published many of the works of Mark Twain, including one that was lost until 2001. Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements, for example, the magazine has also published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies
10.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
11.
African-American history
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African-American history is the branch of American history that specifically discusses the African-American or Black American ethnic groups in the United States. Most African Americans are the descendants of Africans forcibly brought to, African Americans have been known by various names throughout American history, including colored and Negro, which are no longer accepted in English. Instead the most usual and accepted terms nowadays are African American and Black, the term person of color usually refers not only to African Americans, but also to other non-white ethnic groups. African-American history is celebrated and highlighted annually in the United States during February, although previously marginalized, African-American history has gained ground in school and university curricula and gained wider scholarly attention since the late 20th century. The great majority of African Americans descend from Africans brought directly from Africa, originally these slaves were captured in African wars and transported via the Atlantic slave trade. The American slaves descended from the ethnic groups from mostly western and central Africa. A smaller minority were from eastern and southeastern Africa, some of the major ethnic groups the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Hausa, Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, slaves from specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and more dominant in numbers than others in certain regions of what later became the United States. Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade, the largest source of slaves to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many tribes with their own customs and religions, by the tenth century, Islam had been soaked up by many of the residents. Those villages in West Africa that were enough to be in good conditions for growth and success. They also contributed their success to the slave trade, Origins and Percentages of African Americans imported into British North America and Louisiana Before the Atlantic Slave Trade there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, the people of Mali and Benin are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves. In the account of Olaudah Equiano, he described the process of being transported to the colonies, on the ships, the slaves were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships. Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender, under the deck, the slaves were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Male slaves were kept in the ships hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding. Due to the lack of hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly
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Spiritual (music)
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Spirituals are generally Christian songs that were created by African slaves in the United States. Spirituals were originally a tradition that imparted Christian values while also describing the hardships of slavery. Although spirituals were originally unaccompanied monophonic songs, they are best known today in harmonized choral arrangements and this historic group of uniquely American songs is now recognized as a distinct genre of music. Slave Songs of the United States, the first major collection of Negro spirituals, was published in 1867 and they are a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin. Further, this occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in the Caribbean and Latin America, Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith. Some may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to white American culture and they originated among enslaved Africans in the United States. Slavery was introduced to the British colonies in the early 17th century, in the United States, these people would remain in bondage for the entire 18th century and much of the 19th century. Most were not fully emancipated until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, Slaves were forbidden from speaking their native languages, and were generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, slaves would use the words they did know to translate biblical information, while some slave owners believed that Christian slaves would be more docile, others came to feel that stories of Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage were counterproductive. Forced conversion only worked to a point since church attendance might be required, some slaves became Christians voluntarily, either because it helped them endure hardships or because membership may have offered other benefits. Many of the Slaves turned towards the Baptist or Methodist churches, in some places enslaved Africans were permitted, or even encouraged, to hold their own prayer meetings. During these meetings, worshipers would sing, chant, dance, along with spirituals, shouts also emerged in the Praise Houses. Shouts begin slowly with the shuffling of feet and clapping of hands, drums were used as they had been in Africa, for communication. When the connection between drumming, communication, and resistance was eventually made drums were forbidden. Slaves introduced a number of new instruments to America, the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar and they drew on native rhythms and their African heritage. They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling, Music was an essential element in communicating identity, shared social mores, traditional customs, and ethnic history. The primary function of the spirituals was as communal songs sung in a religious gathering, Negro spirituals may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to the white American culture
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Foreword
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A foreword is a piece of writing sometimes placed at the beginning of a book or other piece of literature. Typically written by other than the primary author of the work. Later editions of a book sometimes have a new foreword prepended, unlike a preface, a foreword is always signed. Information essential to the text is generally placed in a set of explanatory notes, or perhaps in an introduction. The pages containing the foreword and preface are typically not numbered as part of the main work, if the front matter is paginated, it uses lowercase Roman numerals. If there is both a foreword and a preface, the foreword appears first, both appear before the introduction, which may be paginated either with the front matter or the main text, the word foreword was first used around the mid-17th century. It was possibly a translation of Dutch voorwoord or German Vorwort. Afterword Epigraph Introduction Preface Prologue The difference between a preface, foreword, and introduction – PatMcNees. com
14.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
15.
Freedmen's Bureau
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The Freedmens Bureau Bill, which established the Freedmens Bureau on March 3,1865, was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Freedmens Bureau was an important agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South, the Bureau was made a part of the United States Department of War, as it was the only agency with an existing organization that could be assigned to the South. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865, the Freedmens Bureau controlled limited arable land. The Bureaus powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write, considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as the government, Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both local and national courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. In 1866, Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau, by 1869, the Bureau had lost most of its funding and as a result been forced to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been weakened due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan violence in the South. In 1872, Congress abruptly abandoned the program, effectively shutting down the Bureau by refusing to approve renewal legislation and it did not inform Howard, who had been transferred to Arizona by President Ulysses S. Grant to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grants Secretary of War William W. Belknap, was hostile to Howards leadership and authority at the Bureau, the Bureau helped solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining clothing, food, water, health care, communication with family members, and jobs. It distributed 15 million rations of food to African Americans, although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this service, only $35,000 was borrowed by planters. Despite the good intentions, efforts, and limited success of the Bureau, most southern white doctors and nurses would not treat freedmen, infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had not had much opportunity to develop their own medical personnel, in this period epidemics of cholera and yellow fever were carried along the river corridors, breaking out across the South. Freedmans Bureau agents, at first, complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor, one of the first actions black families took was to withdraw womens labor from fieldwork. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, unworthy women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy. After the war, the Freedmens Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it, as many husbands and wives had been separated during wartime chaos, the Bureau agents helped families in their attempts to reunite after the war. The Bureau had a regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families, Freedmen and freed women turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce. The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedmans Bureau were in education, prior to the Civil War, no southern state had a system of universal, state-supported public education and prohibited slaves and free blacks from gaining education
16.
Fisk University
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Fisk University is a private historically black university founded in 1866 in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. The 40-acre campus is a district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1930, Fisk was the first African-American institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges, accreditations for specialized programs quickly followed. AMA support meant the organization tried to use its sources across the country to aid education for freedmen, enrollment jumped from 200 to 900 in the first several months of the school, indicating freedmens strong desire for education, with ages of students ranging from seven to seventy. The school was named in honor of General Clinton B, Fisk of the Tennessee Freedmens Bureau, who made unused barracks available to the school, as well as establishing the first free schools for white and black children in Tennessee. In addition, he endowed Fisk with a total of $30,000, the American Missionary Associations work was supported by the United Church of Christ, which retains an affiliation with the university. Fisk opened to classes on January 9,1866, James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson graduated as well and became a member of the Fisk Jubilee Singers. Walker became a missionary while the Burrus brothers were both prominent educators and, during their careers, professors at Fisk. Cravath organized the College Department and the Mozart Society, the first musical organization in Tennessee, rising enrollment added to the needs of the university. In 1870 Adam Knight Spence became principal of the Fisk Normal School, with a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the start of a student choir. In 1871 the student choir went on a tour in Europe. They toured to raise funds to build the first building for the education of freedmen and they raised nearly $50,000 and funded construction of the renowned Jubilee Hall, now a designated National Historic Landmark. On April 12,1873, the Jubilee Singers sailed for England where they sang before an audience in the presence of the Queen. During the 1880s Fisk had a building program, as well as expanding its curriculum offerings. By the turn of the 20th century, it added black teachers and staff to the university, from 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was President of Fisk. McKenzies tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history, McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities and other aspects of student life led to student protests. In 1947 Fisk heralded its first African-American president with the arrival of Charles Spurgeon Johnson, Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter, organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4,1953
17.
Clark Atlanta University
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Clark Atlanta University is a private, historically black university in Atlanta, in the U. S. state of Georgia. It was formed in 1988 with the consolidation of Clark College, Clark Atlanta University is a member of the United Negro College Fund and is the largest institution in the Atlanta University Center Consortium. By the late 1870s, Atlanta College had begun granting degrees and supplying black teachers. In 1929–30, it began offering graduate education exclusively in various liberal arts areas and it gradually added professional programs in social work, library science, and business administration. At this same time, Atlanta University affiliated with Morehouse College, the story of the Atlanta University over the next twenty years from 1930 includes many significant developments. Graduate Schools of Library Science, Education, and Business Administration were established in 1941,1944, the Atlanta School of Social Work, long associated with the university, gave up its charter in 1947 to become an integral part of the university. In 1957, the controlling Boards of the six institutions ratified new Articles of Affiliation, the new contract created the Atlanta University Center. The influence of Atlanta University has been extended through professional journals and organizations, including Phylon, du Bois, a member of the center. Clark College was founded in 1869 by the Methodist Episcopal Church and it was named for Bishop Davis Wasgatt Clark, who was the first President of the Freedmans Aid Society and became Bishop in 1864. A sparsely furnished room in Clark Chapel, a Methodist Episcopal church in Atlantas Summerhill section, in 1871, the school relocated to a new site on the newly purchased Whitehall and McDaniel Street property. In 1877, the School was chartered as Clark University, an early benefactor, Bishop Gilbert Haven, visualized Clark as the university of all the Methodist schools founded for the education of freedmen. Also in 1883, Clark established a theology department, named for Dr. Elijah H. Gammon, the Gammon School of Theology in 1888 became an independent theological seminary. It is part of the Interdenominational Theological Center, Clark Atlanta Universitys main campus houses 37 buildings on 126 acres and is 1.5 miles from the center of Atlanta. Pfeiffer Hall Holmes Hall Merner Hall Bumstead Hall – vacant for renovations Ware Hall Beckwith Hall Residential Apartments – now called James P. Brawley Hall when the original James P. The Isabella T. Clark Atlantas Center for Functional Nanoscale Measures has produced more black Ph. D. s in Nanoscale Science than any HBCU in the nation. Clark Atlanta is annually ranked on the list of The Washington Monthly of Best Colleges and Universities, Clark Atlanta has a Carnegie classification of Research University – High Research Activity and is one of only four Historically Black Colleges and Universities to earn such a distinction. The preeminent scheduled event of CAU Experience is the induction ceremony. At the ceremony, new students are officially inducted as Clark Atlanta University students
18.
Howard University
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Howard University is a federally chartered, private, coeducational, nonsectarian, historically black university in Washington, D. C. It is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a university with high research activity and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. From its outset it has been nonsectarian and open to people of both genders and all races, Howard is classified as a Tier 1 national university and ranks second among HBCUs by U. S. News & World Report. Howard is the only HBCU ranked in the top 75 on the 2015 Bloomberg Businessweek college rankings, the Princeton Review ranked the school of business #1 in opportunities for minority students and in the top five for most competitive students. The National Law Journal ranked the law school among the top 25 in the nation for placing graduates at the best law firms, Howard has produced four Rhodes Scholars between 1986 and 2017. Between 1998 and 2009, Howard University produced a Marshall Scholar, in 2011, the Huffington Post named Howard the second best-dressed college in the nation. Howard is the most comprehensive HBCU in the nation and produces the most black doctorate recipients of any university, within a few weeks, the project expanded to include a provision for establishing a university. Within two years, the University consisted of the Colleges of Liberal Arts and Medicine, the new institution was named for General Oliver Otis Howard, a Civil War hero, who was both the founder of the University and, at the time, Commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau. Howard later served as President of the university from 1869–74, U. S. Congress chartered Howard on March 2,1867, and much of its early funding came from endowment, private benefaction, and tuition. An annual congressional appropriation administered by the U. S. Department of Education funds Howard University, many improvements were made on campus. Howard Hall was renovated and made a dormitory for women, J. Stanley Durkee, Howards last white president, was appointed in 1918. The Great Depression years of the 1930s brought hardship to campus, despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels during the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Howard University has played an important role in American history and the Civil Rights Movement on a number of occasions, alain Locke, Chair of the Department of Philosophy and first African American Rhodes Scholar, authored The New Negro, which helped to usher in the Harlem Renaissance. Ralph Bunche, the first Nobel Peace Prize winner of African descent, beginning in 1942, Howard University students pioneered the stool-sitting technique, which was to play a prominent role in the later civil rights movement. By January,1943, students had begun to organize regular sit-ins and pickets at cigar stores and cafeterias around Washington and these protests continued until the administration asked the students to stop in the Fall of 1944. Historian Rayford Logan served as chair of the Department of History, E. Franklin Frazier served as chair of the Department of Sociology. Sterling Allen Brown served as chair of the Department of English, at the time, the Voting Rights bill was still pending in the House of Representatives. In 1975 the historic Freedmans Hospital closed after 112 years of use as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital, Howard University Hospital opened that same year and continues to be used as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital with service to the surrounding community
19.
Hampton University
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Hampton University is a private historically black university located in Hampton, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1868 by black and white leaders of the American Missionary Association after the American Civil War to provide education to freedmen, in 1878, it established a program for teaching Native Americans, which lasted until 1923. These facilities represented freedom to slaves, who sought refuge with Union forces during the first year of the war. She first taught for the AMA on September 17,1861 and was said to gather her pupils under a large oak, after the tree was the site of the first reading in the former Confederate states of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, it was called the Emancipation Oak. The tree, now a symbol of the university and of the city, is part of the National Historic Landmark District at Hampton University and it was first led by former Union General Samuel Chapman Armstrong. Among the schools famous alumni is Dr. Booker T. Washington, during the American Civil War, Union-held Fortress Monroe in southeastern Virginia at the mouth of Hampton Roads became a gathering point and safe haven of sorts for fugitive slaves. The commander, General Benjamin F. Butler, determined they were contraband of war, to them from being returned to slaveholders. This area was later called Slabtown, the newly issued Emancipation Proclamation was first read to a gathering under the historic tree there in 1863. After the War, a school was formalized in 1868. The new school was established on the grounds of a plantation named Little Scotland. The original school buildings fronted the Hampton River, legally chartered in 1870 as a land grant school, it was first known as Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. One of the many Civil War veterans who gave substantial sums to the school was General William Jackson Palmer and he later built the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, and founded Colorado Springs, Colorado. As the Civil War began in 1861, although his Quaker upbringing made Palmer abhor violence and he was awarded the Medal of Honor for bravery in 1894. Unlike the wealthy Palmer, Sam Armstrong was the son of a missionary to the Sandwich Islands and he also had dreams for the betterment of the freedmen. He patterned his new school after the model of his father and he wanted to teach the skills necessary for blacks to be self-supporting in the impoverished South. Under his guidance, a Hampton-style education became well known as an education that combined cultural uplift with moral and manual training, Armstrong said it was an education that encompassed the head, the heart, and the hands. At the close of its first decade, the school reported a total admission in the ten years of 927 students, with 277 graduates, many of them had bought land and established themselves in homes, many were farming as well as teaching, some had gone into business. Only a very small proportion failed to do well, by another 10 years, there had been over 600 graduates
20.
Samuel C. Armstrong
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Samuel Chapman Armstrong was an American educator and a commissioned officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He is best remembered for his work after the war as the founder, the son of missionary Richard Armstrong, Armstrong was born in Wailuku, Maui, Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, the sixth of ten children. He attended Punahou School in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, in 1860, his father suddenly died, and Armstrong, at the age of 21, left Hawaiʻi for the United States and attended Williams College in Massachusetts, graduating in 1862. At the time Armstrong completed college, the United States was engaged in the American Civil War, after graduating, Armstrong volunteered to serve in the Union Army, and recruited a company near Troy, New York. He was appointed a captain in the 125th New York Infantry, Armstrong was among the 12,000 men captured in September 1862 with the surrender of the garrison at Harpers Ferry. After being paroled, he returned to the front lines in Virginia in December, as part of the 3rd Division of the II Corps under Alexander Hays Armstrong fought at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, defending Cemetery Ridge against Picketts Charge. Armstrong subsequently rose through the ranks to lieutenant colonel, being assigned to the 9th United States Colored Infantry in late 1863 and he was assigned command of the 8th U. S. Colored Troops when its previous commander was disabled from wounds, Armstrongs experiences with these regiments aroused his interest in the welfare of black Americans. He led the regiment during the Siege of Petersburg, and the 8th was one of the first Union regiments to enter the city after the Confederates withdrew from their trenches. In November 1864, Armstrong was promoted to colonel for gallant and meritorious services at Deep Bottom, Armstrong noted Hawaiian combatants in the war including J. R. Kealoha and Kaiwi who were privates in different USCT regiments. The 8th USCT pursued the Army of Northern Virginia during the subsequent Appomattox Campaign, after Robert E. Lee surrendered that army, Armstrong and his men returned to Petersburg briefly before being sent by sea to Ringgold Barracks near Rio Grande City on the Mexican border in Texas. When Armstrong was assigned to command the USCT, training was conducted at Camp Stanton near Benedict, while stationed at Stanton, he established a school to educate the black soldiers, most of whom had no education as slaves. At the end of the war, Armstrong joined the Freedmens Bureau, with the help of the American Missionary Association, he established the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute—now known as Hampton University—in Hampton, Virginia in 1868. This idea was not a new solution and traced its history to before the American Civil War, but especially after the war, blacks and whites alike realized the paradox that freedom posed for the African American population in the racist south. Freedom meant liberation from the brutality and degradation of slavery, but as W. E. B. Du Bois described it, a person felt his poverty, without a cent, without a home, without land, tools, or savings, he had entered into competition with rich. To be a man is hard, but to be a poor race in a land of dollars is the very bottom of hardships. Although the end of slavery was the result of the Union victory
21.
Freedman's Savings Bank
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Although functioning only between 1865 and 1874, the company achieved notable successes as a leading financial institution of African-Americans. Its failure was devastating to the newly emancipated black community and its archives are valued as an exhaustive collection of information regarding the African American community and its socio-economic life in the immediate aftermath of emancipation. Following the end of the American Civil War, the economic condition of formerly enslaved freedmen was aggravated by the economic devastation of the Southern states. The emancipated peoples had few resources or capital and little experience or exposure to private enterprise. Many soon fell into sharecropping and forced labor in the South, to help alleviate the socio-economic condition of the community, the Republican-controlled U. S. Originally headquartered in New York City, the first branch of the company opened in Baltimore, by 1866, the bank had established 19 branches in 12 states, mainly in the South. The national headquarters was shifted to Washington, D. C. in 1867, the company attracted a large number of societies, churches, charities and other private organizations that opened accounts and established trusts with the company. Noted community leaders and civil rights activists formed the management of several trusts, a series of increasingly speculative investments brought the bank into debt, and the decision to create a new building in Washington D. C. added to its financial troubles. One example was the Seneca Sandstone Company, owner of the Seneca Quarry, Cooke sat on the boards of both the quarry company and the Freedmans Bank. With the Panic of 1873, the indebted Seneca quarry could not pay its debts back, general Oliver O. Howard was the Freedmans Bank commissioner. Both institutions went bankrupt, and the bank closed its doors in 1874, Congress investigated and recommended that Henry Cooke and others be indicted, but no one ever was. An 1874 court of inquiry cleared Howard of negligence, but he was transferred to the Northwest by President Ulysses S. Grant, over the next decade, Congress established a program to reimburse depositors up to 62% of their savings, but many depositors were never compensated. Scholars have argued that the failure of bank and the attendant loss of savings led to a fear of savings institutions among segments of the black community. The banks records of 480,000 names, estimated to be the largest single repository of lineage-linked African-American records, has been indexed by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the searchable database is available to amateur as well as professional genealogists. At the height of its success, the Freedmans Savings Bank held assets worth more than $3.7 million
22.
Booker T. Washington
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Booker Taliaferro Washington was an American educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the dominant leader in the African-American community, Washington was from the last generation of black American leaders born into slavery and became the leading voice of the former slaves and their descendants. They were newly oppressed in the South by disenfranchisement and the Jim Crow discriminatory laws enacted in the post-Reconstruction Southern states in the late 19th, Washington was a key proponent of African-American businesses and one of the founders of the National Negro Business League. His base was the Tuskegee Institute, a black college in Alabama. As lynchings in the South reached a peak in 1895, Washington gave a speech, known as the Atlanta compromise and he called for black progress through education and entrepreneurship, rather than trying to challenge directly the Jim Crow segregation and the disenfranchisement of black voters in the South. But, secretly, he also supported court challenges to segregation and restrictions on voter registration, black militants in the North, led by W. E. B. Du Bois, at first supported the Atlanta compromise but after 1909 and they tried with limited success to challenge Washingtons political machine for leadership in the black community but also built wider networks among white allies in the North. His long-term goal was to end the disenfranchisement of the vast majority of African Americans, in 1856, Washington was born into slavery in Virginia as the son of Jane, an African-American slave. After emancipation, she moved the family to West Virginia to join her husband Washington Ferguson, as a young man, Washington worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute and attended college at Wayland Seminary. In 1881, Washington was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, Washington attained national prominence for his Atlanta Address of 1895, which attracted the attention of politicians and the public. He became a spokesperson for African-American citizens. He built a network of supporters in many black communities, with black ministers, educators. Washington played a dominant role in politics, winning wide support in the black community of the South. He gained access to top leaders in politics, philanthropy. Washingtons efforts included cooperating with people and enlisting the support of wealthy philanthropists. This work continued for years after his death. Washington argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal rights was to demonstrate industry, thrift, intelligence. Northern critics called Washingtons widespread organization the Tuskegee Machine, after 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B
23.
Atalanta
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Atalanta is a character in Greek mythology, a virgin huntress, unwilling to marry, and loved by the hero Meleager. Atalanta was the daughter of Iasus, a Boeotian, or an Arcadian princess, the Bibliotheca is the only one who gives an account of Atalanta’s birth and upbringing. King Iasus wanted a son, when Atalanta was born, he left her on a mountaintop to die, some stories say that a she-bear suckled and cared for Atalanta until hunters found and raised her, and she learned to fight and hunt as a bear would. She was later reunited with her father, having grown up in the wilderness, Atalanta became a fierce hunter and was always happy. She took an oath of virginity to the goddess Artemis, when Artemis was forgotten at a sacrifice by King Oineus, she was angered and sent the Calydonian Boar, a wild boar that ravaged the land, men, and cattle and prevented crops from being sown. Atalanta joined Meleager and many other heroes on a hunt for the boar. Many of the men were angry that a woman was joining them, but Meleager, though married, lusted for Atalanta, several of the men were killed before Atalanta became the first to hit the boar and draw blood. After Meleager finally killed the boar with his spear, he awarded the hide to Atalanta, meleager’s uncles, Plexippus and Toxeus, were angry and tried to take the skin from her. In revenge, Meleager killed his uncles, wild with grief, Meleagers mother Althaea threw a charmed log on the fire, which consumed Meleagers life as it burned. Then she died when a new boar came out of the woods, after the Calydonian boar hunt, Atalanta was rediscovered by her father. He wanted her to be married, but Atalanta, uninterested in marriage and those who lost would be killed. King Schoeneus agreed, and many men died in the attempt until Hippomenes came along. Hippomenes asked the goddess Aphrodite for help, and she gave him three golden apples in order to slow Atalanta down, the apples were irresistible, so every time Atalanta got ahead of Hippomenes, he rolled an apple ahead of her, and she would run after it. In this way, Hippomenes won the footrace and came to marry Atalanta, eventually they had a son Parthenopaios, who was one of the Seven against Thebes. Zeus or his mother Rhea turned Atalanta and Hippomenes into lions after they made together in one of his temples. Other accounts say that Aphrodite changed them into lions because they did not give her proper honor, the belief at the time was that lions could not mate with their own species, only with leopards, thus Atalanta and Hippomenes would never be able to remain with one another. In many versions of the quest for the Golden Fleece, for instance that published by Robert Graves in 1944 and she jumped aboard the ship soon after the expedition set out, invoking the protection of Artemis, whose virgin priestess she was. She was following Meleager, who had put away his wife for Atalantas sake
24.
Normal school
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A normal school is a school created to train high school graduates to be teachers. Most such schools are now denominated teachers colleges, the first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, another school was established in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It operates today as Framingham State University, in the United States teacher colleges or normal schools began to evolve from their initial mission of training teachers to add programs in the sciences, engineering, technology, health, and business. They started to become universities in the 1940s. For instance, Southern Illinois University was formerly Southern Illinois Normal College, the University is now a system of two campuses of more than 34,000 students, but still issues most of its baccalaureate degrees in education. Further, the town of Normal, Illinois was named from the name of Illinois State University. Many famous state universities, such as the University of California, such a list includes Emporia State University in Emporia, Kansas, which was established as Kansas State Normal School in 1863, and which by 1889 had become the largest normal school in the Nation. In Canada, such institutions were typically assimilated by a university as the latters Faculty of Education and it requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study. The term normal school originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale, the French concept of an école normale was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building, although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary. In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality, Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher. In France, a system developed since the Revolution, primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales. Nowadays all teachers are educated in École supérieure du professorat et de léducation, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France and the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in Italy no longer specialize in teacher training. In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once separate institutions, the University of Chester traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were established by religious institutions and were single-sex until World War II, since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right or merged with another university to become its faculty of education. The latter was one of the last institutions to retain the word Normal in its name, in Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, former Vilnius Pedagogical University is the main teachers training institution, established in 1935. The terminology is still preserved in the translations of such schools in China since the early 20th century
25.
Albany, Georgia
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Albany is a city in the U. S. state of Georgia, and is the seat of Dougherty County. Located in southwest Georgia, it is the city of the Albany. The population was 77,434 at the 2010 U. S. Census, the area where Albany is located was formerly inhabited by the Creek Indians, who called it Thronateeska after their word for flint because of the mineral flint that was found near the river. The Creeks used this flintstone to make tools and weapons such as arrowheads, American settlement began with Nelson Tift, from Groton, Connecticut, who took land along the Flint River in October 1836 after Indian removal. The Creek were forced to relocate to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River, Tift named his new town Albany after the capital of New York, both were located at the navigable heads of rivers. Alexander Shotwell laid out the town in 1836 and it was incorporated as a city by an act of the General Assembly of Georgia on December 27,1838. Tift for decades was the citys leading entrepreneur, an ardent booster, he promoted education, business, and railroad construction. During the Civil War he provided naval supplies and helped build two ships and he opposed Radical Reconstruction inside the state and in Congress, and was scornful of the Yankee carpetbaggers who came in. John Fair concludes that Tift became more Southern than many natives and his pro-slavery attitudes before the war and his support for segregation afterward made him compatible with Georgias white elite. The area was developed by planters using slave labor for clearing land, by 1840, Dougherty Countys majority population was black, composed overwhelmingly of slaves. The market center for cotton plantations, Albany was in a location for shipping cotton to markets by steamboats on the river. In 1858, Tift hired Horace King, a slave and bridge builder. Kings bridge toll house still stands, already important as a shipping port, Albany later became an important railroad hub in southwestern Georgia. Seven lines were constructed to the town, an exhibit on trains is located at the Thronateeska Heritage Center in the former railroad station. While integral to the life of the town, the Flint River has flooded regularly. There was extensive property damage in 1841 and 1925, some late twentieth-century floods were extreme. In 1994, a flood was caused by rainfall from Tropical Storm Alberto, it killed 14 people. The state supported a $150 million renovation of the Albany State University campus to repair storm damage, New housing was built on the south side of town to replace what had been destroyed
26.
Dougherty County, Georgia
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Dougherty County is a county located in the southwestern portion of the U. S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 94,565, the county seat and sole incorporated city is Albany. Dougherty County is included in the Albany, GA Metropolitan Statistical Area, the county was created by the Georgia General Assembly on December 15,1853, from a part of Baker County and was named after Charles Dougherty, a respected judge and lawyer from Athens, Georgia. In 1854 and 1856 small areas were added from Worth County, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 335 square miles, of which 329 square miles is land and 5.9 square miles is water. The majority of Dougherty County is located in the Lower Flint River sub-basin of the ACF River Basin, the northeastern corner of the county, northeast of Albany, is located in the Middle Flint River sub-basin of the same ACF River basin. A very small portion of Dougherty County, north of Albany, is located in the Kinchafoonee-Muckalee sub-basin of the larger ACF River Basin, the remaining western portion of the county is located in the Ichawaynochaway Creek sub-basin of the same ACF River Basin. The population density was 292 people per square mile, there were 39,656 housing units at an average density of 120 per square mile. 1. 34% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, the largest European ancestry groups in Dougherty County are English, Irish, American, German and Scots-Irish. 26. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.13. In the county, the population was out with 27. 70% under the age of 18,12. 20% from 18 to 24,27. 60% from 25 to 44,20. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 87.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $30,934, and the median income for a family was $36,655. Males had an income of $30,742 versus $22,254 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,645, about 19. 60% of families and 24. 80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35. 30% of those under age 18 and 17. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 94,565 people,36,508 households, the population density was 287.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 40,801 housing units at a density of 124.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 67. 1% black or African American,29. 6% white,0. 8% Asian,0. 2% American Indian,0. 1% Pacific islander,1. 0% from other races, and 1. 2% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2. 2% of the population, in terms of ancestry,6. 1% were English,6. 0% were American, and 5. 3% were Irish
27.
Lynching of Sam Hose
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Samuel Thomas Wilkes, née Tom Wilkes was an African American worker who was tortured and executed by a lynch mob in Coweta County, Georgia. Sam Hose was born Tom Wilkes in south Georgia near Marshallville around 1875 and he grew up on a Macon County farm owned by the Jones family, his mother was a long-time slave of the family. Wilkes moved to Coweta County, where he assumed the alias Sam Hose, on April 12,1899, Wilkes/Hose was accused of murdering his employer, Alfred Cranford, after a heated argument. The argument was the result of Hose requesting time off to visit his mother, Alfred Cranford threatened to kill Hose, and pointed a gun at him. Hose was working at the time with an ax in his hands, due to the threat, he defended himself and threw the ax, killing Cranford. Wilkes fled the scene, and the search for him shortly thereafter. Over the next few days, furor was caused by stories that arose suggesting that Wilkes sexually assaulted Cranfords wife, Mattie Cranford, on April 23,1899, Wilkes/Hose was apprehended in Marshallville, and returned by train to Coweta County. A mob removed him from the train at gunpoint in Newnan, former Governor William Yates Atkinson and Judge Alvan Freeman pleaded with the crowd to release Wilkes/Hose to the custody of the authorities. Ignoring their pleas, the crowd marched northward toward the Cranford home, the lynch mob grew, reaching an estimated 500 individuals, though some accounts purport around 2000. Once news of the capture reached Atlanta, large crowds boarded trains to Newnan, mistakenly believing that these trains were loaded with troops, the mob stopped just north of Newnan. Newspapers reported that Wilkes/Hoses ears, fingers and genitals were severed, the skin from his face was removed and his body was doused with kerosene. He was tied to a tree and burned alive, some members of the mob cut off pieces of his dead body as souvenirs. According to Philip Drays At the Hands of Persons Unknown, The Lynching of Black America and he turned around and did not meet with Harris after learning this. The actions of the mob were condemned throughout most of the United States. A group of prominent citizens in Chicago, led by journalist and activist Ida B, Le Vin to investigate the Wilkes/Hose lynching. Mr. Le Vin’s entire report was published in Chapter IV of the Ida B, wells-Barnett article, Lynch Law in Georgia. Le Vin stated that he spent over one week in his investigation and he concluded that Wilkes/Hose acted in self-defense, and the rape allegation was added to incite a lynching. Mr. Le Vin stated that his conclusions were gathered from interviews with persons he met in Griffin, Newman, Atlanta and the vicinity
28.
Golden Fleece
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In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece is the fleece of the gold-haired winged ram, which was held in Colchis. The fleece is a symbol of authority and kingship, through the help of Medea, they acquire the Golden Fleece. The story is of great antiquity and was current in the time of Homer and it survives in various forms, among which the details vary. Athamas the Minyan, a founder of Halos in Thessaly but also king of the city of Orchomenus in Boeotia and they had two children, the boy Phrixus and the girl Helle. Later Athamas became enamored of and married Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, when Nephele left in anger, drought came upon the land. Ino was jealous of her stepchildren and plotted their deaths, in some versions, Nephele, or her spirit, appeared to the children with a winged ram whose fleece was of gold. The ram had been sired by Poseidon in his primitive ram-form upon Theophane, a nymph and the granddaughter of Helios, the sun-god. According to Hyginus, Poseidon carried Theophane to an island where he made her into a ewe, there Theophanes other suitors could not distinguish the ram-god and his consort. Nepheles children escaped on the yellow ram over the sea, but Helle fell off and drowned in the now named after her. The ram spoke to Phrixus, encouraging him, and took the boy safely to Colchis, there Phrixus sacrificed the winged ram to Poseidon, essentially returning him to the god. The ram became the constellation Aries, Phrixus settled in the house of Aeetes, son of Helios the sun god. He hung the Golden Fleece preserved from the sacrifice of the ram on an oak in a sacred to Ares. The golden fleece was defended by bulls with hoofs of brass and it was also guarded by a never sleeping dragon with teeth which could become soldiers when planted in the ground. The dragon was at the foot of the tree on which the fleece was placed, pindar employed the quest for the Golden Fleece in his Fourth Pythian Ode, though the fleece is not in the foreground. When Aeetes challenges Jason to yoke the fire-breathing bulls, the fleece is the prize, Let the King do this, Let him do this, I say, and have for his own the immortal coverlet, the fleece, glowing with matted skeins of gold. In later versions of the story, the ram is said to have been the offspring of the sea god Poseidon, the classic telling is the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes, composed in mid-third century BC Alexandria, recasting early sources that have not survived. Another, much less-known Argonautica, using the body of myth, was composed in Latin by Valerius Flaccus during the time of Vespasian. Where the written sources fail, through accidents of history, sometimes the continuity of a mythic tradition can be found among the vase-painters, jasons helper in the Athenian vase-paintings is not Medea— who had a history in Athens as the opponent of Theseus— but Athena
29.
Sharecropping
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Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a history and there are a wide range of different situations. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law, legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely. Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant and it encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder, however, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations. In the U. S. tenant farmers own their own mules and equipment, and sharecroppers do not, Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era. The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land, at the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well, jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure, tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were and this form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord, plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor, leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate, use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England. It is still used in many poor areas today, notably in Pakistan. It has therefore been seen as an issue of reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, there are three different types of contracts
30.
Metayage
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The Metayage system is the cultivation of land for a proprietor by one who receives a proportion of the produce, as a kind of sharecropping. Another class of land tenancy in France is named fermage, whereby the rent is paid annually in banknotes, Métayage was available under Roman law, although it was not in widespread use. It proved useful after the emancipation of Roman slaves as the newly freed peasants had no land or cash, once institutionalized, it continued long into the 18th Century although the base causes had been relieved by emigration to the New World. The hyperinflation that followed the influx of Incan-American gold made Métayage preferable to cash tenancy, called complant, a laborer would offer to plant and tend to an uncultivated parcel of land belonging to a land owner. The prendeur would have ownership of the vines and the bailleur would receive anywhere from a third to two-thirds of the production in exchange for the use of his soil. This system was used extensively in planting the Champagne region, bailleur was also used as the name for the proprietor under métayage. The contract still exists today in Switzerland, in the eighteenth century c. 75% of leased lands in western, southern and central France were sharecropped. North of the Loire it was common in Lorraine. In Italy and France, respectively, it was called mezzadria and métayage, or halving - the halving, halving didnt imply equal amounts of the produce but rather division according to agreement. Thus the instrumentum fundi of Roman Law was combined within métayage, taxes were also frequently divided, being paid wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both. By 1929, there were still 200,000 Métayers, farming 11% of French cultivated land and it was most common in Landes and Allier. Colonat partiaire was still practised in the French overseas departments, notably Réunion and this arrangement got past the difficulty of finding tenants having sufficient capital and labour to run the larger farms. In France, since 1983, these métayage and similar farming contracts have been regulated by Livre IV of the Rural Code, the system was once universal in certain provinces of Italy and France, and survived there in places until the end of the nineteenth century. Similar systems formerly existed in Portugal, Castile, and in Greece and it is tracked to this day in statistics of the European Commission. Métayage was used in French colonies, particularly after the demise of slavery, also, because of its utility métayage spread to nearby British colonies such as Nevis, St. Lucia and Tobago. It still occurs in former French possessions, particularly in Madagascar, in the Congo the system is used in the vicinity of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park as a means to protect the natural environment. In Mexico the system is used in animal husbandry, the same study of metayage found 2,489 farms covering 130, 873ha in Ontario. It appears to benefit from favourable tax treatment in Canada, where it is known as sharecropping, in forestry metayage is the subject of a Government of Canada infosheet, and socio-econimic report, and has been the subject in Quebec of recent scholarly research
31.
Black church
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The term black church or African-American church refers to Protestant churches that currently or historically have ministered to predominantly black congregations in the United States. Most of the first black congregations and churches formed before 1800 were founded by free blacks – for example, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Petersburg, Virginia, and Savannah, Georgia. The oldest black Baptist church in Kentucky, and third oldest in the United States, was founded about 1790 by the slave Peter Durrett. After slavery was abolished, segregationist attitudes in both the North and the South discouraged and even prevented African Americans from worshiping in the churches as whites. Freed blacks most often established congregations and church facilities separate from their white neighbors, as a result, black churches have fostered strong community organizations and provided spiritual and political leadership, especially during the civil rights movement. Evangelical Baptist and Methodist preachers traveled throughout the South in the Great Awakening of the late 18th century and they appealed directly to slaves, and a few thousand slaves converted. Blacks found opportunities to have roles in new congregations, especially in the Baptist Church. As they listened to readings, slaves developed their own interpretations of the Scriptures and found inspiration in stories of deliverance, such as the Exodus out of Egypt. Nat Turner, a slave and Baptist preacher, was inspired to armed rebellion, in an uprising that killed about 50 white men, women, and children in Virginia. Both free blacks and the numerous slaves participated in the earliest black Baptist congregations founded near Petersburg, Virginia, Savannah, Georgia and Lexington, Kentucky. The slaves Peter Durrett and his wife founded the First African Church in Lexington, the churchs trustees purchased its first property in 1815. The congregation numbered about 290 by the time of Durretts death in 1823, following slave revolts in the early 19th century, including Nat Turners Rebellion in 1831, Virginia passed a law requiring black congregations to meet only in the presence of a white minister. Other states similarly restricted exclusively black churches, or the assembly of blacks in large groups unsupervised by whites, nevertheless, the black Baptist congregations in the cities grew rapidly and their members numbered several hundred each before the Civil War. While mostly led by blacks, most of their members were slaves. With the time, many incorporated Wesleyan Methodist hymns, gospel songs, the underground churches provided psychological refuge from the white world. The spirituals gave the members a secret way to communicate and, in some cases. Slaves also learned about Christianity by attending services led by a preacher or supervised by a white person. Slaveholders often held meetings at their plantations
32.
Revival meeting
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A revival meeting is a series of Christian religious services held to inspire active members of a church body to gain new converts. These meetings are conducted by churches or missionary organizations throughout the world. Notable historic revival meetings were conducted in the US by evangelist Billy Sunday, ben M. Bogard, from 1909 to 1914, conducted revivals full-time in seven southern states. In 1924, he founded the American Baptist Association, the Missionary Baptist denomination, still based in Texarkana, ABA churches have traditionally held revivals usually once or twice a year. The length of such meetings varies, until the last quarter-century they were frequently a week or more in duration, especially in the Southern United States. Currently they may be held for three or four days, evangelist Billy Graham planned a week-long crusade in New York City, which ultimately extended from May 15 to September 1,1957. More than two million people went to New Yorks Madison Square Garden to hear him preach, similar events may be referred to as crusades, especially those held by Billy Graham and Oral Roberts. Conservative Mennonites continue to hold and promote protracted revival meetings of usually 7 or 8 days duration at least once per year in a given congregation, the visiting evangelist is chosen from among their own or related congregations. This movement has been portrayed by director Richard Brooks in his 1960 film Elmer Gantry with Burt Lancaster and Jean Simmons, there is a revival scene in the 1997 film The Apostle, starring Robert Duvall. Duvalls portrayal of an evangelical minister earned him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination, the Academy Award-winning documentary Marjoe reviews the career of child-evangelist Marjoe Gortner, giving a behind-the-scenes look at revivals he promoted as an adult. Neil Diamonds Brother Loves Traveling Salvation Show depicts a revival meeting, the music video for OneRepublics Counting Stars depicts a Christian revival meeting. Laura Ingalls Wilders Little Town on the Prairie depicts a week of meetings at the Congregational church in De Smet. Remembrances of revival-meetings attended as a youth were the inspiration for the movement of Charles Ives Orchestral Set No. 2, The Rockstrewn Hills Join in the Peoples Outdoor Meeting, tent revival Other religions have similar traditions, such as Devivals of the Church of the SubGenius and Discordianism
33.
Alexander Crummell
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Alexander Crummell was a pioneering African-American minister, academic and African nationalist. Ordained as an Episcopal priest in the United States, Crummell went to England in the late 1840s to raise money for his church by lecturing about American slavery, abolitionists supported his three years of study at Cambridge University, where Crummell developed concepts of pan-Africanism. In 1853 Crummell moved to Liberia, where he worked to convert native Africans to Christianity and educate them and he wanted to attract American blacks to Africa on a colonial, civilizing mission. Crummell lived and worked for 20 years in Liberia and appealed to American blacks to join him, after returning to the United States in 1872, Crummell was called to St. Marys Episcopal Mission in Washington, DC. In 1875 he and his congregation founded St. Lukes Episcopal Church and they built a new church on 15th Street, NW, beginning in 1876, and celebrated their first Thanksgiving there in 1879. Crummell served a rector there until his retirement in 1894, the church was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. Crummell was born in New York City to Charity Hicks, a woman of color, and Boston Crummell. According to Crummells own account, his grandfather was an ethnic Temne born in Sierra Leone. Both parents were active abolitionists, and allowed their home to be used to publish the first African-American newspaper, Boston Crummell instilled in his son a sense of unity with Africans living in Africa. His parents influence and these early experiences within the abolitionist movement shaped Crummell’s values, beliefs, for example, even as a boy in New York, Crummell worked for the American Anti-Slavery Society. Crummell began his education in the African Free School No.2. Other African-American men who became active in the abolitionist movement, such as James McCune Smith and Henry Highland Garnet, also graduated from the school, Crummell attended the Canal Street High School. After graduating, Crummell and his friend Garnet attended the Noyes Academy in New Hampshire, however, a mob opposed to the new black first-year students attacked and destroyed the school. Crummell next enrolled in the Oneida Institute in central New York, while there, Crummell decided to become an Episcopal priest. His prominence as a young intellectual earned him a spot as keynote speaker at the anti-slavery New York State Convention of Negroes when it met in Albany in 1840. Denied admission to the General Theological Seminary in New York City because of his race, Crummell went on to study and receive holy orders, he was ordained in 1842 in Massachusetts. Bishop Onderdonk replied, I will receive you into this diocese on one condition, No negro priest can sit in my church convention, Crummell is said to have paused for a moment, and then said, I will never enter your diocese on such terms. In 1847, Crummell traveled to England to raise money for his congregation at the Church of the Messiah, while there, Crummell preached, spoke about abolitionism in the United States, and raised almost $2,000
34.
Alain LeRoy Locke
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Alain Leroy Locke was an American writer, philosopher, educator, and patron of the arts. Distinguished as the first African American Rhodes Scholar in 1907, Locke was the philosophical architect —the acknowledged Dean— of the Harlem Renaissance, as a result, popular listings of influential African-Americans have repeatedly included him. On March 19,1968, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. proclaimed, Were going to let our children know that the philosophers that lived were not Plato and Aristotle. Du Bois and Alain Locke came through the universe, Alain Locke was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 13,1885 to Pliny Ishmael Locke and Mary Hawkins Locke. He has been the child of a well-to-do family with significant pedigree. His mother Mary, who was a teacher, incited in him his passion for education, in 1902, he graduated from Central High School in Philadelphia, second in his class. He also attended Philadelphia School of Pedagogy, in 1907, Locke graduated from Harvard University with degrees in English and philosophy, and was honored as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society and recipient of the prestigious Bowdoin Prize. After graduation, he was the first African-American selected as a Rhodes Scholar, at that time, Rhodes selectors did not meet candidates in person, but there is evidence that at least some selectors knew he was African-American. On arriving at Oxford, Locke was denied admission to several colleges and he was finally admitted to Hertford College, where he studied literature, philosophy, Greek, and Latin, from 1907–1910. In 1910, he attended the University of Berlin, where he studied philosophy, if once more it should prove impossible for nations to understand one another as nations, then, as Goethe said, they must learn to tolerate each other as individuals. Locke received an assistant professorship in English at Howard University in 1912, while at Howard, he became a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. Locke returned to Harvard in 1916 to work on his doctoral dissertation, in his thesis, he discusses the causes of opinions and social biases, and that these are not objectively true or false, and therefore not universal. Locke received his PhD in philosophy in 1918, Locke returned to Howard University as the chair of the department of philosophy. During this period, he began teaching the first classes on race relations, after being reinstated in 1928, Locke remained at Howard until his retirement in 1953. Locke Hall, on the Howard campus, is named after him, Locke promoted African-American artists, writers, and musicians, encouraging them to look to Africa as an inspiration for their works. He encouraged them to depict African and African-American subjects, and to draw on their history for subject material. In December of that year, he expanded the issue into The New Negro, a collection of writings by African Americans, a landmark in black literature, it was an instant success. Locke contributed five essays, the Foreword, The New Negro, Negro Youth Speaks, The Negro Spirituals, Lockes philosophy of the New Negro was grounded in the concept of race-building
35.
Harry Burleigh
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Henry Thacker Harry Burleigh, a baritone, was an African-American classical composer, arranger, and professional singer. Henry Thacker Burleigh was born in Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1866 to Henry Thacker and Elizabeth Burleigh. His grandfather, Hamilton Waters, was granted manumission from slavery in Somerset County, Maryland, for himself for $50 and for his mother for $5 in 1832 and they traveled to Ithaca, New York, where two of Hamiltons half-brothers lived. After his mother died, Hamilton married Lucinda Duncanson and their first child, Elizabeth Lovey Waters, who would be Harry T. Burleighs mother, was born in Lansing, New York, in 1838. Later that year the family moved to Erie, Pennsylvania, which would be the home until the 1920s. Elizabeth, who graduated from Avery College in Pittsburgh in 1855, was denied a position in the Erie Public Schools. Burleighs father, Henry Thacker Burleigh, a veteran in the Civil War, was the first black juror in Erie County in 1871. After his early death in 1873, Elizabeth married John Elmendorf in 1875, Burleighs grandfather who was known for his exceptionally melodious voice, taught young Harry and his brother Reginald traditional spirituals and slave songs. He studied voice with George F. Brierly, and during and he was employed as a soloist by several Erie churches and the Jewish synagogue and appeared as soloist at many community and civic events. With the aid of a scholarship, Burleigh at the age of 26 was accepted to the prestigious National Conservatory of Music in New York, though at first the Conservatory denied Burleigh entrance, citing low grades, Mrs. MacDowell insisted that he try his entrance exam again. Days later, he received a scholarship, to help support himself there, Burleigh worked for Mrs. MacDowell as a handyman, cleaning and working on anything she needed. Burleigh said, I sang our Negro songs for him very often, Dvořák said, In the negro melodies of America I discover all that is needed for a great and noble school of music. In 1922, another student of Dvořák, William Arms Fisher, No evidence seems to exist that the song existed before 1922, or the melody before the Symphony, although both are disputed. See also the Talk page of the Symphony, in 1893 Burleigh assisted Dvořák in copying out instrumental parts for the symphony. The following year, Burleigh sang in Dvořáks arrangement of Pennsylvania native Stephen C, fosters classic Old Folks at Home. He graduated in 1896, and later served on the conservatorys faculty, Burleigh began his singing career as the baritone in his family’s quartet. By the time Burleigh left Erie in January 1892, he was singing with the city’s best vocalists at civic events and church gatherings. At the end of the summer of 1892, Burleigh gave a performance in the Adirondacks, at North Hudson, New York, as the featured soloist in the summer school for Christian workers
36.
Robert Nathaniel Dett
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Robert Nathaniel Dett, often known as R. Nathaniel Dett and Nathaniel Dett, was a composer, organist, pianist and music professor. While born in Canada, he spent most of his career in the United States. He was among the first Black composers during the years of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. His works often appeared among the programs of Will Marion Cooks New York Syncopated Orchestra, Dett performed at Carnegie Hall and at the Boston Symphony Hall as a pianist and choir director. Dett was born in Drummondville, Ontario, where he studied piano at an early age and he was the son of Charlotte Washington Dett and Robert T. Dett, his mother was a native of Drummondville and his father was from the United States. As a child, his mother encouraged him to memorize passages of Shakespeare, Longfellow, in 1893, the family moved to Niagara Falls, New York. At about age 14, he played piano for his local church and he studied at the Oliver Willis Halstead Conservatory of Music from 1901 to 1903. He continued his studies at the Lockport Conservatory, matriculating to the Oberlin Conservatory of Music. He was the first black student to complete the course at Oberlin. Dett toured as a concert pianist and during this period wrote only rudimentary piano compositions and he then came under the influence of Emma Azalia Hackley, a soprano singer, who inspired his interest in black American folk music. In 1907, he completed his first degree, a Bachelor of Music with a major in composition, after graduation, Dett started teaching at Tennessees Lane College followed by a tenure at the Lincoln Institute in Jefferson City, Missouri. During this period, he wrote practical choral and piano pieces suitable for his students, the 1913 piece In the Bottoms contains one of his most played movements, Dance Juba. Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler performed the work at the Chicago Music Hall, soon after this he became the first black director of music at the Hampton Institute in Virginia where he maintained the position from 1913 to 1932. During this near twenty-year period, he founded the Hampton Choral Union, Musical Arts Society, Hampton Institute Choir and School of Music. He encouraged his Hampton student, soprano Dorothy Maynor, to pursue a career as a concert artist and his position as a major pianist-composer was earned in 1914. His piece Magnolia was performed at the Samuel Coleridge-Taylor Club, on June 3 that year he performed Magnolia and In the Bottoms. The Chicago Evening Post reported that among the works on the All Colored program, his works were the most innovative, on December 27,1916, he married Helen Elise Smith— the first graduate of the Institute of Musical Art, which became the Juilliard School of performing arts. In 1918, Dett wrote of his goals, We have this wonderful store of folk music—the melodies of an enslaved people
37.
Zora Neale Hurston
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Zora Neale Hurston was an African-American novelist, short story writer, folklorist, and anthropologist. Of Hurstons four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, Hurston was the fifth of eight children of John Hurston and Lucy Ann Hurston, two former slaves. Her father was a Baptist preacher, tenant farmer, and carpenter and she was born in Notasulga, Alabama, on January 7,1891, where her father grew up and her grandfather was the preacher of a Baptist church. When she was three, her moved to Eatonville, Florida, in 1887 it was one of the first all-black towns to be incorporated in the United States. Hurston said she felt that Eatonville was home to her as she grew up there. Her father later was elected as mayor of the town in 1897 and in 1902 became preacher of its largest church, Hurston later used Eatonville as a backdrop in her stories. It was a place where African Americans could live as they desired, in 1901, some northern schoolteachers visited Eatonville and gave Hurston a number of books that opened her mind to literature, she described it as a kind of birth. Hurston spent the remainder of her childhood in Eatonville, and describes the experience of growing up there in her 1928 essay, How It Feels to Be Colored Me. Her father remarried to Matte Moge, this was considered a minor scandal, Hurstons father and stepmother sent her away to a Baptist boarding school in Jacksonville, Florida. They eventually stopped paying her tuition and the school expelled her and she later worked as a maid to the lead singer in a traveling Gilbert & Sullivan theatrical company. In 1917, Hurston began attending Morgan College, the school division of Morgan State University. At this time, apparently to qualify for a free high-school education and she graduated from the high school of Morgan State University in 1918. In 1918, Hurston began her studies at Howard University, where she one of the earliest initiates of Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. and co-founded The Hilltop. While there, she took courses in Spanish, English, Greek and public speaking, in 1921, she wrote a short story, John Redding Goes to Sea, which qualified her to become a member of Alaine Lockes literary club, The Stylus. Hurston left Howard in 1924 and in 1925 was offered a scholarship by Barnard trustee Annie Nathan Meyer to Barnard College, Columbia University, Hurston received her B. A. in anthropology in 1928, when she was 37. While she was at Barnard, she conducted research with noted anthropologist Franz Boas of Columbia University. She also worked with Ruth Benedict as well as fellow anthropology student Margaret Mead, after graduating from Barnard, Hurston spent two years as a graduate student in anthropology at Columbia University. Living in Harlem in the 1920s, Hurston befriended the likes of Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen and her apartment, according to some accounts, was a popular spot for social gatherings
38.
Harlem Renaissance
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The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. During the time, it was known as the New Negro Movement, the Harlem Renaissance was considered to be a rebirth of African-American arts. The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s, many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this flowering of Negro literature, as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic, soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen blacks had been elected and served in Congress, the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was denounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most Negros and many poor whites and they established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats. Convict laborers were typically subject to forms of corporal punishment, overwork. While a small number of blacks were able to land shortly after the Civil War. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers, most of the African-American literary movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves and their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the Negro neighborhoods of the North, African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life, uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the middle class. Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s, in 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War, due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North
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Manning Marable
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William Manning Marable was an American professor of public affairs, history and African-American Studies at Columbia University. Marable founded and directed the Institute for Research in African-American Studies and he authored several texts and was active in progressive political causes. At the time of his death, he had completed a biography of human rights activist Malcolm X titled Malcolm X, A Life of Reinvention, Marable was born and raised in Dayton, Ohio. His parents were graduates of Central State, an historically black university in nearby Wilberforce. His mother was a minister and held a Ph. D. In April 1968, at the behest of his mother, 17-year old Marable covered the funeral of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Atlanta and he graduated from Jefferson Township High School shortly thereafter. Marable received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Earlham College and went on to earn his masters degree and Ph. D. in history, at the University of Wisconsin, Marable served as Chair of Movement for a Democratic Society. Marable served on the Board of Directors for the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network, Marable was also a member of the New York Legislatures Amistad Commission, created to review state curriculum regarding the slave trade. Marable was a critic of Afrocentrism, in a 2008 column, Marable endorsed Senator Barack Obamas bid for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination. Marable, who was diagnosed with sarcoidosis, underwent a lung transplant as treatment in summer 2010. Marable died of complications from pneumonia on April 1,2011, marables biography of Malcolm X concluded that Malcolm X exaggerated his early criminal career, and engaged in a homosexual relationship with a white businessman. He also concluded that some of the killers of Malcolm X are still alive and were never charged, Malcolm X, A Life of Reinvention was nominated for the National Book Award, and The New York Times ranked it among the 10 Best Books of 2011. It was one of three nominees for the inaugural Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction presented by the American Library Association for the best adult non-fiction and it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for History in 2012. Manning Marable interview via Tavis Smiley Marable Memorial Film Interview with Marable on New Books in Biography McMillian, John
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Pan-Africanism
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Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all people of African descent. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, the ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are intertwined. At its core Pan-Africanism is a belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and the Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Johannesburg, Pan-Africanism stresses the need for collective self-reliance. Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective, du Bois, and others in the diaspora. Solidarity will enable self-reliance, allowing the potential to independently provide for its people to be fulfilled. Crucially, an alliance would empower African people globally. that would unsettle social and political structures. in the Americas. United, African nations will have the economic, political and social clout to act and compete on the stage as do other large entities, such as the European Union. Pan-Africans or Pan-Africanists—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political, critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African descent. They also point to the difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent, as a philosophy, Pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Another important political form of a religious Pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism, in London, the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery. The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and they wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp, William Pitt and other members of the white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales, the future George IV. Modern Pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century, the African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester-Williams, who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister, Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied a political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the “quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent”, Nkrumah’s pan-African principles, intended for a union between the Independent African states, upon a recognition their commonality, suppression under imperialism. The Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders, with the exception of South Africa, all Independent States of the Continent attended, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The Conference signified a monumental event in the movement, as it revealed a political and social union between the those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among the States, of unity, frantz Fanon, journalist, freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian, FLN Party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria
The Souls of Black Folk public domain audiobook at LibriVox