1.
Relief
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Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
2.
Statue
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A statue is a sculpture representing one or more people or animals, normally full-length, as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size, or larger. A small statue, usually enough to be picked up, is called a statuette or figurine. Statues have been produced in many cultures from prehistory to the present, the worlds tallest statue, Spring Temple Buddha, is 128 metres, and is located in Lushan County, Henan, China. Many statues are built on commission to commemorate a historical event, many statues are intended as public art, exhibited outdoors or in public buildings. Some statues gain fame in their own right, separate from the person or concept they represent, Ancient statues often survive showing the bare surface of the material of which they are made. For example, many people associate Greek classical art with white marble sculpture, most of the colour was weathered off over time, small remnants were removed during cleaning, in some cases small traces remained which could be identified. Richter goes so far as to say of classical Greek sculpture, All stone sculpture, whether limestone or marble, was painted, medieval statues were also usually painted, with some still retaining their original pigments. The colouring of statues ceased during the Renaissance, as excavated classical sculptures, the Löwenmensch figurine from the Swabian Alps in Germany is the oldest known statue in the world, and dates to 30, 000-40,000 years ago. The Venus of Hohle Fels, from the area, is somewhat later. Throughout history, statues have been associated with images in many religious traditions, from Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece. Egyptian statues showing kings as sphinxes have existed since the Old Kingdom, the oldest statue of a striding pharaoh dates from the reign of Senwosret I and is the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The Middle Kingdom of Egypt witnessed the growth of block statues which then became the most popular form until the Ptolemaic period, the oldest statue of a deity in Rome was the bronze statue of Ceres in 485 BC. The oldest statue in Rome is now the statue of Diana on the Aventine, the wonders of the world include several statues from antiquity, with the Colossus of Rhodes and the Statue of Zeus at Olympia among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While Byzantine art flourished in various forms, sculpture and statue making witnessed a general decline, an example was the statue of Justinian which stood in the square across from the Hagia Sophia until the fall of Constantinople in the 15th century. While making statues was not subject to a ban, it was hardly encouraged in this period. Starting with the work of Maillol around 1900, the human figures embodied in statues began to move away from the schools of realism that had held them bound for thousands of years. The Futurist and Cubist schools took this even further until statues, often still nominally representing humans, had lost all. By the 1920s and 1930s statues began to appear that were abstract in design
3.
Arena Stage
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Arena Stage is a not-for-profit regional theater based in Southwest, Washington, D. C. It was a pioneer in 1950 of the Regional Theater Movement, the Artistic Director is Molly Smith and the Executive Director is Edgar Dobie. It is the largest company in the dedicated to American plays. It commissions and develops new plays through the American Voices New Play Institute, established in 1950, the company now serves an annual audience of more than 300,000. Its productions have received local and national awards, including the Tony Award for best regional theater. The theatre company was founded in Washington, DC in 1950 and its first home was the Hippodrome Theatre, a former movie house. In 1956, the moved into the gymnasium of the old Heurich Brewery in Foggy Bottom. The brewery was demolished in 1961 to make way for the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, in 1960, the company moved into its current building complex, which was built for them. The theater companys home is near the Washington, D. C. waterfront on the Potomac River, one of the founders, Zelda Fichandler, was its artistic director from its founding through the 1990/91 season. Wager succeeded her for the 1991/92 through 1997/98 seasons, the current artistic director, Molly Smith, assumed those duties beginning with the 1998/99 season. Arena Stage was one of the first not-for-profit theaters in the United States and was a pioneer of the Regional Theater Movement, in 1973, it was the first regional theater invited by the U. S. State Department to tour behind the Iron Curtain. In 1976, Arena Stage became the theater outside New York to receive a special Tony Award for theatrical excellence. A major renovation of the facility was undertaken from 2008 through 2010, the architect was Bing Thom Architects of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada who contracted Fast + Epp consulting engineers to design the main columns for the building. The Fichandler Stage and Kreeger Theater were largely untouched, but the theaters connecting structures were demolished, the two stages are now surrounded by a glass curtain wall and incorporated into a larger building. A third, new theater was added in the renovation, called The Kogod Cradle, for new. The new building includes a central lobby and the Catwalk Cafe. The entire $135 million complex has been renamed Arena Stage at the Mead Center for American Theater in honor of supporters Gilbert and Jaylee Mead. Arena Stage re-opened for the season in October 2010, the capacity of its three theatres follows, The Fichandler Stage, a theater in the round, seating 680, the Kreeger Theater, a modified thrust stage theater, seating 514
4.
Royal Exchange, Manchester
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The Royal Exchange is a grade II listed building in Manchester, England. It is located in the city centre on the bounded by St Anns Square, Exchange Street, Market Street, Cross Street. The complex includes the Royal Exchange Theatre and the Royal Exchange Shopping Centre, the Royal Exchange was heavily damaged in the Manchester Blitz and in the 1996 Manchester bombing. The current building is the last of several buildings on the used for commodities exchange, primarily but not exclusively of cotton. The first exchange opened in 1729 but closed by the end of the century, as the cotton industry boomed, the need for a new exchange was recognised. Thomas Harrison designed the new exchange of 1809 at the junction of Market Street, Harrison designed the exchange in the Classical style. It had two storeys above a basement and was constructed in Runcorn stone, the cost, £20,000, was paid for in advance by 400 members who bought £50 shares and paid £30 each to buy the site. The semi-circular north façade had fluted Doric columns, the exchange room where business was conducted covered 812 square yards. The ground floor contained the members library with more than 15,000 books. The basement housed a newsroom lit by a dome and plate glass windows, the first-floor dining-room was accessed by a geometrical staircase. The exchange opened to celebrate of the birthday of George III in 1809 and it also contained other anterooms and offices. As the cotton trade continued to expand, larger premises were required, the second exchange was replaced by a third designed by Mills & Murgatroyd, constructed between 1867 and 1874. It was extended and modified by Bradshaw Gass & Hope between 1914 and 1931 to form the largest trading hall in England, the trading hall had three domes and was double the size of the current hall. The colonnade parallel to Cross Street marked the its centre, on trading days merchants and brokers struck deals which supported the jobs of tens of thousands of textile workers in Manchester and the surrounding towns. Manchesters cotton dealers and manufacturers trading from the Royal Exchange earned the city the name, the exchange was seriously damaged during World War II when it took a direct hit from a bomb during a German air raid in the Manchester Blitz at Christmas in 1940. Its interior was rebuilt with a trading area. The top stages of the tower, which had been destroyed, were replaced in a simpler form. Trading ceased in 1968, and the building was threatened with demolition, the building remained empty until 1973 when it was used to house a theatre company
5.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
6.
Cockpit Theatre, Marylebone
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The Cockpit Theatre is a fringe theatre in Marylebone, London. When ILEA was disbanded in 1990, ownership of the Cockpit was transferred to the London Borough of Westminster and it remains one of a handful of purpose-built theatre training venues in the capital and is still owned and operated by the City Of Westminster College. Between 1993 and 1995 the Soho Theatre Company took up residence, during this period they premiered the works of over 35 new writers. In January 2011, owners City of Westminster College moved into their new building at Paddington Green which included a new theatre. This change meant The Cockpit is no used for day-to-day teaching or academic office space and is now operating as full-time theatre. The auditorium is 8. 5m high and 11m2 with a retractable seating bank on all four sides, each bank seats 60 people and the seat cushions and backrests can be removed to create alternative playing areas. With the upstage, left and right banks retracted, the downstage centre bank can be pulled out from the four rows to 10 rows. The stage measures 6. 6m x 8. 6m in thrust setting and 6. 6m x 5. 9m in-the-round, upstage, a series of trapdoors span the width of the stage with a series or movable and replaceable panels covering them. Under the stage is a large manually winched lift which can roll along the span of the traps. Although these could be used for effects, original plans show this sub-stage area marked as a chair store and was to be used as the storage area for seats removed when reconfiguring the space. There are 2 lighting gantries surrounding the space with the box on the lower gantry. The lower gantry is 3. 5m from the stage, the upper is 6. 21m from the stage, the upper gantry also includes a central T shaped walkway, with the top edge of the T on the upstage side of the auditorium. The T, and both gantries have 15A power outlets for plugging stage lighting into and these sockets are connected to 3 Strand STM dimmers, providing 60 ways of dimming. This equipment was installed when the Cockpit first opened and is operational to date. Now known as The Cockpit, the theatre has previously had a few other names, initially named the Gateforth Street Youth Arts Centre it was soon decided that a simpler name would be more appropriate. The name Cockpit derived from the 17th century Cockpit Theatre and Cockpit-in-Court, fortuitously, the original design of the foyer floor incorporated a roundel motif which linked nicley to the idea of a planes cockpit. The name Cockpit Arts Workshop was adopted and eventually became the Cockpit Theatre or simply the Cockpit, since its inception, the Cockpit has been used as a venue for working with young people. The Cockpit hosts regular training opportunities in theatre skills such as rigging and pyrotechnics
7.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
8.
Theatre
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The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence, the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι. Modern theatre, broadly defined, includes performances of plays and musical theatre, there are connections between theatre and the art forms of ballet, opera and various other forms. The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated, participation in the city-states many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member in particular—was an important part of citizenship. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture, Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play, the origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle, the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10, the stage consisted of a dancing floor, dressing room and scene-building area. Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics, the actors wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institution alised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus. As contestants in the City Dionysias competition playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays, the performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE, official records begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics, Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the surviving plays of Aristophanes. New Comedy is known primarily from the papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster. In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyrs themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal companions, often engaging in drunken revelry
9.
Stage (theatre)
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In theatre and performing arts, the stage is a designated space for the performance of productions. The stage serves as a space for actors or performers and a point for the members of the audience. As an architectural feature, the stage may consist of a platform or series of platforms, in some cases, these may be temporary or adjustable but in theaters and other buildings devoted to such productions, the stage is often a permanent feature. There are several types of stages that vary as to the usage, the most common form found in the West is the proscenium stage. In this type, the audience is located on one side of the stage with the remaining sides hidden and used by the performers and technicians. Thrust stages may be similar to proscenium stages but with a platform or performance area that extends into the space so that the audience is located on three sides. In theatre in the round, the audience is located on all four sides of the stage, the fourth type of stage incorporates created and found stages which may be constructed specifically for a performance or may involve a space that is adapted as a stage. Since the Italian Renaissance, the most common used in the West has been the proscenium stage which may also be referred to as a picture frame stage. The primary feature is an opening known as the proscenium arch through which the audience views the performance. The audience directly faces the stage—which is typically raised several feet above front row audience level—and views only one side of the scene and this one side is commonly known as the invisible fourth wall of the scene. The proscenium arch evolved from the proskenium in Ancient Greek theaters and this was the space in front of the skênê or backdrop where the actors actually played. Stage floors were raked upward slightly from front to back in order to contribute to the illusion and also to make actors more visible to audiences. Subsequently, audience seating was raked, and balconies were added to give audiences a fuller view, by the end of the 19th century most stages had level floors, and much of the audience looked down on, rather than up to, the stage. The competition among royals to produce elegant and elaborate entertainments fueled and financed the expansion of European court theatres, the proscenium—which often was extremely decorative in the manner of a triumphal arch—framed the prospective picture. A wood grid above the stage supported pulleys from which wooden battens, the weight of heavy pieces was counterbalanced by sandbags. This system required the creation of a stage house or loft that was usually as high or higher than the proscenium itself. Theatres using these systems, which are manually operated by stage hands, are known as hemp houses. They have been supplanted by counterweight fly systems
10.
Philip Barry
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Philip James Quinn Barry was an American dramatist best known for his plays Holiday and The Philadelphia Story, which were both made into films starring Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant. Philip Barry was born on June 18,1896 in Rochester, James died from appendicitis a year after Philips birth, and the familys marble-and-tile business faltered from then on. His oldest brother, Edmund, who was sixteen at the time, left school to take over the business, Barrys play The Youngest, written when he was twenty-eight, is an autobiographical account of his family history following his fathers death. Family conflicts ensued, he claimed he had never intended to keep the money. At the end of the war, he returned to college, where he studied writing with Henry Seidel Canby and his mother and two elder brothers vehemently wanted him to return to the family in Rochester after college and take a place in the family business. He was, however, determined to out on his own and, knowing that he wanted to be a writer. Barrys life as a started at the age of nine when he had a story called Tab the Cat published by a Rochester newspaper. Four precocious years later, he wrote a drama called No Thoroughfare. When he was at Yale, he devoted his time to writing poetry, in 1919, when he returned from London, the Yale Dramatic Club staged his one-act play, Autonomy. By the time he had enrolled in Bakers class at the end of the year and his first full-length play for the class was A Punch for Judy, written in the spring 1921. The Harvard workshop took A Punch for Judy on tour to Worcester, Utica, Buffalo, Cleveland, and Columbus, playwright Robert E. Sherwood met Barry at this time and thought him a exasperating young twirp. Sherwood would eventually become a friend and colleague who came to appreciate what he termed Barrys Irish, impish sense of comedy. Many years later, Sherwood would finish writing Second Threshold, left incomplete at the time of Barrys death, while still living in Cambridge, Barry became engaged to Ellen Semple but was determined to establish himself as a playwright before settling down. The play won the Herndon Prize in 1922 as the best drama written in Bakers workshop, renamed You and I, the play opened on Broadway on February 19,1923 and was a critical and commercial success. As theater critic Brooks Atkinson wrote, If did not make Barry exactly a revolutionary, the story spoke to the tenor of the times, a decade that both glamorized and questioned the energetic pursuit of financial success. You and I ran for 170 performances, was followed by a tour and many productions in college and regional theaters. One person who was not happy with Barrys success was a classmate in Bakers seminar, Thomas Wolfe, Barrys second work for the stage, The Youngest, was produced the following year to considerably less acclaim. The story dealt with a rich, provincial family who cannot accept the ways of one of its members
11.
University of Washington
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The University of Washington, commonly referred to as simply Washington, UW, or informally U-Dub, is a public flagship research university in Seattle, Washington, United States. Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast, the university has three campuses, the oldest and largest in the University District of Seattle and two others in Tacoma and Bothell. Washington is a member of the Association of American Universities and is ranked among the top 15 universities in the world by a variety of international publications. In athletics, the university competes in the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference and its athletic teams are called the Huskies. Seattle was one of several settlements in the mid to late 19th century vying for primacy in the new Washington Territory, in 1854, territorial governor Isaac Stevens recommended the establishment of a university in Washington. Several prominent Seattle-area residents, chief among them Methodist preacher Daniel Bagley and they convinced early founder of Seattle and member of the territorial legislature Arthur A. Denny of the importance of Seattle winning the school. When no site emerged, the legislature, encouraged by Denny, in 1861, scouting began for an appropriate 10 acres site in Seattle to serve as the campus for a new university. Arthur and Mary Denny donated eight acres, and fellow pioneers Edward Lander and Charlie and this tract was bounded by 4th and 6th Avenues on the west and east and Union and Seneca Streets on the north and south. UW opened on November 4,1861, as the Territorial University of Washington, the following year, the legislature passed articles incorporating the University and establishing a Board of Regents. The school struggled initially, closing three times, in 1863 for lack of students, and again in 1867 and 1876 due to shortage of funds. However, Clara Antoinette McCarty Wilt became the first graduate of UW in 1876 when she graduated from UW with a degree in science. By the time Washington entered the Union in 1889, both Seattle and the University had grown substantially, enrollment increased from 30 students to nearly 300, and the relative isolation of the campus had given way to encroaching development. A special legislative committee headed by UW graduate Edmond Meany was created to find a new campus able to serve the growing student population. The committee selected a site on Union Bay northeast of downtown, the university relocated from downtown to the new campus in 1895, moving into the newly built Denny Hall. The regents tried and failed to sell the old campus, the University still owns what is now called the Metropolitan Tract. In the heart of the city, it is among the most valuable pieces of estate in Seattle. The original Territorial University building was torn down in 1908 and its former site houses the Fairmont Olympic Hotel. The sole surviving remnants of UWs first building are four 24-foot, white, hand-fluted cedar and they were salvaged by Edmond S. Meany—one of the Universitys first graduates and the former head of the history department
12.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
13.
Margo Jones
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Margo Jones was an American stage director and producer best known for launching the American regional theater movement and for introducing the theater-in-the-round concept in Dallas, Texas. In 1947, she established the first regional professional company when she opened Theatre ’47 in Dallas, of the 85 plays Jones staged during her Dallas career,57 were new, and one-third of those new plays had a continued life on stage, television and radio. Born Margaret Virginia Jones in Livingston, Texas, Jones worked in community and professional theaters in California, Houston and she had recently joined the faculty of the University of Texass drama department in Austin. She traveled the world, experiencing theater everywhere, eventually gaining commercial success on Broadway as co-director of the production of The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams. She directed Williams Summer and Smoke, a flop in its first production, after she directed Maxwell Andersons successful Joan of Lorraine, starring Ingrid Bergman as Joan of Arc, she was fired during the Washington, D. C. tryout. However, her name remained on the marquee and playbills, Bergman repeated her Joan of Lorraine role in Joan of Arc, for which she was Oscar-nominated. Geraldine Page was Oscar-nominated for her performance in Summer and Smoke, since 1950, there have been at least five different film/TV productions of The Glass Menagerie. The success of The Glass Menagerie allowed her to take the next step toward her dream of running a theatre outside of New York. She moved back to Dallas and opened Theatre ’47 and her theater was in the sleek Magnolia Lounge building, designed by Swiss-born architect William Lescaze, in 1936 for the Texas Centennial and situated on the grounds of Fair Park in Dallas. The theater was Americas first modern nonprofit professional resident theater and also the first professional theater in the country. Jones was inspired by Franklin Roosevelt’s Depression era National Theater Project, the resident company was dedicated to staging new plays and classics of world theater rather than revivals of past Broadway hits. The initial season introduced William Inges first play, Farther Off from Heaven, though touring shows did exist at this time, there were no quality professional American theatre companies outside of New York. Jones believed in the decentralization of theater and she wanted her art to exist all across America, beyond the realm of commercialized Broadway. She reasoned that if she and her collaborators succeeded “in inspiring the operation of 30 theatres like ours, playwrights Inge, Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee championed this sentiment when they received their first big breaks from Jones Dallas theater. Jones envisioned it as a place where actors, writers and technicians could have steady jobs, when the Ford Foundation began giving grants outside of New York during the 1950s, the movement gathered momentum and Theatre ’47 became the model of how to build a new company. Her theater-in-the-round concept requires no stage curtain, little scenery and allows the audience to sit on three sides of the stage, on July 17,1955, Jones invited friends over to a party. However, during the party an artist spilled red paint on the carpet and they used carbon tetrachloride, a strong solvent commonly used in dry-cleaning processes at the time. Jones, satisfied with the cleaning, fell asleep into the night, unfortunately, some carbon tetrachloride had been absorbed into the carpet and later evaporated, filling her home with toxic fumes
14.
Fun Home (musical)
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Fun Home is a musical adapted by Lisa Kron and Jeanine Tesori from Alison Bechdels 2006 graphic memoir of the same name. The story concerns Bechdels discovery of her own sexuality, her relationship with her gay father and it is the first Broadway musical with a lesbian protagonist. The musical was developed through several readings and performances, including at the Ojai Playwrights Conference in 2009 and at the Sundance Theatre Lab and it opened Off-Broadway at the Public Theater in September 2013 to positive reviews. Its run was extended several times, until January 2014, the Public Theater production of Fun Home was nominated for nine Lucille Lortel Awards, two Obie Awards and eight Drama Desk Awards, among others. The original Broadway production began previews at the Circle in the Square Theatre in March 2015 and it was nominated for twelve Tony Awards, winning five, including Best Musical, and its cast album received a nomination for the 2016 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album. The production closed on September 10,2016, and a tour began in October 2016 that is booked until August 2017. Writer/artist Alison Bechdels book Fun Home, a memoir in comics format, was published in 2006 to critical acclaim and its subject is Alison Bechdels coming of age, with particular emphasis on her relationship to her father, Bruce Bechdel. Alisons coming out as a lesbian is complicated by the revelation that Bruce had also had homosexual relationships, four months after Alison comes out to her parents, Bruce is killed by an oncoming truck, although the evidence is equivocal, Alison concludes that he committed suicide. Bechdels book was adapted into a musical with book and lyrics by Lisa Kron, writing in Slate, June Thomas called the play the first mainstream musical about a young lesbian. The adaptation was developed over the course of five years and it was first workshopped at the Ojai Playwrights Conference in August 2009. A staged reading was performed at The Public Theater in 2011, the musical had another workshop as part of the Sundance Institutes Theater Lab in July 2012, featuring Raul Esparza. Following that it ran for three weeks as part of the Public Theaters Public Lab series in October and November 2012. On April 8,2013, musical selections from the play were performed by Maggie Gyllenhaal, Judy Kuhn, David Hyde Pierce, a final Public Theater workshop was held in May 2013. The musicals development process entailed extensive changes and rewrites, Beth Malone said that the original workshop script doesnt resemble this current play at all. Revisions continued through the period of the Off-Broadway production, requiring the actors to perform new material every night. Fun Home premiered Off-Broadway at The Public Theater in previews on September 30,2013, originally scheduled to run through November 3,2013, the run was extended several times, and the musical closed on January 12,2014. The production was directed by Sam Gold, with sets and costumes by David Zinn, lighting by Ben Stanton, projections by Jim Findlay and Jeff Sugg, Bechdel, Kron, Tesori and musical director Chris Fenwick accompanied the cast. The musical began previews at Broadways Circle in the Square Theatre on March 27,2015, Gold directed the show on Broadway, with the same production team as the Off-Broadway production, including Zinn, Mefford and Stanton
15.
Man of La Mancha
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Man of La Mancha is a 1964 musical with a book by Dale Wasserman, lyrics by Joe Darion, and music by Mitch Leigh. It is adapted from Wassermans non-musical 1959 teleplay I, Don Quixote and it tells the story of the mad knight Don Quixote as a play within a play, performed by Cervantes and his fellow prisoners as he awaits a hearing with the Spanish Inquisition. The work is not and does not pretend to be a rendition of either Cervantes life or of Don Quixote. Wasserman complained repeatedly about taking the work as a version of Don Quixote. The original 1965 Broadway production ran for 2,328 performances and won five Tony Awards, the musical has been revived four times on Broadway, becoming one of the most enduring works of musical theatre. The principal song, The Impossible Dream, became a standard, Man of La Mancha was first performed at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam, Connecticut in 1965 and had its New York premiere on the thrust stage of the ANTA Washington Square Theatre in 1965. Man of La Mancha started as a teleplay written by Dale Wasserman for CBSs DuPont Show of the Month program. This original telecast starred Lee J. Cobb, Colleen Dewhurst, the DuPont Corporation disliked the title Man of La Mancha, thinking that its viewing audience would not know what La Mancha actually meant, so a new title, I, Don Quixote, was chosen. The play was broadcast live on November 9,1959, with an audience of 20 million. Unfortunately, due to the production being staged in the days of videotape and due to the inferiority of kinescopes. Mitch Leigh was selected as composer, with orchestrations by Carlyle W. Hall, the original lyricist of the musical was poet W. H. Auden, but his lyrics were discarded, some of them considered too overtly satiric and biting, attacking the bourgeois audience at times. Audens lyrics were replaced by those of Joe Darion, the musical first played at the Goodspeed Opera House in Connecticut in 1965. After 21 previews, the opened at the experimental thrust-stage ANTA Washington Square Theatre in Greenwich Village on November 22,1965. Musical staging and direction were by Albert Marre, choreography was by Jack Cole, richard Kiley won a Tony Award for his performance as Cervantes/Quixote in the original production, and it made Kiley a bona fide Broadway star. Kiley was replaced in the original Broadway run by first Jose Ferrer on Broadway and in the 1966 National Tour, Atkinson also performed Cervantes/Quixote in the 1968 National Tour and for all of the matinee performances in the 1972 Broadway revival, which also starred Kiley. The original cast also included Irving Jacobson, Ray Middleton, Robert Rounseville, john Cullum, Hal Holbrook, and Lloyd Bridges also played Cervantes and Don Quixote during the run of the production. Keith Andes also played the role, the musical was performed on a single set that suggested a dungeon. All changes in location were created by alterations in the lighting, by the use of props supposedly lying around the floor of the dungeon, more recent productions, however, have added more scenery
16.
Arthur Miller
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Arthur Asher Miller was an American playwright, essayist, and figure in twentieth-century American theater. Among his most popular plays are All My Sons, Death of a Salesman, The Crucible and he also wrote several screenplays and was most noted for his work on The Misfits. The drama Death of a Salesman has been numbered on the short list of finest American plays in the 20th century alongside Long Days Journey into Night, Miller was often in the public eye, particularly during the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, in 1980, Miller received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. He received the Prince of Asturias Award and the Praemium Imperiale prize in 2002, Miller was born on October 17,1915, in Harlem, in the New York City borough of Manhattan, the second of three children of Augusta and Isidore Miller. His father was born in Radomyśl Wielki, Galicia, and his mother was a native of New York whose parents arrived from that town. Isidore owned a clothing manufacturing business employing 400 people. He became a wealthy and respected man in the community, the family, including his younger sister Joan Copeland, lived on West 110th Street in Manhattan, owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens, and employed a chauffeur. In the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to Gravesend, as a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to help the family. After graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School, he worked at menial jobs to pay for his college tuition. At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and worked for the student paper and it was during this time that he wrote his first play, No Villain. Miller switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain, the award brought him his first recognition and led him to begin to consider that he could have a career as a playwright. Rowe provided realistic feedback along with much-needed encouragement, and became a lifelong friend, in 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood Award. After his graduation in 1938, he joined the Federal Theater Project and he chose the theater project despite the more lucrative offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th Century Fox. However, Congress, worried about possible Communist infiltration, closed the project in 1939, Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write radio plays, some of which were broadcast on CBS. In 1940, Miller married Mary Grace Slattery, the couple had two children, Jane and Robert. Miller was exempted from service during World War II because of a high-school football injury to his left kneecap. 1940 was also the year his first play was produced, The Man Who Had All the Luck won the Theatre Guilds National Award, the play closed after four performances with disastrous reviews
17.
Proscenium
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The concept of the fourth wall of the theatre stage space that faces the audience is essentially the same. It can be considered as a construct which divides the actors. But since the curtain comes down just behind the proscenium arch, it has a physical reality when the curtain is down. A proscenium stage is different from a thrust stage or an arena stage. Skene is the Greek word for the tent, and later building, at the back of the stage from which actors entered, in the Hellenistic period it became an increasingly large and elaborate stone structure, often with three storeys. In Greek theatre, which unlike Roman included painted scenery, the proskenion might also carry scenery, in the Greek and Roman theatre, no proscenium arch existed, in the modern sense, and the acting space was always fully in the view of the audience. Modern halls designed mainly for orchestral music often adopt similar arrangements, the oldest surviving indoor theatre of the modern era, the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the first example of a proscenium theatre. The Teatro Olimpico was a reconstruction of a Roman theatre. It has a plain proscaenium at the front of the stage, dropping to the level, now usually containing stalls seating. However, the Teatro Olimpicos exact replication of the open and accessible Roman stage was the rather than the rule in sixteenth-century theatre design. Engravings suggest that the arch was already in use as early as 1560 at a production in Siena. The earliest true proscenium arch to survive in a permanent theatre is the Teatro Farnese in Parma, Parma has a clearly defined arco scenico—more like a picture frame than an arch, but serving the same purpose—outlining the stage and separating the audience from the action on-stage. While the proscenium arch became an important feature of the traditional European theatre, often becoming very large and elaborate, what the Romans would have called the proscaenium is, in modern theatres with orchestra pits, normally painted black in order that it does not draw attention. In this early modern recreation of a Roman theatre confusion seems to have introduced to the use of the revived term in Italian. There is no evidence at all for this assumption, the Italian word for a scaenae frons is proscenio, a major change from Latin. It would also be possible to retain the classical frons scaenae. The Italian arco scenico has been translated as proscenium arch, the result is that in this theatre the architectural spaces for the audience and the action. Are distinct in treatment yet united by their juxtaposition, no proscenium arch separates them, a proscenium arch creates a window around the scenery and performers. A proscenium theatre layout also simplifies the hiding and obscuring of objects from the audiences view, anything that is not meant to be seen is simply placed outside the window created by the proscenium arch, either in the wings or in the flyspace above the stage
18.
Fourth wall
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The fourth wall is a performance convention in which an invisible, imagined wall separates actors from the audience. While the audience can see through this wall, the convention assumes, the metaphor suggests a relationship to the mise-en-scène behind a proscenium arch. When a scene is set indoors and three of the walls of its room are presented onstage, in what is known as a box set, the fourth wall, though, is a convention of acting, rather than of set design. Breaking the fourth wall is any instance in which this performance convention and this can be done through either directly referencing the audience or the work they are in, or referencing their fictionality. The temporary suspension of the convention in this way draws attention to its use in the rest of the performance and this act of drawing attention to a plays performance conventions is metatheatrical. The phrase breaking the wall is used to describe such effects in those media. Breaking the fourth wall is also possible in other media, such as video games, the concept is usually attributed to the philosopher, critic and dramatist Denis Diderot. The term itself was used by Molière, one play that uses the fourth wall extensively for comedic effect is The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Critic Vincent Canby described it in 1987 as that invisible scrim that forever separates the audience from the stage, oliver Hardy was probably the first to break the fourth wall, in his movies with Stan Laurel, by staring at the camera to seek comprehension from the viewers. Groucho Marx spoke directly to the audience in Animal Crackers,1930, woody Allen broke the fourth wall several times in his movie Annie Hall, as he explained, because I felt many of the people in the audience had the same feelings and the same problems. I wanted to talk to them directly and confront them, the John Hughes movie Ferris Buellers Day Off is another well-known fourth-wall-breaking movie. Bueller, played by Matthew Broderick, often turns to the camera, in the Mel Brooks film Blazing Saddles, the characters literally break the fourth wall. Breaking the fourth wall is an part of the ending of Alejandro Jodorowskys 1973 film The Holy Mountain. More recent examples include the 2016 film Deadpool, in which it is used as a device between the main character and the audience. On television, breaking the wall is rare, though it has been done throughout the history of the medium. George Burns did it numerous times on The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show he starred in with his real-life wife Gracie Allen from 1950 to 1958. Its Garry Shandlings Show and Mrs. Browns Boys both have their title character walking between sets mid-scene, and the latter occasionally shows characters retaking fluffed lines. Another television character who breaks the fourth wall is Francis Urquhart in the British TV drama series House of Cards, To Play the King
19.
Street theatre
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Street theatre is a form of theatrical performance and presentation in outdoor public spaces without a specific paying audience. These spaces can be anywhere, including shopping centres, car parks, recreational reserves and they are especially seen in outdoor spaces where there are large numbers of people. The actors who perform street theatre range from buskers to organised theatre companies or groups that want to experiment with performance spaces, or to promote their mainstream work. The logistics of doing street theatre necessitate simple costumes and props and this issue with sound has meant that physical theatre, including dance, mime and slapstick, is a very popular genre in an outdoor setting. The performances need to be visible, loud and simple to follow in order to attract a crowd. In some cases, street performers have to get a licence or specific permission through local or state governments in order to perform. Many performers travel internationally to certain locations of note, notable performers that began their careers as street theatre performers include Robin Williams, David Bowie, Jewel and Harry Anderson. One of the most interesting points about modern street theatre is its unique sociopolitical place, people who might not have ever been to, or been able to afford to go to, the legitimate theatre can watch a street show. By virtue of where the shows take place, their audience is made up of anyone and everyone who wants to watch, if an audience member can not afford it, then it is free. Performance artists with an interest in social activism may choose to stage their work on the street as a means of confronting or engaging the public. The performance caused an uproar when police were called out and bomb-sniffing dogs were brought in to inspect the loaves of bread for explosives, whatever the reason for choosing the street, the street is a place with a different set of possibilities than the conventional theatre space. Many companies are politically motivated and use street theatre to combine performance with protest, a character-based street theatre which developed in the 1960s and 1970s was developed by groups like Lumiere and Son, John Bull Puncture Repair Kit, Exploded Eye and Natural Theatre Company. The performances were unannounced and featured characters who acted out a pre-arranged scenario and they did not seek to trick in a Candid Camera way, but rather invited the audience to pretend along with them. No amount of planning or rehearsal could dictate what would happen, another example would be Natural Theatres Pink Suitcase scenario. A number of smartly dressed people carrying bright pink suitcases enter a set of streets or buildings and they search for and miss their companions. In their search they get on buses, hail cabs, end up in shop windows, by the time they meet up at a pre-arranged spot with the help of passers-by, perceptions of the area have changed and shopping has ceased for at least a few moments. The humour is universal and this piece has been seen in nearly seventy countries and it is usually performed by four or five actors, but has been done with twenty-five
20.
Set construction
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The set designer produces a scale model, scale drawings, paint elevations, and research about props, textures, and so on. In theater, the director or production manager is the person responsible for evaluating the finished designs and considering budget. He or she engineers the scenery, has it redrafted for building, budgets time, crew and materials, technical directors often have assistant technical directors whose duties can range from drafting to actually building scenery. A scene shop, in production is often overseen by a shop foreman or master carpenter. This person assigns tasks, does direct supervision of carpenters, and deals with matters such as absences, breaks, tool repair. The staff of a shop is usually referred to as scenic carpenters, but within that there are many specialities such as plasterers, welders. Scenic painting is an aspect of scenic construction, although the scenic painter usually answers to the technical director. In major film production in England, a Supervising Art Director is responsible for a team of Art Directors, Construction supervisors interpret the drawings and allocate labor and resources, with the Production Designer giving approval of the finished set on the Directors behalf. Film construction is rigidly compartmentalized on major motion pictures, a prop making workshop is set up in a similar stage and may be paid for out of a Construction or Art Department budget depending on the nature and size of the props in question. The construction department is led by a construction coordinator, the coordinator reports to the art director and production designer and is in charge of budgeting and implementing designs. The construction coordinator has a general foreman to assist, next there are other foremen, lead carpenters called gang bosses, and then all of the carpenters and craftsmen. In the United States, set construction workers are members of the entertainment union, IATSE. Sound stage Stagecraft Staging Theatrical scenery Film sculptor
21.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
22.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
23.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
24.
Brigham Young University
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Brigham Young University is a private research university in Provo, Utah, United States. Approximately 99 percent of the students are members of the LDS Church, many students either delay enrollment or take a hiatus from their studies to serve as Mormon missionaries. An education at BYU is also less expensive than at similar private universities, BYU offers a variety of academic programs, including liberal arts, engineering, agriculture, management, physical and mathematical sciences, nursing, and law. The university is organized into 11 colleges or schools at its main Provo campus, with certain colleges. The universitys primary focus is on education, but it also has 68 masters and 25 doctoral degree programs. BYUs athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the BYU Cougars. Their college football team is an NCAA Division I Independent, while their other teams compete in either the West Coast Conference or Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. BYUs sports teams have won a total of fourteen national championships, on October 16,1875, Brigham Young, then president of the LDS Church, personally purchased the Lewis Building after previously hinting that a school would be built in Draper, Utah, in 1867. Hence, October 16,1875, is held as BYUs founding date. The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy, warren Dusenberry served as interim principal of the school for several months until April 1876 when Brigham Youngs choice for principal arrived—a German immigrant named Karl Maeser. Under Maesers direction the school educated many luminaries including future U. S. Supreme Court Justice George Sutherland, the school, however, did not become a university until the end of Benjamin Cluffs term at the helm of the institution. At that time, the school was still privately supported by members of the community and was not absorbed and sponsored officially by the LDS Church until July 18,1896. A series of odd managerial decisions by Cluff led to his demotion, however, in his last official act, he proposed to the Board that the Academy be named Brigham Young University. The suggestion received an amount of opposition, with many members of the Board saying that the school wasnt large enough to be a university. One opponent to the decision, Anthon H. Lund, later said, in 1903 Brigham Young Academy was dissolved, and was replaced by two institutions, Brigham Young High School, and Brigham Young University. The Board elected George H. Brimhall as the new President of BYU and he had not received a high school education until he was forty. Nevertheless, he was an excellent orator and organizer, under his tenure in 1904 the new Brigham Young University bought 17 acres of land from Provo called Temple Hill. After some controversy among locals over BYUs purchase of property, construction began in 1909 on the first building on the current campus
25.
Stephen Joseph Theatre
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The Stephen Joseph Theatre is a theatre in the round in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England that was founded by Stephen Joseph and was the first theatre in the round in Britain. In 1955, Joseph established a theatre in the round on the first floor of the Public Library. The theatre flourished and in 1976 moved to a temporary home on the ground floor of the former Scarborough Boys High School. The new theatre, known simply as the Stephen Joseph Theatre, opened in 1996 and comprises two auditoria, The Round, a 404-seat theatre in the round, and The McCarthy, the building also contains a restaurant, shop, and full front-of-house and backstage facilities. It is also the place where the used for the cover of Richard Hawleys album Coles Corner was taken
26.
Richmond, London
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Richmond is a suburban town in southwest London,8.2 miles west-southwest of Charing Cross. The town is on a meander of the River Thames, with a number of parks and open spaces, including Richmond Park, and many protected conservation areas. A specific Act of Parliament protects the scenic view of the River Thames from Richmond, Richmond was founded following Henry VIIs building of Richmond Palace in the 16th century, from which the town derives its name. During this era the town and palace were particularly associated with Elizabeth I, during the 18th century Richmond Bridge was completed and many Georgian terraces were built, particularly around Richmond Green and on Richmond Hill. These remain well preserved and many have listed building architectural or heritage status, the opening of the railway station in 1846 was a significant event in the absorption of the town into a rapidly expanding London. Richmond was formerly part of the ancient parish of Kingston upon Thames in the county of Surrey, in 1890 the town became a municipal borough, which was later extended to include Kew, Ham, Petersham and part of Mortlake. The municipal borough was abolished in 1965 when, as a result of boundary changes, Richmond is now part of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, and has a population of 21,469. It has a significant commercial and retail centre with a developed day, the area now known as Richmond was formerly part of Shene. Shene was not listed in Domesday Book, although it is depicted on the maps as Sceon. Henry VII had a palace there and in 1501 he named it Richmond Palace in recognition of his earldom. The town that developed nearby took the name as the palace. Henry I lived briefly in the Kings house in Sheanes, Edward II, following his defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, founded a monastery for Carmelites at Sheen. When the boy-king Edward III came to the throne in 1327 he gave the manor to his mother Isabella, Edward later spent over two thousand pounds on improvements, but in the middle of the work Edward himself died at the manor, in 1377. Richard II was the first English king to make Sheen his main residence and it was rebuilt between 1414 and 1422, but destroyed by fire 1497. Following that fire Henry VII built a new residence at Sheen, there are unconfirmed beliefs that Shakespeare may have performed some plays there. Once Elizabeth I became queen she spent much of her time at Richmond and she died there on 24 March 1603. The palace was no longer in use after 1649, but in 1688 James II ordered partial reconstruction of the palace. The bulk of the palace had decayed by 1779, but surviving structures include the Wardrobe, Trumpeters House, and this has five bedrooms and was made available on a 65-year lease by the Crown Estate Commissioners in 1986
27.
Elvis (1968 TV program)
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Elvis, starring Elvis Presley, is a United States television special that aired on December 3,1968 on the NBC television network. The special is commonly referred to as the 68 Comeback Special and it was directed by Steve Binder and produced by Binder and Bones Howe. Music from the special was released before the broadcast, on the album Elvis, Presleys informal jamming in front of a small audience in the special is regarded as a forerunner of the unplugged concept, later popularized by MTV. Despite huge success in both his music and acting careers following his release from the army in 1960, Presley never toured in the United States from 1962 to 1968. Colonel Tom Parker, Presleys manager, had found it difficult to secure the usual $1,000,000 fee for a Presley film. Parker negotiated a deal with NBC for $1,250,000 to finance both a special and a film. Parker wanted the show, which was scheduled as a Christmas season broadcast and he believed the special could simply be a TV-version of the Christmas radio show Presley had contributed to the year before. Binder argued that the special was an opportunity to re-establish the singers reputation after years of formulaic movies and he and Howe hired writers to script a show with specific themes, large set designs, dance sequences and big productions of Presleys hits. However, Binder was open to any variations on this that would showcase the singers talent, the special ends with Presley appealing for world peace and tolerance with the song If I Can Dream. Other musicians included drummer Hal Blaine, pianist Don Randi, guitarist Tommy Tedesco, bass player Larry Knechtel and it was after rehearsals at Western Recorders that Binder took special note of how Presley and the other musicians would spontaneously unwind by improvising old blues and rock n roll numbers. Binder commented. and thats when I really got the idea, Wouldnt it be great if I had a camera in here, Presley is said to have been very apprehensive about the idea of performing live. His last live concert had been at the Bloch Arena in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Binder offered a lot of support and reassurance to stop the singer from rejecting the idea of any live segments. He realized some songs already re-recorded or scheduled would need to be cut and he also brought in Presleys friends Alan Fortas, Lance LeGault and Charlie Hodge to encourage Presley and make him feel at ease. Two sessions took place, each two hours in length, the first on June 24 and the second on the 25th. Both took place in the surroundings of the dressing room at NBC. They were recorded by Presleys friend Joe Esposito using the singers own tape recorder, many songs were tried, including Danny Boy, Blue Moon, Thats My Desire and I Got A Woman, before the final repertoire was decided for the actual TV recording. Subsequently, at 6. 00pm, June 27, Presley took to the stage for the first time in seven years. Clad in black leather, Presley sat down and jammed with band mates for two shows, each show having a different audience, there was a one-hour break between them
28.
Yes (band)
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Yes are an English rock band formed in London in 1968 by singer Jon Anderson and bassist Chris Squire. The band has undergone numerous formations throughout its history, nineteen musicians have been full-time members, since June 2015, it has consisted of guitarist Steve Howe, drummer Alan White, keyboardist Geoff Downes, singer Jon Davison, and bassist Billy Sherwood. Yes adopted several changes in style, from rearranged covers to progressive and art rock in the 1970s. They have sold 13.5 million RIAA-certified albums in the US, Yes changed their name from Mabel Greers Toyshop and performed rearranged covers of rock, pop, blues and jazz songs as evident on their first two albums. Yes toured as a rock act that earned the band a reputation for their elaborate stage sets, light displays. The success of Roundabout, the single from Fragile, cemented their popularity across the decade, in 1983, Yes reformed with a new line-up that included guitarist Trevor Rabin and a more commercial and pop-oriented musical direction. The result was 90125, their album which contained the US number one single. From 1990 to 1992, Yes were an eight-member formation after they merged with Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe to release Union, since 1994, Yes have released albums with varied levels of success and completed tours from 1997 to 2004. After a four-year break in activity, they resumed touring in 2008 and continue to release albums, Yes are one of the most successful, influential, and longest-lasting progressive rock bands. In 1985, they won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance with Cinema, Yes have headlined annual progressive rock-themed cruises since 2013 named Cruise to the Edge. Their discography spans 21 studio albums, the band will be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2017. In 1967, bassist Chris Squire joined the rock band Mabel Greers Toyshop, with singer and guitarist Clive Bayley, drummer Bob Hagger and they played at the Marquee Club in Soho, London where Jack Barrie, owner of the nearby La Chasse club, saw them perform. There was nothing outstanding about them, he recalled, the musicianship was very good, Barrie introduced Squire to singer Jon Anderson, a worker at the bar in La Chasse, who found they shared interests in Simon & Garfunkel and harmony singing. That evening at Squires house they wrote Sweetness, which was included on the first Yes album, meanwhile, Banks had left Mabel Greers Toyshop to join Neat Change, but he was dismissed by this group on 7 April 1968. In June 1968, Hagger was replaced in the nascent Yes by Bill Bruford, who had placed an advertisement in Melody Maker, finally, the classically trained organist and pianist Tony Kaye, of Johnny Taylors Star Combo and The Federals, became the keyboardist and the fifth member. The newborn band rehearsed in the basement of The Lucky Horseshoe cafe on Shaftesbury Avenue between 10 June and 9 July 1968, Anderson suggested that they call the new band Life while Squire suggested that it be called World. At Banks suggestion, the first gig under the new brand followed at a camp in East Mersea. Early sets were formed of songs from artists such as the Beatles
29.
Sightline
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A sightline, sight line or visual axis, is a normally unobstructed line-of-sight between an intended observer and a stage, arena, or monument, for example. Sightlines are an important consideration in theatre and stadium design, road junction layout. In cities such as London, construction within sightlines is restricted to protect the key views of famous landmarks, objects that have a direct line of sight with one another are said to be intervisible. Good sightlines allow spectators to see all areas of a stage or field of play. To ensure this designers utilize the C-value, the vertical distance from a spectators eyes to sightline of the spectator directly behind is called a C-value. The C-value is a value that helps produce a rake, the stadium bowl rake if based on consistent C-values will follow half of a parabola in section. The curvature will be greatest closest to the pitch and will become an increasingly flatter curve as it moves to the upper rows. As a general rule the rake or curve of the bowl will flatten as the first row of seats move away from the side-line for a constant C-value. It is impractical to make different step heights for every single row, in practice the riser height is the same for a set of 4 or 5 rows at the bottom of the bowl with the number of rows in each same height set increasing for higher up rows. The uppermost tier could have only 2 or even 1 different step heights, the higher seats can have a reduced C-value without impacting as seriously on the clear view of the field of play. The design of sightlines includes considerations of how much of the stage, for example, can each patron see the top of the scenery or not, and can each patron see the whole stage floor or not. Design of sightlines is divided into two related exercises, vertical sightlines and horizontal sightlines, design of proper sightlines includes resolving both technical and aesthetic issues. Books on theater planning that discuss the design of sightlines and it is recommended that a spectators eye height must not be lower than 800 mm above the stage. However, in larger theatres it is acceptable to locate the eye height of the first row on the level of the stage and this is done with careful modelling utilizing the C-Value to ensure the ideal rake or curvature of the seating bowl. C-values are improved with a slope or moving the seating rows away from the focus point. Inadequate views result in spectators jumping up for a better view during exciting play and this is an annoyance to others and can lead to fights and in the context of large crowds this can be a serious safety threat. The maximum step height between terraces or rows is usually limited to 540mm, if this is exceeded then a continuous guardrail is required as protection against falling. Even with a 540mm terrace step many spectators become uncomfortable and start to feel the impact of vertigo, an ideal maximum terrace step height that will avoid most people feeling insecure is 450mm
30.
Network effect
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In economics and business, a network effect is the effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people. When a network effect is present, the value of a product or service is dependent on the number of others using it, the classic example is the telephone. The more people who own telephones, the valuable the telephone is to each owner. This creates a positive externality because a user may purchase a telephone without intending to create value for other users, Online social networks work in the same way, with sites like Twitter and Facebook becoming more attractive as more users join. The expression network effect is applied most commonly to positive network externalities as in the case of the telephone, negative network externalities can also occur, where more users make a product less valuable, but are more commonly referred to as congestion. Over time, positive effects can create a bandwagon effect as the network becomes more valuable. Network effects were a theme in the arguments of Theodore Vail. In 1908, when he presented the concept in Bells annual report, there were over 4,000 local and regional telephone exchanges, most of which were eventually merged into the Bell System. The economic theory of the effect was advanced significantly between 1985 and 1995 by researchers Michael L. Katz, Carl Shapiro, Joseph Farrell. Network effects were popularized by Robert Metcalfe, stated as Metcalfes law, Metcalfe was one of the co-inventors of Ethernet and a co-founder of the company 3Com. In selling the product, Metcalfe argued that customers needed Ethernet cards to grow above a critical mass if they were to reap the benefits of their network. This was expressed algebraically as having a cost of N, Network effects become significant after a certain subscription percentage has been achieved, called critical mass. At the critical point, the value obtained from the good or service is greater than or equal to the price paid for the good or service. A key business concern must then be how to attract users prior to reaching critical mass, one way is to rely on extrinsic motivation, such as a payment, a fee waiver, or a request for friends to sign up. A more natural strategy is to build a system that has enough value without network effects, then, as the number of users increases, the system becomes even more valuable and is able to attract a wider user base. Beyond critical mass, the number of subscribers generally cannot continue indefinitely. After a certain point, most networks become either congested or saturated, the applicable analogy is that of a telephone network. While the number of users is below the point, each additional user adds additional value to every other customer
31.
George Mason University
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George Mason University, located in George Mason in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, is the largest public research university in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The university was founded as a branch of the University of Virginia in 1949, today, Mason is recognized for its programs in economics, law, creative writing, computer science, and business. In recent years, George Mason faculty have won the Nobel Prize in Economics. The university enrolls 33,917 students, making it the largest university by head count in the Commonwealth of Virginia, the University of Virginia in Charlottesville created an extension center to serve Northern Virginia. … the University Center opened, on October 1,1949, the extension center offered both for credit and non-credit informal classes in the evenings in the Vocational Building of the Washington-Lee High School in Arlington, Virginia. By the end of 1952, enrollment increased to 1,192 students from 665 students the previous year, a resolution of the Virginia General Assembly in January 1956 changed the extension center into University College, the Northern Virginia branch of the University of Virginia. John Norville Gibson Finley served as director, seventeen freshmen students attended classes at University College in a small renovated elementary school building in Baileys Crossroads starting in September 1957. In 1958 University College became George Mason College, the City of Fairfax purchased and donated 150 acres of land just south of the city limits to the University of Virginia for the colleges new site, which is now referred to as the Fairfax Campus. In 1959, the Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia selected a permanent name for the college, George Mason College of the University of Virginia. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first 40 acres of Fairfax Campus began in 1962, in the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students. The measure, known as H33, passed the Assembly easily and was approved on March 1,1966 making George Mason College a degree-granting institution. On Friday, April 7,1972, a contingent from George Mason College, led by Chancellor Lorin A. Thompson, in 1978, George W. Johnson was appointed to serve as the fourth president. Under his eighteen-year tenure, the university expanded both its size and program offerings at a tremendous rate. Shortly before Johnsons inauguration in April 1979, Mason acquired the School of Law, the university also became a doctoral institution. Toward the end of Johnsons term, Mason would be deep in planning for a campus in Prince William County at Manassas. Enrollment once again more than doubled from 10,767 during the fall of 1978 to 24,368 in the spring of 1996, Dr. Alan G. Merten was appointed president in 1996. He believed that the location made it responsible for both contributing to and drawing from its surrounding communities—local, national, and global. George Mason was becoming recognized and acclaimed in all of these spheres, Dr. Ángel Cabrera officially took office on July 1,2012
32.
Fairfax, Virginia
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Fairfax, colloquially Central Fairfax, Downtown Fairfax, Fairfax City, Historic Fairfax, or the City of Fairfax, is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census the population was 22,565, the city is 17 miles west of Washington, D. C. The Washington Metros Orange Line serves Fairfax through its Vienna station, CUE Bus and Metrobus operate in Fairfax. Virginia Railway Expresss Burke Centre station is situated three miles southeast of the citys boundaries, Virginias largest public educational institution with 33,917 students in 2013 is George Mason University, which is located in unincorporated Fairfax County, along the citys southern border. The city derives its name from Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, the area that the city now encompasses was settled in the early 18th century by farmers from Virginias Tidewater region. The town of Providence was established on the site by an act of the legislature in 1805. The town was the scene of the first land battle of the Civil War, on June 1,1861, a Union scouting party clashed with the local militia, though neither side gained an advantage. A second battle was waged two years later on June 27,1863, at the Battle of Fairfax Court House, Union troops were defeated. However, the battle delayed the movements of Confederate cavalry chief Jeb Stuart, Fairfax was officially renamed the Town of Fairfax in 1859. It was incorporated as a town 1874 and it was incorporated as a city in 1961 by court order. Under Virginia law the city was separated from Fairfax County, in 1904, a trolley line was built connecting Fairfax with Washington, D. C. The former Fairfax County Courthouse is the oldest and most historic building in Fairfax, the first Fairfax courthouse was established in 1742 near present-day Tysons Corner, and is the namesake for Old Courthouse Road. It intersects with Gallows Road, which today is a commuter route. In 1752, the courthouse was moved to Alexandria, which offered to build the new courthouse at their own expense, the courthouse operated there until 1790, when Virginia ceded the land where the courthouse was located for the creation of Washington, DC. The courthouse changed hands repeatedly during the Civil War, and the first officer casualty, John Quincy Marr and its design was used as a prototype for many Virginia courthouses built between 1800 and 1850. The first meeting of the Fairfax Court was held April 21,1800, during the Civil War the courthouse was used by Union forces as a military headquarters, which resulted in the damage or loss of several records. The original Fairfax County Courthouse was used as the Fairfax County Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court until 2009, the oldest two-story building in the city, built in 1873, the Fairfax Public School or Old Fairfax Elementary School Annex for $2,750. In addition to school use the building has also housed special education, adult education
33.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
34.
Brisbane
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Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station
35.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
36.
Globe Theatre, Regina
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The Globe Theatre in Regina, Saskatchewan, was founded in 1966 by Ken and Sue Kramer. It was the first professional theatre company. The Globe was first in the Jubilee Theatre at the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts, in 1981, the company acquired its own permanent space in the Prince Edward Building, a heritage building on 11th Avenue and Scarth Street. Prince Edward, as a member of the Canadian Royal Family, the Globe Theatre is currently under the leadership of Artistic Director Ruth Smillie, who succeeded Susan Ferley in 1998. Ferley served as Artistic Director of the Globe Theatre from 1990 to 1998, being a non-profit organisation, the Globe Theatre is overseen by a volunteer Board of Directors, elected by the members of the Globe Theatre Society. The Globe Theatres EVRAZ Mainstage is Canadas only permanent, professional theatre in the round, Globe Theatre is a member of PACT, and engages its stage management, actors, and artists under the Canadian Theatre Agreement through the Canadian Actors Equity Association. Ken Kramer Susan Ferley Ruth Smillie Globe Theatre of Shakespeare List of Canadian organizations with royal patronage Saskatchewan Royal Connections Culture in Regina Official website
37.
Regina, Saskatchewan
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Regina (/rᵻˈdʒaɪnə/ is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan and within the Treaty 4 territories. The city is the second-largest in the province, after Saskatoon, and it is governed by Regina City Council. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Sherwood No.159, Regina was previously the seat of government of the North-West Territories, of which the current provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta originally formed part, and of the District of Assiniboia. The site was previously called Wascana, but was renamed to Regina in 1882 in honour of Queen Victoria and this decision was made by Queen Victorias daughter Princess Louise, who was the wife of the Governor General of Canada, the Marquess of Lorne. Unlike other planned cities in the Canadian West, on its treeless flat plain Regina has few topographical features other than the small spring run-off, Reginas importance was further secured when the new province of Saskatchewan designated the city its capital in 1906. The CCF, formulated its foundation Regina Manifesto,1933 in Regina, in recent years, Saskatchewans agricultural and mineral resources have come into new demand, and it has entered a new period of strong economic growth. The population of the Regina CMA as of 2016, was 236,481, there was an obvious conflict of interest in Dewdneys choosing the site of Pile-of-Bones as the territorial seat of government and it was a national scandal at the time. There, the Territories were remote and of little concern, Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, wife of the then Governor General of Canada, named the new community Regina, in honour of her mother, Queen Victoria. The episode, including Riels imprisonment, trial and execution, brought the new Regina Leader, later the Leader-Post, to national prominence. Regina grew rapidly until the beginning of the Great Depression, in 1929, by this time, Saskatchewan was considered the third province of Canada in both population and economic indicators. Thereafter, Saskatchewan never recovered its early promise and Reginas growth slowed, in 1935, Regina gained notoriety for the Regina Riot, an incident of the On-to-Ottawa Trek. Recently older buildings have put to new uses, including the old Normal School on the Regina College campus of the University of Regina. Despite the setting, improbable though it always was compared with more likely sites for the capitol. There is an abundance of parks and greenspaces, all of its trees — some 300,000 — shrubs and other plants were hand-planted. As in other cities, American elms were planted in front yards in residential neighbourhoods. In recent years the pattern of primary and high school grounds being acreages of prairie sports grounds has been re-thought and such grounds have been landscaped with artificial hills, newer residential subdivisions in the northwest and southeast have, instead of spring runoff storm sewers, decorative landscaped lagoons. Despite having fallen in recent years, Reginas crime rate remains among the highest in Canada, Reginas overall police-reported crime rate was second highest in the country in 2012. However, the severity of crimes in Regina is quite high
38.
Mount Saint Vincent University
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Mount Saint Vincent University, often referred to as The Mount, is a primarily undergraduate public university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and was established in 1873. The Mounts first doctorate program, a PhD in Educational Studies, is a joint-initiative with St. Francis Xavier University, the Mount offer 10 full undergraduate degree programs and four graduate degree programs online. The university attracts students in part because of its small class sizes, specialty programs. The Mount has Canada Research Chairs in Gender Identity and Social Practices as well as Food Security and Policy Change. Established by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul in 1873, the original purpose of the academy was to train novices and young sisters as teachers, but the Sisters also recognized a need to educate other young women. Over the ensuing years, the order developed a convent, schools, an orphanage, charles Welsford West designed the Romanesque chapel and annex at Mount St. Vincent Academy. In 1925, the Nova Scotia Legislature awarded the Mount the right to grant its own degrees, by 1951, degrees were offered in Arts, Secretarial Science, Music, Home Economics, Library Science, Nursing and Education. Sidney Perry Dumaresq designed major alterations to the Chapel, dormitory, a new charter was granted in 1966 and the College became Mount Saint Vincent University, bringing forth the establishment of a Board of Governors and Senate. This was also a period of tremendous growth – with enrolment increases, new construction, in 1967 the Mount began admitting men as students. In July 1988, the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul officially transferred ownership of the institution to the Board of Governors, following consolidation of post-secondary programs across Nova Scotia in the 1990s, the Mount became home to the only education program in the Halifax area. The Mount houses 16 research centres and institutes, Academic programs are supported by a wide variety of electronic and print research resources in the MSVU Library. Research services include drop-in reference assistance, research appointments and classroom workshops, Mount Saint Vincent University is the only university in Canada to offer a Master of Public Relations program. The MPR program graduated its first class in October 2009, the Canadian Public Relations Society recognizes MSVUs MPR program for excellence in PR education in its Pathways to the Profession guide. The Department of Applied Human Nutrition has a dietetic program. The University is accredited by an organization such as the Dietitians of Canada. The faculty of Education is home to the only school psychology graduate program in Atlantic Canada, graduates of this program are eligible to become registered psychologists in Nova Scotia and several other provinces in Canada. Founded in 1992 by the Universitys Department of Business & Tourism, the Centre has served more than 7500 clients over the past 18 years. In addition to programs, Mount Saint Vincent University also has numerous programs for youth, such as summer camps
39.
Halifax, Nova Scotia
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Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations
40.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
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