1.
Maquet
–
Maquet is a multinational German company based in Rastatt with focus on equipment for surgical workplaces, anesthesia systems, workstations for intensive care and cardiovascular devices. MAQUET does business in three primary divisions - Surgical Workplaces, Critical Care and Cardiovascular, Maquet is one of the three primary business units of Swedish parent Getinge Group. The company manufactured and sold patient chairs and other health care equipment, in 1876 it was a takeover of the company by Curt Maquet. In 1933 the company relocated to Rastatt, Germany, in 2000 MAQUET was acquired by Getinge Group, leading to the foundation of the business area Medical Systems within the Getinge group. In 2008 MAQUET acquired US-based Datascope Corporation, which was ranked among the top three leaders of intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation technology. Their products were sold globally through direct sales representatives and independent distributors, founded in 1964, Datascope is headquartered in Montvale, New Jersey, and maintains a state-of-the-art R&D facility in Mahwah, New Jersey. On March 12,2008 Chinese medical device manufacturer Mindray announced that they reached agreement with Datascope to acquire Datascope’s patient monitoring business, the acquisition launched Mindray into the ranks of leading international medical device vendors and created the then third-largest player in the global patient monitoring device industry. Mindray paid Datascope $202 million cash in the transaction, Datascope retained approximately $38 million of receivables generated by the patient monitoring business for a total of $250 million. The Datascope PMB generated $161.3 million in sales in 2007, Mindray expected around $30 million of run-rate synergies in manufacturing, SG&A and R&D within 3 years
Maquet
–
The Gold Standard
2.
Twenty Years After
–
Twenty Years After is a novel by Alexandre Dumas, first serialized from January to August 1845. A book of the DArtagnan Romances, it is a sequel to The Three Musketeers, through the words of the main characters, particularly Athos, Dumas comes out on the side of the monarchy in general, or at least the text often praises the idea of benevolent royalty. His musketeers are valiant and just in their efforts to protect young Louis XIV, the action begins during the regency of Queen Anne of Austria, with Cardinal Mazarin as First Minister. He is summoned by Mazarin, who requires an escort, the French people detest Mazarin, DArtagnan is sent to the Bastille to retrieve a prisoner, who turns out to be his former adversary, the Comte de Rochefort. Having determined that dArtagnan is the man he seeks, Mazarin enters the chambers of the Queen to let her know that he has enlisted the man who had served her so well twenty years earlier. The Queen, feeling guilty for having forgotten dArtagnans service, gives Mazarin a diamond ring to return to dArtagnan, the avaricious Mazarin merely uses the diamond to show dArtagnan that he is once again to enter the Queens service. He commissions dArtagnan to go in search of his friends, DArtagnan is at a loss, he has completely lost touch with his friends, who have resumed their real names. Athos, the Comte de la Fère, had returned to his estate near Blois, Porthos, Monsieur du Vallon, had married a widow, and Aramis became a priest. Fortune intervenes when Planchet, his old servant, enters dArtagnans chambers, through Planchet, he locates Bazin, Aramis old servant, now beadle at Notre Dame. Though Bazin is unwilling to help, dArtagnan is able to out, through an altar boy. DArtagnan and Planchet go there, where they are set upon by a group who think them Frondeurs while outside the house of Madame de Longueville. When this group is satisfied that dArtagnan is not the man they seek, DArtagnan finds that the former musketeer, who had thought of little other than being a priest, is now a priest who thinks of little other than being a soldier. Aramis is not willing to enter into Mazarins service, however, DArtagnan leaves but waits in hiding, suspecting that Aramis is both the Frondeur who had been sought earlier and the lover of Madame de Longueville. The visit to Aramis was not fruitless, as it yielded the address of Porthos, when dArtagnan arrives at Porthos estate he finds Mousqueton, who is overjoyed to meet dArtagnan and Planchet. He finds that Porthos, despite his wealth and life spent in pursuit of amusement, is not happy, Porthos desires to become a baron, and with this bait dArtagnan lures him into Mazarins service. DArtagnan then continues his search for Athos, whom he finds almost completely changed, to be an example to his ward, Raoul. In Paris, Athos visits Madame de Chevreuse, the mistress of Aramis, with whom, under the name Marie Michon. Athos reveals, discreetly, that Raoul is the son born of an encounter he had with her
Twenty Years After
–
Twenty Years After
3.
Alexandre Dumas
–
Alexandre Dumas, also known as Alexandre Dumas, père, was a French writer. His works have translated into nearly 100 languages, and he is one of the most widely read French authors. His novels have been adapted since the twentieth century for nearly 200 films. Dumas last novel, The Knight of Sainte-Hermine, unfinished at his death, was completed by a scholar and published in 2005 and it was published in English in 2008 as The Last Cavalier. Prolific in several genres, Dumas began his career by writing plays and he also wrote numerous magazine articles and travel books, his published works totalled 100,000 pages. In the 1840s, Dumas founded the Théâtre Historique in Paris and his father, General Thomas-Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie, was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue to a French nobleman and an enslaved African woman. At age 14 Thomas-Alexandre was taken by his father to France, Dumas fathers aristocratic rank helped young Alexandre acquire work with Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans. He later began working as a writer, finding early success, decades later, in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte in 1851, Dumas fell from favour and left France for Belgium, where he stayed for several years. Upon leaving Belgium, Dumas moved to Russia for a few years before going to Italy, in 1861, he founded and published the newspaper LIndipendente, which supported the Italian unification effort. In 1864, he returned to Paris, though married, in the tradition of Frenchmen of higher social class, Dumas had numerous affairs. In his lifetime, he was known to have at least four illegitimate or natural children and he acknowledged and assisted his son, Alexandre Dumas, to become a successful novelist and playwright. They are known as Alexandre Dumas père and Alexandre Dumas fils, among his affairs, in 1866, Dumas had one with Adah Isaacs Menken, an American actress then less than half his age and at the height of her career. The English playwright Watts Phillips, who knew Dumas in his life, described him as the most generous. He also was the most delightfully amusing and egotistical creature on the face of the earth and his tongue was like a windmill – once set in motion, you never knew when he would stop, especially if the theme was himself. Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie was born in 1802 in Villers-Cotterêts in the department of Aisne, in Picardy and he had two older sisters, Marie-Alexandrine and Louise-Alexandrine. Their parents were Marie-Louise Élisabeth Labouret, the daughter of an innkeeper, at the time of Alexandres birth, his father was impoverished. It is not known whether she was born in Saint-Domingue or in Africa, brought as a boy to France by his father and legally freed there, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas Davy was educated in a military school and joined the army as a young man. As an adult, Thomas-Alexandre used his mothers name, Dumas, as his surname after a break with his father, Dumas was promoted to general by the age of 31, the first soldier of Afro-Antilles origin to reach that rank in the French army
Alexandre Dumas
–
Dumas in 1855
Alexandre Dumas
–
General
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, father of Alexandre Dumas.
Alexandre Dumas
–
Château de Monte-Cristo
Alexandre Dumas
–
Dumas later in his career
4.
Musketeers of the Guard
–
They were founded in 1622 when Louis XIII furnished a company of light cavalry with muskets. The Musketeers fought in both on foot and on horseback. They formed the guard for the king while he was outside of the royal residences. Shortly after the Musketeers were established a company was founded to report to Cardinal Richelieu. At the cardinals death in 1642, the passed to his successor Cardinal Mazarin. He revived the Musketeers in 1657 with a company of 150 men, at Mazarins death in 1661, the cardinals Musketeers passed to Louis XIV. In 1664, the two companies were reorganized, one took the name Grey Musketeers from the color of their matched horses, while the second were called Black Musketeers. At roughly the time, the size of the Musketeer companies was doubled. The Musketeers were among the most prestigious of the companies of the Ancien Régime. In 1776, the Musketeers were disbanded by Louis XVI for budgetary reasons, reformed in 1789, they were disbanded again shortly after the French Revolution. They were reformed on July 6,1814, and definitively disbanded on January 1,1816
Musketeers of the Guard
–
Uniforms of Musketeers of the Guard, 1660-1814
Musketeers of the Guard
–
Flag of the 1st Company of the Musketeers of the Guard, 1715. Motto: Quo ruit et lethum - to fall, there is death
Musketeers of the Guard
–
Musketeer of the Guard c. 1660
Musketeers of the Guard
–
Musketeers c. 1660
5.
Athos (fictional character)
–
Athos, Count de la Fère, is a fictional character in the novels The Three Musketeers, Twenty Years After, and The Vicomte de Bragelonne by Alexandre Dumas, père. He is a fictionalised version of the historical musketeer Armand de Sillègue dAthos dAutevielle. In The Three Musketeers, he and the other two musketeers, Porthos and Aramis, are friends of the novels protagonist, dArtagnan and he has a mysterious past connecting him with the villain of the novel, Milady de Winter. The oldest by some years, Athos is described as noble and handsome but also very secretive and he is very protective of dArtagnan, the youngest, whom he eventually treats as a son. He ends up masterminding a second attempt, which is this time successful, in the second novel, Twenty Years After, he has retired from the service and abandoned his nom-de-guerre of Athos. After launching his son into the career, Athos however seeks new causes to occupy his life and successively embraces the Fronde. The Count de la Fère he is terrified by the appearance of Mordaunt, the son of Milady. Athos, despite his reluctance to engage with the son of his ex-wife and his part in the novels various plotlines is after this minimal. Athos eventually falls out with king Louis XIV of France, who has seduced his sons fiancée, after being pardoned at dArtagnans instigation, Athos withdraws to his home, where he dies of sorrow after his son is killed at war. Athoss first name is never told in the novels, however, in Dumass play The Youth of the Musketeers, the young Milady, then named Charlotte, calls the then Vicomte de la Fère, Olivier. The fictional Athos is named after the historical musketeer Armand de Sillègue dAthos dAutevielle and his birthplace is the commune of Athos-Aspis in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department. The name also resembles Mount Athos, which is referred to in chapter 13 of The Three Musketeers in which a Bastille guard says, But that is not a mans name, that is the name of a mountain
Athos (fictional character)
–
Athos
6.
Aramis
–
The Aramis was an experimental personal rapid transit system developed in France for deployment in the Paris area. Aramis included the feature of non-mechanical platooning that allowed the small cars to run as virtual trains in areas of higher transit density. This would allow the system to high throughput in busy areas, with the trains breaking up into individual cars. In spite of development, the platooning system was never made to work properly. The project was shut down in November 1987, its place taken by the conventional Véhicule Automatique Léger system developed through the same period. Phase 0 of Aramis began in 1969, during Phase 0, the patent was processed, a test site was determined, and the Aramis development committee was created. During Phase 1, more test sites were researched, variable-reluctance motor was developed, during Phase 2a, Aramis was simplified for economic reasons. Phase 3A started in 1978, and during phase 3A tests of the main components were run. Phase 3B was the phase for Aramis, it started in 1982. During the report for phase 3B, Aramis looked like it was in shape, however. Technical development was conducted by Engins Matra company, which then became Matra Transport, the project was financed by the French agency DATAR. The project met with failures, for both social and technological reasons. In Bruno Latours book on the subject, Aramis, or the Love of Technology, the original intention for Aramis was to be an ideal urban transportation system based on private cars in constant motion and the elimination of unnecessary transfers. This new form of transportation was intended to be as secure, the proposed system had custom-designed motors, sensors, controls, digital electronics, software and a major installation in southern Paris. The demonstration of the technology in 1970 was a success, what set Aramis apart from other personal rapid transit projects were non-material couplings. Non-material couplings were linking elements that would allow each vehicle to be self-contained, unlike trains, individual Aramis were not physically attached. Social concerns made the development of Aramis difficult, the safety of passengers was at risk because of the lack of security in private cars. Point-to-point travel for passengers, a feature of Personal Rapid Transit, was removed from the specifications around 1973 because of the extra cost of the turnouts
Aramis
–
ARAMIS test track by the Gare de Boulevard Victor, Paris
Aramis
7.
Republicanism
–
Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty. Many countries are republics in the sense that they are not monarchies, however, this article covers only the ideology of republicanism. This form of government collapsed in the part of the 1st century BCE, giving way to what was a monarchy in form. Republics revived subsequently, with, for example, Renaissance Florence or early modern Britain, the concept of a republic became a powerful force in Britains North American colonies where it led to the American Revolution. In Europe, it gained influence through the French Revolution. In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism, traditionally, the Greek concept of politeia was rendered into Latin as res publica. Consequently, political theory until relatively recently often used republic in the sense of regime. There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with an understanding of the term republic. However, most of the features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue, for example, in The Republic, Plato places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue together with personal virtue on the part of the ideal rulers. Indeed, in Book V, Plato asserts that until rulers have the nature of philosophers or philosophers become the rulers, there can be no civic peace or happiness. Aristotle considered Carthage to have been a republic as it had a system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta. Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BCE. In one of works, De re publica, Cicero linked the Roman concept of res publica to the Greek politeia. However, the term republic, despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman res publica. This Roman Republic would, by an understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system, several offices from the republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor, ciceros description of the ideal state, in De re publica, does not equate to a modern-day republic, it is more like enlightened absolutism
Republicanism
–
Thomas Paine
Republicanism
–
A revolutionary republican hand-written bill from the Stockholm riots during the
Revolutions of 1848, reading: "Dethrone
Oscar he is not fit to be a king – rather the Republic! Reform! Down with the Royal house – long live
Aftonbladet! Death to the king – Republic! Republic! – the people!
Brunkeberg this evening." The writer's identity is unknown.
8.
July Monarchy
–
The July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the government of Charles X. The king promised to follow the juste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of the supporters of Charles X. The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy bourgeoisie and numerous former Napoleonic officials and it followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of François Guizot. The king promoted friendship with Great Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, by 1848, a year in which many European states had a revolution, the kings popularity had collapsed and he was overthrown. Louis Phillipe was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris, the republicans, who had set up barricades in the capital, and the liberal bourgeoisie. However, at the end of his reign the so-called Citizen King was overthrown by similar barricades during the February Revolution of 1848, the Legitimists withdrew from the political stage to their castles, leaving the stage opened for the struggle between the Orleanists and the Republicans. Louis-Philippe was crowned King of the French, instead of King of France, Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil, a large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force, late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy, however, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution, thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, however, this still represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group, beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters, the inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King—stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, one of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies, in addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of actions, of course, with royal approval
July Monarchy
–
Louis-Philippe I, King of the French. The King is depicted at the entrance of the Gallerie des batailles which he had furnished in the
Château de Versailles.
July Monarchy
–
Flag
July Monarchy
–
Liberty Leading the People (1830) by
Eugène Delacroix commemorates the
July Revolution of 1830. The child with two pistols to the right of Liberty (who holds the
tricolor flag) would be
Victor Hugo 's inspiration for
Gavroche in
Les Misérables. [
citation needed]
July Monarchy
–
Silver five-
franc coin featuring
Louis Philippe from 1834. The obverse French inscription is Louis Philippe I, Roi des Français ("Louis Philippe I, King of the French."
9.
French Revolution of 1848
–
The 1848 Revolution in France, sometimes known as the February Revolution, was one of a wave of revolutions in 1848 in Europe. In France the revolutionary events ended the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic, following the overthrow of King Louis Philippe in February 1848, the elected government of the Second Republic ruled France. In the months that followed, this government steered a course became more conservative. On 2 December 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President of the Second Republic, exactly three years later he suspended the elected assembly, establishing the Second French Empire, which lasted until 1870. Louis Napoléon would go on to become the de facto last French monarch, the February revolution established the principle of the right to work, and its newly established government created National Workshops for the unemployed. At the same time a sort of parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc. These tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists led to the June Days Uprising, under the Charter of 1814, Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of a constitutional monarchy. He had no desire to rule as a monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch. In 1830, Charles X of France, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisors Jules, Prince de Polignac and these ordinances abolished freedom of the press, reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked a reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of 26–29 July 1830. Charles was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for the United Kingdom, as a result, Louis Philippe, of the Orléanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830, and his rule became known as the July Monarchy. Nicknamed the Bourgeois Monarch, Louis Philippe sat at the head of a liberal state controlled mainly by educated elites. Supported by the Orleanists, he was opposed on his right by the Legitimists and on his left by the Republicans, Louis Philippe was an expert businessman and, by means of his businesses, he had become one of the richest men in France. Still Louis Philippe saw himself as the embodiment of a small businessman. Consequently, he and his government did not look with favour on the big business, especially, Louis Philippe did, however, support the bankers, large and small. Indeed, at the beginning of his reign in 1830, Jaques Laffitte, a banker and liberal politician who supported Louis Philippes rise to the throne, said From now on, by 1848 only about one percent of the population held the franchise. Even though France had a press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, early in 1848, some Orleanist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against him, disappointed by Louis Philippes opposition to parliamentarism
French Revolution of 1848
–
Lamartine in front of the Town Hall of Paris rejects the red flag on 25 February 1848 by
Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux
French Revolution of 1848
–
Louis-Philippe I, the last King of the French
French Revolution of 1848
–
Louis Blanc, one of the two workers' representatives in the Assembly of the Second Republic
French Revolution of 1848
–
"Messieurs
Victor Hugo and
Emile de Girardin try to raise
Prince Louis upon a shield [in the heroic Roman fashion]: not too steady!"
Honoré Daumier 's satirical
lithograph published in
Charivari, 11 December 1848.
10.
French Second Republic
–
The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, the Second Republic witnessed the tension between the Social and Democratic Republic and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848. The industrial population of the faubourgs was welcomed by the National Guard on their way towards the centre of Paris, barricades were raised after the shooting of protestors outside the Guizot manor by soldiers. On 23 February 1848 Guizots cabinet resigned, abandoned by the petite bourgeoisie, the heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left, Molé and Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon Barrot accepted it, and Bugeaud, commander-in-chief of the first military division, in the face of the insurrection which had now taken possession of the whole capital, Louis-Philippe decided to abdicate in favour of his grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris. The Republic was then proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob. But this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the Hôtel de Ville and it had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies, in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate republicans. It was uncertain what the policy of the new government would be, the other party wished to maintain society on the basis of its traditional institutions, and rallied round the tricolore. The first collision took place as to the form which the 1848 Revolution was to take. On 5 March the government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided in favour of a reference to the people, and direct universal suffrage. This added the uneducated masses to the electorate and led to the election of the Constituent Assembly of 4 May 1848, the socialists thus formed a sort of state-within-a-state, complete with a government and an armed force. Even this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive, and all over France, workmen quit their jobs and traveled to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the red flag. The socialist economic plan was straining state finances, and as the émeute of 15 May had proven that it constituted a menace to the state. The socialist party was defeated and afterwards its members were deported, by the massacres of the June Days, the working classes were also alienated from it. The Duke of Wellington wrote at this time, France needs a Napoleon, the granting of universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist sympathies would benefit reactionaries, which culminated in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as president of the republic. The new constitution, proclaiming a republic, direct universal suffrage. Under the new constitution, there was to be a single permanent Assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three years by the scrutin de liste, the Assembly would elect members of a Council of State to serve for six years. Laws would be proposed by the Council of State, to be voted on by the Assembly and he was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible to the Assembly
French Second Republic
–
"Messrs.
Victor Hugo and
Émile de Girardin try to raise Prince Louis upon a shield [in the heroic Roman fashion]: not too steady!"
Honoré Daumier 's: satirical lithograph published in Charivari, 11 December 1848
French Second Republic
–
Flag
11.
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
–
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie was a general in Revolutionary France and the highest-ranking man of African descent ever in a European army. He was the first person of color in the French military to become general, the first to become divisional general. He was born into slavery because of his mothers status but was born into nobility because of his fathers. His father took the boy with him to France in 1776 and had him educated, slavery had been illegal in metropolitan France since 1315 and thus any slave would be freed de facto by being in the country. His father helped Thomas-Alexandre enter the French military, Dumas played a pivotal role in the French Revolutionary Wars. Entering the military as a private at age 24, Dumas rose by age 31 to command 53,000 troops as the General-in-Chief of the French Army of the Alps. Dumass strategic victory in opening the high Alps passes enabled the French to initiate their Second Italian Campaign against the Austrian Empire, during the battles in Italy, Austrian troops nicknamed Dumas as the Schwarzer Teufel. The French – notably Napoleon – nicknamed him the Horatius Cocles of the Tyrol for single-handedly defeating a squadron of troops at a bridge over the Eisack River in Clausen. Dumas served as commander of the French cavalry forces on the Expédition d’Égypte, a failed French attempt to conquer Egypt, on the march from Alexandria to Cairo, he clashed verbally with the Expeditions supreme commander Napoleon Bonaparte, under whom he had served in the Italian campaigns. In March 1799, Dumas left Egypt on a vessel, which was forced to put aground in the southern Italian Kingdom of Naples. He languished there until the spring of 1801, returning to France after his release, he and his wife had a son, Alexandre Dumas, who became one of Frances most widely read authors of all time. Alexandre Dumas Juniors most famous characters were inspired by his fathers life, the general’s grandson, Alexandre Dumas, fils, would become one of Frances most celebrated playwrights of the second half of the nineteenth century. Another grandson, Henry Bauër, who was never recognized by the novelist Dumas, was a prominent left-leaning theater critic in the same period, the Generals great-grandson, Gérard Bauër, son of Henry Bauër, was also an accomplished writer in the twentieth century. A great-great-grandson, Alexandre Lippmann, was a gold medalist in fencing at the 1908 and 1924 Olympic games. Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie, born 1714, was the oldest of three sons of the Marquis Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie and Jeanne-Françoise Paultre, de Dominon, the Davy de la Pailleteries were provincial Norman aristocrats whose wealth was in decline. The family had acquired the title of lords by 1632, the French kingdom granted the title marquis to the family by 1708. Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie had two brothers, Charles Anne Edouard born in 1716, and Louis François Thérèse born in 1718. All three were educated at a school and pursued careers as officers in the French military
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
–
Alexandre Dumas, painting by Olivier Pichat
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
–
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, c.1800, in Republican Army uniform
12.
French Revolutionary Wars
–
The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts, lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic against Britain, Austria and several other monarchies and they are divided in two periods, the War of the First Coalition and the War of the Second Coalition. Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded, French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. The Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty to the new direction France was taking. In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, the victory rejuvenated the French nation and emboldened the National Convention to abolish the monarchy. A series of victories by the new French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden in the spring of 1793, by 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general called Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796, in less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, the War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon, in 1798. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland—racking up victories at Magnano, Cassano. However, their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, meanwhile, Napoleons forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleons popularity back in France, however, the Royal Navy had managed to inflict a humiliating defeat on the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of the Mediterranean. Napoleons arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleons government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, in 1789–1792, the entire governmental structure of France was transformed to fall into line with the Revolutionary principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. As a result, one of the first major elements of the French state to be restructured was the army, the transformation of the army was best seen in the officer corps. Before the revolution 90% had been nobility, compared to only 3% in 1794, Revolutionary fervour was high, and was closely monitored by the Committee of Public Safety, which assigned Representatives on Mission to keep watch on generals
French Revolutionary Wars
–
The
Battle of Valmy
French Revolutionary Wars
–
Anonymous caricature depicting the treatment given to the
Brunswick Manifesto by the French population
French Revolutionary Wars
–
While the
First Coalition attacked the new Republic, France faced civil war and counterrevolutionary
guerrilla war. Here, several insurgents of the
Chouannerie have been taken prisoner.
French Revolutionary Wars
–
General Jourdan at the
battle of Fleurus, 26 June 1794
13.
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV of France
–
1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
14.
Cologne
–
Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
Cologne
–
From top to bottom, left to right:
Hohenzollern Bridge by night,
Great St. Martin Church,
Colonius TV-tower,
Cologne Cathedral,
Kranhaus buildings in
Rheinauhafen,
MediaPark
Cologne
–
Cologne around 1411
Cologne
–
Hängebrücke
Cologne
–
The devastation of Cologne, 1945
15.
Marseille
–
Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
Marseille
–
Clockwise from top:
Notre-Dame de la Garde •
Old Port •
La Joliette with
CMA CGM Tower •
Calanque of Sugiton
Marseille
–
View of the "Petit Nice" on the Corniche with
Frioul and
Château d'If in the background
Marseille
–
Marseille seen from Spot Satellite
Marseille
–
View from Marseille's
Old Port (Vieux-Port) towards
Notre-Dame de la Garde
16.
Auguste Maquet
–
Auguste Maquet was a French author, best known as the chief collaborator of French novelist Alexandre Dumas, père, co-writing such works as The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers. Maquet was born in Paris in 1813 and he studied at the Lycée Charlemagne where he became a professor at the age of 18. Trained as a historian, he turned to literature, and became close with such figures as Théophile Gautier. Through Nerval, he acquainted with the already famous Dumas in 1838. Dumas was given a play by Maquet and rewrote it, producing the successful drama Bathilde, the two started writing historical romances together, with Maquet outlining the plot and characters in draft form and Dumas adding colorful dialogue and details. At the insistence of the publisher, Maquets name was left off the title page, the collaboration with Dumas ended in 1851. Maquet went on to produce a large body of work in terms of historical romances, plays. In 1861, he became an officer of the Légion dhonneur and he is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Maquet collaborated with Dumas on eighteen novels, and many plays, among the works he co-authored with Dumas are, Le Chevalier dHarmental — Maquets outline was called Bonhomme Buvat. Sylvandire — Based on Les Mémoires de Madame la Marquise de Fresne by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, a Bibliography of Alexandre Dumas père. Works by Auguste Maquet at Project Gutenberg Works by Alexandre Dumas, père at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Auguste Maquet at Internet Archive French works on Gallica
Auguste Maquet
–
Auguste Maquet
17.
The Count of Monte Cristo
–
The Count of Monte Cristo is an adventure novel by French author Alexandre Dumas completed in 1844. It is one of the authors most popular works, along with The Three Musketeers, like many of his novels, it was expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. The story takes place in France, Italy, and islands in the Mediterranean during the events of 1815–1839. It begins just before the Hundred Days period, the historical setting is a fundamental element of the book, an adventure story primarily concerned with themes of hope, justice, vengeance, mercy, and forgiveness. It centres on a man who is imprisoned, escapes from jail, acquires a fortune. However, his plans have devastating consequences for the innocent as well as the guilty, in addition, it is a story that involves romance, loyalty, betrayal, and selfishness, shown throughout the story as characters slowly reveal their true inner nature. The book is considered a classic today. Dumas wrote that the idea of revenge in The Count of Monte Cristo came from a story in a book compiled by Jacques Peuchet, Dumas included this essay in one of the editions from 1846. Peuchet told of a shoemaker, Pierre Picaud, living in Nîmes in 1807, Picaud was placed under a form of house arrest in the Fenestrelle Fort, where he served as a servant to a rich Italian cleric. When the man died, he left his fortune to Picaud, Picaud then spent years plotting his revenge on the three men who were responsible for his misfortune. He stabbed the first with a dagger on which were printed the words Number One, the third mans son he lured into crime and his daughter into prostitution, finally stabbing the man himself. This third man, named Loupian, had married Picauds fiancée while Picaud was under arrest, in another of the True Stories, Peuchet describes a poisoning in a family. This story, also quoted in the Pleiade edition, has served as model for the chapter of the murders inside the Villefort family. The introduction to the Pleiade edition mentions other sources from real life, as for Dantès, his fate is quite different from his model in Peuchets book, since the latter is murdered by the Caderousse of the plot. A fellow prisoner, Abbé Faria, correctly deduces that his jealous rival, Fernand Mondego, envious crewmate, Danglars, Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure. As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo, he arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him. In 1815, Edmond Dantès, a merchant sailor who has recently been granted the succession of his captain Leclère. Leclère, a supporter of the exiled Napoléon I, found himself dying at sea, on the eve of Dantès wedding to Mercédès, Fernand Mondego is given advice by Dantès colleague Danglars to send an anonymous note accusing Dantès of being a Bonapartist traitor
The Count of Monte Cristo
–
The Count of Monte Cristo
The Count of Monte Cristo
–
The main character Edmond Dantès was a merchant sailor prior to his imprisonment.
The Count of Monte Cristo
–
Classic Comics, The Count of Monte Cristo, Issue #3, published 1942.
18.
Gascony
–
Gascony is an area of southwest France that was part of the Province of Guyenne and Gascony prior to the French Revolution. The region is defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear, by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux and it is currently divided between the region of Aquitaine and the region of Midi-Pyrénées. Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque, the name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque. From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, Gascony is the land of dArtagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumass character dArtagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who became king of France as Henry IV. In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians, the Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar, later, in 27 BC, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the province of Gallia Aquitania was created. In 297, as Emperor Diocletian reformed the administrative structures of the Roman Empire, the territory of Novempopulania corresponded quite well to what we call now Gascony. The Aquitania Novempopulana or Novempopulania suffered like the rest of the Western Roman Empire from the invasions of Germanic tribes, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, and fled into Spain and Septimania, as well as Albania. Novempopulania then became part of the Frankish Kingdom like the rest of southern France, however, Novempopulania was far away from the home base of the Franks in northern France, and was only very loosely controlled by the Franks. Modern historians reject this hypothesis, which is sustained by no archeological evidence, for Juan José Larrea, and Pierre Bonnassie, a Vascon expansionism in Aquitany is not proved and is not necessary to understand the historical evolution of this region. This Basque-related culture and race is, whatever the origin, attested in Medieval documents, the word Vasconia evolved into Wasconia, and then into Gasconia. The gradual abandonment of the Basque-related Aquitanian language in favor of a local vulgar Latin, was not reversed, the replacing local vulgar Latin evolved into Gascon. It was heavily influenced by the original Aquitanian language, quite paradoxically the Basques from the French side of the Basque Country traditionally call anyone who does not speak Basque a Gascon. Meanwhile, Viking raiders conquered several Gascon towns, among them Bayonne in 842–844 and their attacks in Gascony may have helped the political disintegration of the Duchy until their defeat against William II Sánchez of Gascony in 982. In turn, the weakened ethnic polity known as Duchy of Wasconia/Wascones, unable to get round the general spread of feudalization and his 1152 marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine allowed the future Henry II to gain control of his new wifes possessions of Aquitaine and Gascony. This addition to his already plentiful holdings made Henry the most powerful vassal in France, in 1248, Simon de Montfort was appointed Governor in the unsettled Duchy of Gascony
Gascony
–
Typical view of the hilly countryside of Gascony, with the Pyrenees mountains in the far distance
Gascony
–
A map of Gascony, showing a wide definition of the region. Other maps may define a smaller area as Gascony.
Gascony
–
The Duchy was meant to hold sway over the Basques (Vascones)
Gascony
–
Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated)
19.
Meung-sur-Loire
–
Meung-sur-Loire is a commune in the Loiret department in north-central France. It was the site of the Battle of Meung-sur-Loire in 1429, Meung-sur-Loire lies 15 km to the west of Orleans on the north bank of the River Loire at the confluence with the River Mauves. The Mauves, actually three rivers, have their source in the table of the productive agricultural region of the Beauce. There is evidence of settlements at « Mousseau » and « La Haute-Murée ». A Gallo-Roman fortified village recorded as Magdunum was built in the adjoining the river. The marais was drained, according to tradition by Saint Liphard around the year 520, the canalisation formed the watercourses known as the mauves. He went on to build the chapel which was to become the monastery and his relics were deposited in the church in 1104, the year after Louis VI had founded as fortress. During the 12th century the church was rebuilt in the gothic style, jeanne dArc visited in 1429, and this was the site of the Battle of Meung-sur-Loire. The complex was restored in 1570, again during the 19th century, the river defined the town, in 1857,38 mills had the right to use the waters of the rivers to power themselves. Also in fiction, Meung-sur-Loire is the home of Chief Inspector Jules Maigret. Maigret and his wife Louise eventually retire to their Meung-sur-Loire home, where he spends his time fishing, and she tends, according to her sister, any number of animals
Meung-sur-Loire
–
Château of Meung-sur-Loire
Meung-sur-Loire
–
The Loire at Meung-sur-Loire
Meung-sur-Loire
–
The Mauve in Meung-sur-Loire
20.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Fronsac, commonly referred to as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman, nobleman, and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1607 and was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616, Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIIIs chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642, he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the kings Chief Minister or First Minister. He sought to consolidate power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong and his chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. While a powerful figure, events like the Day of the Dupes show that in fact he very much depended on the kings confidence to keep this power. As alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the Collège de Sorbonne, Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts, most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. Richelieu is also known by the sobriquet lÉminence rouge, from the red shade of a cardinals clerical dress and this in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Born in Paris, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children, at the age of nine, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career and his private life seems to have been typical of a young officer of the era, in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea. King Henry III had rewarded Richelieus father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use, they were, however, challenged by clergymen, to protect the important source of revenue, Richelieus mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk, thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong interests, and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606 King Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon, as Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from the Pope. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607, soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu, 1633–40,
Philippe de Champaigne,
National Gallery,
London
Cardinal Richelieu
–
The young King
Louis XIII was only a figurehead during his early reign; power actually rested with his mother,
Marie de Médicis.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Henri Motte 's depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the
Siege of La Rochelle.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Letter of Cardinal Richelieu to
Claude de Razilly asking him to do everything in his power to relieve
Ré Island in the
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, July 1627.
21.
Milady de Winter
–
Milady de Winter, often referred to as simply Milady, is a fictional character in the novel The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas, père, set in 1625 France. She is a spy for Cardinal Richelieu and is one of the dominant antagonists of the story and her role in the first part of the book is to seduce the English Prime Minister, the Duke of Buckingham, who is also the secret lover of Queen Anne of France. Hoping to blackmail the Queen, Richelieu orders Milady to steal two diamonds from a set of matched studs given to Buckingham by the Queen, which were a gift to her from her husband, King Louis XIII. Thwarted by dArtagnan and the musketeers, Miladys opposition of dArtagnan carries much of the second half of the novel. Described as being twenty-two, tall, fair-haired and uncommonly beautiful, with brilliant blue eyes and black lashes and brows, Milady also possesses a voice that can seduce and bewitch. Milady is later revealed to be the wife of Athos, originally the Comte de la Fère, one of the three musketeers of the novels title. Like Athos, who sheds his true identity as the Comte de la Fère when he joins the musketeers, Milady goes by numerous aliases, so that her identity is concealed for a good part of the novel. Athos first knows her as an adolescent as Anne de Breuil, as a young Benedictine nun of sixteen, she seduced the convents trusting priest. Urging him to steal the sacred vessels to finance a new life in another part of the country. Milady then seduced the son and escaped, leaving behind her first lover to be branded for theft. The priest in turn escaped, and the fled to a small town. The village where they lived was part of Athoss lands, while the pair were hunting in the forest one day, Milady fell from her horse and fainted. Cutting away her clothes so she could breathe, Athos discovered the brand on her shoulder. Dishonored, and having the right to justice on his estates. For most of the novel Athos assumes his wife is dead by his own hand, not knowing she survived the hanging. Since the Comte de la Fère effectively ceases to exist when he becomes Athos, when dArtagnan first spies Milady in Paris, she has already married into English nobility some time previously by wedding Baron Sheffield, the younger brother of Lord de Winter. After she was made her husbands heir, he died violently and mysteriously within a matter of hours, leaving her a widow with a young child, who is Lord de Winters only heir. During the assignation, Milady gives him, as des Wardes and she also reveals that she detests dArtagnan for having spared her brother-in-laws life in another duel which lost her the income from her sons potential inheritance
Milady de Winter
Milady de Winter
–
Margot Grahame as Milady de Winter in the
1935 film version
22.
Dueling
–
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the code of chivalry. During the 17th and 18th centuries, duels were fought with swords. But beginning in the late 18th century in England, duels were more commonly fought using pistols, fencing and pistol duels continued to co-exist throughout the 19th century. The duel was based on a code of honor, on rare occasions, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women, these were sometimes known as petticoat duels. Legislation against dueling goes back to the medieval period, the Fourth Council of the Lateran outlawed duels, and civil legislation in the Holy Roman Empire against dueling was passed in the wake of the Thirty Years War. From the early 17th century, duels became illegal in the countries where they were practiced, Dueling largely fell out of favor in England by the mid-19th century and in Continental Europe by the turn of the 20th century. Dueling declined in the Eastern United States in the 19th century and by the time the American Civil War broke out, dueling had begun to decline, public opinion, not legislation, caused the change. In Western society, the concept of a duel developed out of the medieval judicial duel. In Medieval society, judicial duels were fought by knights and squires to end various disputes, countries like Germany, United Kingdom, and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat were of two forms in society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms were done to settle hostilities between two parties and supervised by a judge. The battle was fought when one partys honor was disrespected or challenged upon in which the conflict cannot be resolved in court, a spiked hand guard for pumbling, and extra grip for half swording. The duel lasted until the party was too weak to fight back. In early cases, the party was then subsequently executed. If a traveling venans did not have weapons or horse to meet the challenge, one might be provided, if a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way. The Roman Catholic Church was critical of dueling throughout medieval history, judicial duels were deprecated by the Lateran Council of 1215, but the judicial duel persisted in the Holy Roman Empire into the 15th century. The word duel comes from the Latin duellum, cognate with bellum, during the early Renaissance, dueling established the status of a respectable gentleman, and was an accepted manner to resolve disputes
Dueling
–
"The Code Of Honor—A Duel In The Bois De Boulogne, Near Paris", wood engraving by
Godefroy Durand (
Harper's Weekly, January 1875)
Dueling
–
German students of a
Burschenschaft fighting a sabre duel, around 1900, painting by
Georg Mühlberg (1863–1925)
Dueling
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Dueling remained highly popular in European society, despite various attempts at banning the practice.
Dueling
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An anti-duelling sermon written by an acquaintance of
Alexander Hamilton.
23.
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
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Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
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