1.
Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin
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Ruffin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to John St. Pierre, of French and African descent from Martinique, and Elizabeth Matilda Menhenick from Cornwall, England. Her father was a clothier and founder of a Boston Zion Church. She attended public schools in Charlestown and Salem, and a school in New York City because of her parents objections to the segregated schools in Boston. She completed her studies at the Bowdoin School, after segregation in Boston schools ended, Ruffin supported womens suffrage and, in 1869, joined with Julia Ward Howe and Lucy Stone to form the American Woman Suffrage Association in Boston. A group of women, Howe and Stone also founded the New England Womens Club in 1868. Josephine Ruffin was its first bi-racial member when she joined in the mid-1890s, Ruffin also wrote for the black weekly paper, The Courant and became a member of the New England Womans Press Association. She served as the editor and publisher from 1890 to 1897, while promoting interracial activities, the Womans Era called on black women to demand increased rights for their race. In 1894, Ruffin organized the Womans Era Club, a group for black women, with the help of her daughter Florida Ridley and Maria Baldwin. In 1895, Ruffin organized the National Federation of Afro-American Women and she convened The First National Conference of the Colored Women of America in Boston, which was attended by women from 42 black womens clubs from 14 states. The following year, the merged with the Colored Womens League to form the National Association of Colored Womens Clubs. Mary Church Terrell was elected president and Ruffin served as one of the organizations vice-presidents, just as the NACWC was forming, Ruffin was integrating the New England Womans Club. Ruffin was told that she could be seated as a representative of the two clubs but not the black one. She refused on principle and was excluded from the proceedings and these events became known as The Ruffin Incident and were widely covered in newspapers around the country, most of whom supported Ruffin. Afterwards, the Womans Era Club made a statement that colored women should confine themselves to their clubs. The New Era Club was disbanded in 1903, but Ruffin remained active in the struggle for rights and, in 1910. Ruffin was one of the members of NAACP. Along with other women who had belonged to the New Era Club, she co-founded the League of Women for Community Service, Josephine and Ruffin were married in 1858 when she was 16 years old. The couple moved to Liverpool but returned to Boston soon afterwards and bought a house in the West End
2.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
3.
Maria Louise Baldwin
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Maria Louise Baldwin was an African-American educator and civic leader born and raised in Cambridge, Massachusetts. After teaching for a time in Maryland, she returned to Cambridge to teach at the Agassiz Grammar School, in 1889 she became principal, the first African-American female principal in Massachusetts and the Northeast. She became master of the school when it was expanded through high school grades and held position for 40 years. She was involved in intellectual and progressive circles. During the summers, Baldwin taught teachers in other regions and also lectured publicly, Baldwin was born to Peter L. and Mary E. Baldwin in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She received all of her education in the public schools. In 1874, Baldwin graduated from Cambridge High School, and a year later she graduated from the Cambridge normal training school for teachers, Baldwin first taught in Chestertown, Maryland, for two years. In 1881, she was hired as teacher at the Agassiz Grammar School of Cambridge. In 1889, she was promoted to principal of the school, making her the first African-American female principal in Massachusetts, as principal, Baldwin supervised white faculty and a predominantly white student body. In 1916, as a new Agassiz school was erected to include higher grades, Baldwin was made master, supervising twelve teachers and 500 students, all whites. She was one of two women in the Cambridge school system who held the position of master and the only African American in New England to hold such a position. Baldwin served as master of Agassiz school for forty years, under her leadership, it became one of the best schools in the city, attended by children of Harvard professors and many of the old Cambridge families. She introduced new methods of teaching mathematics and began art classes and she was the first to introduce the practice of hiring a school nurse. Her school was the one in the city of Cambridge to establish an “open-air” classroom. Never did any demidivine dictator more gracefully and easily rule a more unruly and her very presence emanated an honour and a glory, the honour of spiritual freedom—not mere freedom from—and the glory of being, not really undead but actually alive. From her I marvellingly learned that the truest power is gentleness and she took many classes at Harvard University and other colleges. She also was an instructor who taught courses for teachers at the Hampton Institute in Virginia. Her home was the meeting place for the Omar Khayyam Circle
4.
Women's suffrage in the United States
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The demand for womens suffrage began to gather strength in the 1840s, emerging from the broader movement for womens rights. By the time of the first National Womens Rights Convention in 1850, however, the first national suffrage organizations were established in 1869 when two competing organizations were formed, one led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the other by Lucy Stone, after years of rivalry, they merged in 1890 as the National American Woman Suffrage Association with Anthony as its leading force. Hoping the U. S. Supreme Court would rule that women had a right to vote, suffragists made several attempts to vote in the early 1870s. Anthony actually succeeded in voting in 1872 but was arrested for that act, after the Supreme Court ruled against them in 1875, suffragists began the decades-long campaign for an amendment to the U. S. Much of the energy, however, went toward working for suffrage on a state-by-state basis. In 1916 Alice Paul formed the National Womans Party, a militant group focused on the passage of a national suffrage amendment. Over 200 NWP supporters, the Silent Sentinels, were arrested in 1917 while picketing the White House, some of whom went on hunger strike, under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the two-million-member NAWSA also made a national suffrage amendment its top priority. After a hard-fought series of votes in the U. S. Congress and in state legislatures and it states, The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Lydia Taft, a widow, was allowed to vote in town meetings in Uxbridge. No other women in the era are known to have voted. The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property, laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as he or she, and women regularly voted. A law passed in 1807, however, excluded women from voting in that state, the demand for womens suffrage emerged as part of the broader movement for womens rights. In England in 1792 Mary Wollenstonecraft wrote a book called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In Boston in 1838 Sarah Grimké published The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, significant barriers had to be overcome, however, before a campaign for womens suffrage could develop significant strength. One barrier was strong opposition to involvement in public affairs. Opposition was especially strong against the idea of speaking to audiences of both men and women. Frances Wright, a Scottish woman, was subjected to criticism for delivering public lectures in the U. S. in 1826 and 1827
5.
Ida B. Wells
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Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, more commonly known as Ida B. Wells, was an African-American journalist, newspaper editor, suffragist, sociologist, feminist, Georgist, and she was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909. Born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, Wells lost her parents and she went to work and, with her grandmother, kept the rest of the family intact. She moved with some of her siblings to Memphis, Tennessee and she was active in womens rights and the womens suffrage movement, establishing several notable womens organizations. Wells was a skilled and persuasive rhetorician and traveled internationally on lecture tours and her parents James Wells and Elizabeth Lizzie Wells, were both enslaved by Spires Bolling, an architect. She was one of eight children, the family resided at Bollings house, now named the Bolling-Gatewood House, where Lizzie Wells was a cook. Idas father was a master at carpentry, after the Civil War and emancipation and he was very interested in politics and became a member of the Loyal League. He attended Shaw University in Holly Springs, but he dropped out to help his family and he also attended public speeches and campaigned for local black candidates but never ran for office himself. A religious woman, Elizabeth Wells was very strict with her children, both of Idas parents were active in the Republican Party during Reconstruction. Ida attended Shaw like her father, but she was expelled for rebellious behavior after confronting the college president, while visiting her grandmother in the Mississippi Valley in 1878, Ida, then aged 16, received word that Holly Springs had suffered a yellow fever epidemic. Both of her parents and her infant brother died during that event, Wells would find a number of men who served as father figures later in her life, particularly Alfred Froman, Theodore W. Lott, and Josiah T. Settle. Following the funerals of her parents and brother, friends and relatives decided that the six remaining Wells children should be split up, to keep her younger siblings together as a family, she found work as a teacher in a black elementary school. Her paternal grandmother, Peggy Wells, along with friends and relatives, stayed with her siblings. Without this help, she would have not been able to keep her siblings together, Wells resented that in the segregated school system, white teachers were paid $80 a month and she was paid only $30 a month. This discrimination made her interested in the politics of race. In 1883, Wells took three of her siblings to Memphis, Tennessee, to live with her aunt and to be closer to other family members. She also learned that she could earn higher wages there as a teacher than in Mississippi, soon after moving, she was hired in Woodstock for the Shelby County school system. During her summer vacations she attended summer sessions at Fisk University and she held strong political opinions and provoked many people with her views on womens rights
6.
Harriet Tubman
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Harriet Tubman was an American abolitionist, humanitarian, and an armed scout and spy for the United States Army during the American Civil War. She later helped abolitionist John Brown recruit men for his raid on Harpers Ferry, born a slave in Dorchester County, Maryland, Tubman was beaten and whipped by her various masters as a child. Early in life, she suffered a head wound when an irate slave owner threw a heavy metal weight intending to hit another slave. The injury caused dizziness, pain, and spells of hypersomnia and she was a devout Christian and experienced strange visions and vivid dreams, which she ascribed to premonitions from God. In 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, then returned to Maryland to rescue her family. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of the state, traveling by night and in extreme secrecy, Tubman never lost a passenger. After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America, when the Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army, first as a cook and nurse, and then as an armed scout and spy. The first woman to lead an expedition in the war, she guided the raid at Combahee Ferry. After the war, she retired to the home on property she had purchased in 1859 in Auburn, New York. She was active in the suffrage movement until illness overtook her. After she died in 1913, she became an icon of American courage, on April 20,2016, the U. S. Treasury Department announced a plan for Tubman to replace Andrew Jackson as the portrait gracing the $20 bill. Tubman was born Araminta Minty Ross to slave parents, Harriet Green and Ben Ross, Rit was owned by Mary Pattison Brodess. Ben was held by Anthony Thompson, who became Marys second husband, as with many slaves in the United States, neither the exact year nor place of Aramintas birth is known, and historians differ as to the best estimate. Catherine Clinton notes that Tubman reported the year of her birth as 1825, while her death certificate lists 1815 and her gravestone lists 1820. In her Civil War widows pension records, Tubman claimed she was born in 1820,1822, and 1825, an indication, perhaps, that she had only a general idea of when she was born. Modesty, Tubmans maternal grandmother, arrived in the United States on a ship from Africa. As a child, Tubman was told that she was of Ashanti lineage and her mother Rit was a cook for the Brodess family. Her father Ben was a woodsman who managed the timber work on Thompsons plantation
7.
Frances Willard
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Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard was an American educator, temperance reformer, and womens suffragist. Her influence was instrumental in the passage of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, Willard became the national president of Womans Christian Temperance Union in 1879, and remained president until her death in 1898. She developed the slogan Do Everything for the WCTU, encouraging its membership to engage in an array of social reforms through lobbying, petitioning, preaching, publishing. Willard was born in 1839 to Josiah Flint Willard and Mary Thompson Hill Willard in Churchville, near Rochester and she was named after English novelist Frances Burney, the American poet Frances Osgood, and her sister, Elizabeth Caroline, who had died the previous year. She had two siblings, her older brother, Oliver, and her younger sister, Mary. Her father was a farmer, naturalist, and legislator, in 1841 the family moved to Oberlin, Ohio, where, at Oberlin College Josiah Willard studied for the ministry, and Mary Hill Willard took classes. They moved to Janesville, Wisconsin in 1846 for Josiah Willards health, in Wisconsin, the family, formerly Congregationalists, became Methodists. Frances and her sister Mary attended Milwaukee Normal Institute, where their mothers sister taught, in 1858, the Willard family moved to Evanston, Illinois, and Josiah Willard became a banker. Frances and Mary attended the North Western Female College and their brother Oliver attended the Garrett Biblical Institute, after graduating from North Western Female College, Willard held various teaching positions throughout the country. She was appointed president of the newly founded Evanston College for Ladies in 1871, when the Evanston College for Ladies became the Womans College of Northwestern University in 1873, Willard was named the first Dean of Women at the university. However, that position was to be short-lived with her resignation in 1874 after confrontations with the University President, Willard had previously been engaged to Fowler and had broken off the engagement. After her resignation, Willard focused her energies on a new career, in 1874, Willard participated in the founding convention of the Womans Christian Temperance Union where she was elected the first Corresponding Secretary. In 1876, she became head of the WCTU Publications Department, focusing on publishing and building an audience for the WCTUs weekly newspaper. Willard joined with Elizabeth Boynton Harbert, Mary Ellen West, Frances Conant and 43 others in 1885 in the founding the Illinois Womans Press Association, in 1879, she sought and successfully obtained presidency of the National WCT. Once elected, she held the post until her death, the devastation she was referencing was the prevalence of violent acts against women committed by intoxicated men, both in and outside the home. Willard argued that it was too easy for men to get away with their crimes without womens suffrage, the desire for home protection gave the average woman a socially appropriate avenue to seek enfranchisement. Willard insisted that women must forgo the notion that they were the weaker sex and she encouraged women to join the movement to improve society, Politics is the place for woman. Willards suffrage argument also hinged on her feminist interpretation of Scripture and she claimed that natural and divine laws called for equality in the American household, with the mother and father sharing leadership
8.
National Association of Colored Women's Clubs
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From 1896 to 1904 it was known as the National Association of Colored Women. It adopted the motto Lifting as we climb, to demonstrate to an ignorant and suspicious world that our aims, when incorporated in 1904, NACW became known as the National Association of Colored Womens Clubs. “In 1895 an obscure man in an obscure Missouri town sent a letter broad-cast over this country and England, reflecting upon the character, so utterly false were the vile statement, that the women were aroused as never before and when Mrs. Josephine St. The National Federation of Colored Women’s Club was the result of that meeting and this joint session was attended by some of the most notable women of our Race, among whom were Harriet Tubman. Francis E. W. Harper, poet and writer, Victoria E. Matthews, founder of the White Rose Mission of New York, Josephine S. Yates, teacher and writer, an others. Wells Barnett and Elizabeth Lindsay Davis were the delegates from Illinois. ”Historian,1933 The National Association of Colored Women was established in Washington and this first of what would later become biennial convention meetings of the association was held at the Nineteenth Street Baptist Church. These organizations and later others across the country merged to form the National Association of Colored Women, the organization helped all African-American women by working on issues of civil rights and injustice, such as women’s suffrage, lynching, and Jim Crow laws. Founders of the NACWC included Harriet Tubman, Margaret Murray Washington, Frances E. W. Harper, Ida Bell Wells-Barnett and its two leading members were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell. Their original intention was to furnish evidence of the moral, mental and material made by people of color through the efforts of our women. During the next ten years, the NACWC became involved in campaigns in favor of suffrage and against lynching. They also led efforts to education, and care for both children and the elderly. By 1918, when the United States entered the First World War, both women were educated and had economically successful parents. Born on August 31,1842, in Boston, Josephine St. Pierre was the daughter of John St. Pierre and her parents supported her going to school in Salem for its integrated schools, rather than attend segregated ones in Boston. At the age of 16, she married George Lewis Ruffin, among their early activities was recruiting black soldiers for the Union Army during the Civil War. After her husband died in 1886, Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin used part of her estate to fund Woman’s Era and she was a vice-president of the National Association of Colored Women. In 1910 Ruffin enlarged her social activism by helping form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Mary Church Terrell was the daughter of Robert Church, Sr. a former slave and reputed son of a white master. Church, Sr. built a business and became one of the wealthiest black men in the South and he was able to send Mary to Oberlin College, where she earned both bachelors and masters degrees. Years later Mary Church Terrell spoke at the Berlin International Congress of Women, giving her speech in fluent German and French and she was the only black woman at the conference
9.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
10.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
11.
African-American newspapers
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African-American newspapers are newspapers in the United States that cater to primarily African-American audiences. Samuel Cornish and John Brown Russwurm started the first African-American periodical called Freedoms Journal in 1827, during the antebellum South, other African-American newspapers sprang forth, such as The North Star founded by Frederick Douglass. As African Americans moved to urban centers around the country, virtually every city with a significant African-American population soon had newspapers directed towards African Americans. Today, these newspapers have gained audiences outside African-American circles, irvine Garland Penns book, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors along with Armistead S. Most of the earliest African-American publications, such as Freedoms Journal, were published in the North and then distributed, often covertly, blacks ability to establish many environments and black neighborhoods in the North led to the first wave of publications. By the 20th century, daily papers appeared in Norfolk, Chicago, Baltimore and Washington, in the late 19th century, the main reason that newspapers were created was to uplift the black community. Many black people sought to assimilate into society and Northern blacks felt that it was their duty to educate Southern blacks on the mores of Victorian society. Many African-American newspapers struggled to keep their circulation going due to the low rate of literacy among African Americans, many freed African-Americans had low incomes and could not afford to purchase subscriptions but shared the publications with one another. The national Afro-American Press Association formed in 1890 in Indianapolis, African-American newspapers flourished in the major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott, publisher of the Chicago Defender, John Mitchell, the national, Chicago-based Associated Negro Press was a news agency with correspondents and stringers in all major centers of black population. There were many specialized black publications, such as those of Marcus Garvey and these men broke a wall that let black people into society. The Roanoke Tribune was founded in 1939 by Fleming Alexander, the Minnesota Spokesman-Recorder is Minnesotas oldest Black newspaper and the United States oldest ongoing minority publication, second only to The Jewish World. Many Black newspapers that began publishing in the 1960s, 70s and they were also victims of their own substantial efforts to eradicate racism and promote civil rights. As of 2002,200 Black newspapers remained, as of 2010, there has been a resurgence of online African-American news organizations, most notably Black Voice News, The Grio, and Black Voices. With the decline of print media and proliferation of internet access, burned down during Wilmington insurrection of 1898. The Denver Weekly News Douglas Monthly The St. Louis Argus - St. Louis, Louis Metro Evening Whirl SC Black News Group The Skanner www. theblackviewpoint. Freedoms journal, the first African-American newspaper Belles, A. Gilbert, Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 344-352. Eye on the Struggle, Ethel Payne, the First Lady of the Black Press, journalism History 41.1, 53+ Brown, Warren Henry
12.
Bay State Banner
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The Bay State Banner is an independent newspaper primarily geared toward the readership interests of the African-American community in Boston, Massachusetts. The Bay State Banner was originated in 1965, in 2005, the publication celebrated its 40th anniversary serving the journalistic needs of the regions minority-oriented neighborhoods. The newspapers chief editor and publisher is Melvin B. Miller, the Bay State Banners official website
13.
New Pittsburgh Courier
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The New Pittsburgh Courier is a weekly newspaper catering to African Americans, based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It is owned by Real Times, after circulation declines in the 1950s and 1960s, the original Courier was purchased in 1965 by John H. Sengstacke, publisher of The Chicago Daily Defender, in 1966. He reorganized the paper under a new name — the New Pittsburgh Courier — to avoid paying several outstanding tax bills and he later commented, The Courier had a great history. The loss would not only be a big loss for the city of Pittsburgh, the Black press is the only true voice Black people have. Ive worked tireless to make sure that it is heard loud and he re-opened it in 1967 under the new name. The New Pittsburgh Courier joined Sengstackes three other newspapers in a chain of prominent African-American publications, including the Defender. In 1974 Sengstacke appointed Hazel B. Garland as the new editor-in-chief of the New Pittsburgh Courier, making her the first African-American woman in history to be editor of a national newspaper. When asked about his decision, Sengstacke replied, I have supreme confidence in Hazel and she has proven herself over the many years of dedication to the Courier and the Negro cause. She will be a force in leading this paper to bigger and better things in the future. Two years later, the won the John B. Russwurm Award for the best national African-American newspaper, following Sengstackes death in 1997, what was then a four-paper chain was held in a family trust until 2003. It was sold that year for nearly $12 million to Real Times, a group of investors with several business and family ties to Sengstacke
