1.
Chocolatier
–
A chocolatier is a person or company who makes confectionery from chocolate. Chocolatiers are distinct from chocolate makers, who create chocolate from cacao beans, Chocolatiers generally start out as pastry or confectionery chefs. Being a master chocolatier involves perfecting the art of working with chocolate to create not only delicious desserts, generally it takes years of experience and a good background of confections and pastries to master the art of working with chocolate. There are a variety of schools and even specialty chocolate schools, such as the Ecole Chocolate school in Canada. The French Culinary Institute also offers pastry and confectionery courses that are said to help a chocolatier learn the trade, to become a chocolatier one must learn how to make and work with chocolate on different levels to create handcrafted pieces of art that also must taste sensational. Generally schooling consists of learning how to make chocolate from a variety of different origins, once students learn how to make chocolate and begin to understand the physical and chemical aspects of chocolates they can learn to work with chocolate in many different applications. Chocolate is a versatile food thus different courses offer learning about different techniques when working with chocolate, once someone becomes well-educated about all of chocolates applications, or specializes in specific applications of chocolate they may be considered a chocolatier. Often perfecting technical techniques of design and the art of flavor takes many years of practice, advanced studies can lead to a better understanding of the components of chocolate and how to make chocolates along with sculpting and creating beautiful masterpieces from chocolate. Once a chocolatier has mastered the artistry of chocolate they may be considered a Master Chocolatier, the best of the best can be found competing in The World Chocolate Masters, a chocolate competition that started in 2005. These master chocolatiers are some of the best in the world when it comes to designing and sculpting using chocolate and these master chocolatiers also craft pieces of chocolate with outstanding flavor and texture, said to be the best in the world by some. Chocolatiers must be able to work with chocolate in different applications tempering, molding, sculpting. Chocolate can be made into pieces, incorporated into pastries, or simply designed as a piece of art,2007 World Chocolate Masters Winner, Naomi Mizuno Mizuno, from Japan, took home the title to the World Chocolate Masters competition in 2007. The competition was judged in four different categories, including, molded pralines, hand-dipped pralines, gastronomic chocolate dessert, small chocolate showpiece, Mizuno,28 years old, was the youngest competitor ever from his nation. He is employed at a school, Futaba Pastry. A chocolatier must know how to temper chocolate properly for different applications or temper for chocolate for desired characteristics, Chocolate contains cocoa butter which crystallizes during the heat treatment of melting and tempering chocolate. The crystal formation in chocolate can affect many different attributes to the chocolate - mouthfeel, snap of the chocolate, the color, dull or shiny. Heating the chocolate at certain temperatures, around 86-90 °F, for periods of time and then cooling the chocolate and working with. There are machines that can temper chocolate for you, but many chocolatiers use marble slabs and hand-tools to cool the chocolate and work with it
Chocolatier
–
A chocolatier making chocolate eggs of half eggs
Chocolatier
–
Hollow chocolate figures for Saint Nicolas and Christmas celebrations
Chocolatier
–
Skilled chocolatiers can craft beautiful & delicious pieces of chocolate, as seen here.
Chocolatier
–
A chocolatier making a chocolate tower
2.
Seattle, Washington
–
Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
Seattle, Washington
–
Downtown Seattle from
Queen Anne Hill
Seattle, Washington
–
Seal
Seattle, Washington
–
The
Battle of Seattle (1856)
Seattle, Washington
–
Seattle's first
streetcar, at the corner of Occidental and Yesler, 1884. All of the buildings visible in this picture were destroyed by fire five years later.
3.
Organic food
–
Organic food is food produced by methods that comply with the standards of organic farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming in general features practices that strive to cycle resources, promote ecological balance, organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and fertilizers in farming. In general, organic foods are usually not processed using irradiation. In the context of regulations, organic food is produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by regional organizations, national governments. There is not sufficient evidence in literature to support claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventionally grown food. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence, the organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture. Their respective use affects humus content of soil and this is different from the scientific use of the term organic in chemistry, which refers to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life. Properly used in agricultural science context, organic refers to the methods grown and processed. Early consumers interested in food would look for non-chemically treated, non-use of unapproved pesticides. They mostly had to buy directly from growers, later, Know your farmer, know your food became the motto of a new initiative instituted by the USDA in September 2009. Personal definitions of what constituted organic were developed through experience, by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions. Small farms grew vegetables using organic farming practices, with or without certification, small specialty health food stores and co-operatives were instrumental to bringing organic food to a wider audience. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection, today, many large corporate farms have an organic division. However, for consumers, food production is not easily observable. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance, Organic food production is a self-regulated industry with government oversight in some countries, distinct from private gardening. If livestock are involved, the livestock must be reared with regular access to pasture, processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the total plant. Pesticides are allowed as long as they are not synthetic, several groups have called for organic standards to prohibit nanotechnology on the basis of the precautionary principle in light of unknown risks of nanotechnology
Organic food
–
Organic vegetables at a farmers' market in
Argentina
Organic food
–
Mixed organic
bean sprouts
Organic food
–
Members of Toronto's Karma Co-op share food and play music
Organic food
–
The
National Organic Program (run by the USDA) is in charge of the legal definition of organic in the United States and does
organic certification.
4.
Fair trade
–
Fair trade is a social movement whose stated goal is to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions and to promote sustainable farming. Members of the movement advocate the payment of prices to exporters. The movement seeks to promote equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs, first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity. Specifically, fair trade is a partnership, based on dialogue, transparency, and respect. There are several recognized fair trade certifiers, including Fairtrade International, IMO, Make Trade Fair, in 2008, Fairtrade International certified approximately of products. The World Trade Organization publishes annual figures on the trade of goods. The fair trade movement is popular in the UK, where there are 500 Fairtrade towns,118 universities, over 6,000 churches, according to Fairtrade International, nearly six out of ten consumers have seen the Fairtrade mark and almost nine in ten of them trust it. Some criticisms have been raised about fair trade systems, some research indicates that the implementation of certain fair trade standards can cause greater inequalities in some markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market. In the Fair trade debate there are complaints of failure to enforce the fair trade standards, with producers, cooperatives, there are a large number of fair trade and ethical marketing organizations employing different marketing strategies. Most fair trade marketers believe it is necessary to sell the products through supermarkets to get a sufficient volume of trade to affect the developing world, the Fairtrade brand is by far the biggest of the fair trade coffee brands. Packers in developed countries pay a fee to The Fairtrade Foundation for the right to use the brand and logo, packers and retailers can charge as much as they want for the coffee. The coffee has to come from a fair trade cooperative. Additionally, the cooperatives are paid an additional 10c per lb premium by buyers for community development projects, the cooperatives can, on average, sell only a third of their output as fair trade, because of lack of demand, and sell the rest at world prices. The exporting cooperative can spend the money in several ways, some is spent on social projects such as building schools, health clinics and baseball pitches. Sometimes there is left over for the farmers
Fair trade
–
Fair trade goods sold in worldshops
Fair trade
–
Early Fairtrade Certifications Marks
Fair trade
–
Cafedirect coffee shop on
Regent Street in central London.
Fair trade
–
Oxfam shop on
Drury Lane in
Covent Garden,
London
5.
Cocoa bean
–
The beans are the basis of chocolate, and of such Mesoamerican foods as mole and tejate. The word cocoa comes from the Spanish word cacao, which is derived from the Nahuatl word cacahuatl, the Nahuatl word, in turn, ultimately derives from the reconstructed Proto Mije-Sokean word *kakaw~*kakawa. It originated in Central America and parts of Mexico, more than 5,000 years ago, it was consumed by pre-Columbian cultures along the Yucatán, including the Mayans, and as far back as Olmeca civilization in spiritual ceremonies. It also grows in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America and its range may have been larger in the past, evidence of its wild range may be obscured by cultivation of the tree in these areas since long before the Spanish arrived. The cocoa bean was a currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest. Cacao trees grow in a geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom. Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No fewer than 60 portions each day reportedly may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid-17th century. They also introduced the tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was also introduced into the rest of Asia and into West Africa by Europeans, in the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by an African, Tetteh Quarshie. Due to heat buildup in the process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color. This skin is released easily after roasting by winnowing, white seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value. The three main varieties of plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 80-90% of the production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy, Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela, Trinitario is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties
Cocoa bean
–
Cocoa pods in various stages of ripening
Cocoa bean
–
Aztec sculpture with cocoa pod
Cocoa bean
–
Cocoa beans in a freshly cut cocoa pod
Cocoa bean
–
Three main varieties of cocoa: Criollo, Trinitario and Forastero
6.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, East Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named, and is still called, Zaire. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world, the Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Sekos 32-year reign and devastated the country. These wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congos largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRCs exports in 2012, as of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. The country was known officially as the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 27 October 1971, in 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the change was not put into practice. The countrys name was restored by former president Laurent-Désiré Kabila following the fall of longtime dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997, some historians think that Bantu peoples began settling in the extreme northwest of Central Africa at the beginning of the 5th century and then gradually started to expand southward. Their propagation was accelerated by the transition from Stone Age to Iron Age techniques, the people living in the south and southwest were mostly San Bushmen and hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture. This led to the displacement of the groups in the east and southeast. The 10th century marked the expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. Rising populations soon made intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in salt, iron. Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s and it was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip, Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and he named it the Congo Free State. Leopolds rėgime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville. Nearly all such projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold. In the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles, rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Village attacked by Arab-Swahili slavers near
Nyangwe, end of 19th century
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Flag
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
View of
Leopoldville Station and Port in 1884.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Force Publique soldiers in the Belgian Congo in 1918. At its peak, the Force Publique had around 19,000 African soldiers, led by 420 white officers.
7.
Costa Rica
–
It has a population of around 4.5 million, of whom nearly a quarter live in the metropolitan area of the capital and largest city, San José. Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by people before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, following a brief civil war, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army. Costa Rica is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index, placing 69th in the world as of 2015 and its rapidly developing economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Costa Rica is known for its environmental policies, being the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Costa Rica officially plans to become a country by 2021. In 2012, it became the first country in the Americas to ban recreational hunting, historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The oldest evidence of occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots, for the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the livelihood in the territory is still unknown. The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE, shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been small compared to other nations. Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719, for all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain
Costa Rica
–
A stone sphere created by the
Diquis culture at the
National Museum of Costa Rica.
The sphere is the icon of the country's cultural identity.
Costa Rica
–
Flag
Costa Rica
–
The
Ujarrás historical site in the Orosí Valley,
Cartago province. The church was built between 1686 and 1693.
Costa Rica
–
The 1849
national coat of arms was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862
8.
Dominican Republic
–
The Dominican Republic is a sovereign state occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western one-third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, christopher Columbus landed on the Western part of Hispaniola, in what is now Haiti, on December 6,1492. The island became the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821 but were forcefully annexed by their more powerful neighbor Haiti in February 1822. After the 1844 victory in the Dominican War of Independence against Haitian rule the country again under Spanish colonial rule until the Dominican War of Restoration of 1865. The Dominican Republic experienced mostly internal strife until 1916, a civil war in 1965, the countrys last, was ended by another U. S. military occupation and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time since 1996. Danilo Medina, the Dominican Republics current president, succeeded Fernandez in 2012, the Dominican Republic has the ninth-largest economy in Latin America and is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for agriculture and mining, the economy is now dominated by services. Over the last two decades, the Dominican Republic have been standing out as one of the economies in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5. 4% between 1992 and 2014. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7. 0%, respectively, in the first half of 2016 the Dominican economy grew 7. 4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing and tourism, private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation, job creation, as well as high level of remittances. The Dominican Republic has a market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana. and advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems, the country also has marked income inequality. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives, mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, the Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions, the island has an average temperature of 26 °C and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in all of the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Music and sport are of importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music
Dominican Republic
–
The Pomier Caves are a series of 55 caves located north of San Cristobal in the Dominican Republic. They contain the largest collection of 2,000-year-old rock art in the Caribbean.
Dominican Republic
–
Flag
Dominican Republic
–
The
Alcázar of Colón, located in Santo Domingo, is the oldest
Viceregal residence in all of the Americas.
Dominican Republic
–
Jean-Pierre Boyer the mulatto ruler of Haiti.
9.
Ecuador
–
Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
Ecuador
–
Ingapirca ruins northeast of Cañar canton,
Cañar Province
Ecuador
–
Flag
Ecuador
–
Spanish Historical Center in
Quito
Ecuador
–
Shipwrights from Francisco de Orellana's expedition building a small
brigantine, the San Pedro.
10.
Madagascar
–
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
Madagascar
–
The terraced paddy fields of the
central highlands of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical rainforest along the eastern coast (center) bordered by the shores of the
Indian Ocean (right).
Madagascar
–
Flag
Madagascar
Madagascar
–
The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs (left), patches of deciduous forest, and
baobab trees (center), while the south is characterized by desert and
spiny forests (right).
11.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
12.
Venezuela
–
Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
Venezuela
–
The signing of Venezuela's independence, by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Venezuela
–
Flag
Venezuela
–
The
Battle of Carabobo, during the
Venezuelan War of Independence
Venezuela
–
José Gregorio Monagas abolished slavery in 1854.
13.
Hawaii
–
Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
Hawaii
–
Hawaii from space, January 26, 2014
Hawaii
–
Flag
Hawaii
–
Nā Pali coast, Kaua ʻ i
Hawaii
–
The main islands and undersea terrain of Hawaii
14.
Fremont, Seattle
–
Fremont is a neighborhood in Seattle, Washington. Originally a separate city, it was annexed to Seattle in 1891, and is named after Fremont, Nebraska, the hometown of two of its founders Luther H. Griffith and Edward Blewett. It is situated along the Fremont Cut of the Lake Washington Ship Canal to the north of Queen Anne, the east of Ballard, the south of Phinney Ridge, and the southwest of Wallingford. Its boundaries are not formally fixed, but they can be thought of as consisting of the Ship Canal to the south, Stone Way N. to the east, N. 50th Street to the north, and 8th Avenue N. W. to the west. The neighborhoods main thoroughfares are Fremont and Aurora Avenues N. and N. 46th, 45th, 36th, and 34th Streets. The Aurora Bridge carries Aurora Avenue over the Ship Canal to the top of Queen Anne Hill, a major shopping district is centered on Fremont Avenue N. just north of the bridge. Sometimes referred to as The Peoples Republic of Fremont or The Artists Republic of Fremont, the neighborhood remains home to a controversial statue of Vladimir Lenin salvaged from Slovakia by a local art lover who was teaching in the area at the time. After the 1989 fall of the Communist government, he brought the statue to Fremont with money raised through a mortgage on his house, the street running under the bridge and ending at the Troll was renamed Troll Avenue N. in 2005. In addition, signs throughout Fremont give advice such as, set your watch back five minutes, set your watch forward five minutes, other landmarks include the Fremont Rocket, a Fairchild C-119 tail boom modified to resemble a missile, and the outdoor sculpture Waiting for the Interurban. Since the early 1970s some Fremont residents have been referring to their neighborhood as The Center of the Universe, an unofficial motto De Libertas Quirkas appears in brochures and websites about the area. The Fremont Arts Council sponsors several highly attended events in Fremont. One of those events is the Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant, also important to Fremont is the large block on Linden Avenue N. that contains the B. F. Day is the longest continually operating school in the Seattle school district, another longstanding institution is the Fremont branch of the Seattle Public Library. An informal library predated the 1891 annexation of Fremont to Seattle, the present structure dates from 1921. Day playfield, Fremont has three public parks, Fremont Peak Park just south of N. 45th Street, Ross Park and Playground at 3rd Avenue NW and NW 43rd Street. Ernst Park next to the library, Ernst Park was named for Ambrose Ernst, a Fremont resident. He was known as the Father of City Playfields and he served on the Board of Park Commissioners from 1906 to 1913 and helped implement Seattles Olmsted parks plan. The Burke-Gilman Trail passes through Fremont just north of the Lake Washington Ship Canal, the large Gas Works Park is just east of Fremont on the north shore of Lake Union
Fremont, Seattle
–
The
Fremont Cut of the
Lake Washington Ship Canal, seen from the grounds of the
St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral complex, across
Lake Union.
Fremont, Seattle
–
The
Fremont Troll
Fremont, Seattle
–
The Aurora Bridge from Fremont
Fremont, Seattle
–
The
Solstice Cyclists are known for riding nude through the neighborhood
15.
Belize
–
Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
Belize
–
"Caana" at
Caracol
Belize
–
Flag
Belize
–
"El Castillo" at
Xunantunich
Belize
–
An excerpt from the 1898 Gazette that declared September 10 an official holiday, part of the efforts of the Centennial Committee
16.
Theobroma cacao
–
Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make cocoa mass, cocoa powder, confectionery, ganache and chocolate. Leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–40 cm long, the flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches, this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, 1–2 cm diameter, with pink calyx, the floral formula is ✶ K5 C5 A G. While many of the flowers are pollinated by bees or butterflies/moths, cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies. Having the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. The fruit, called a pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm long and 8–10 cm wide, ripening yellow to orange. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called beans, the seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate, while the pulp is used in some countries to prepare refreshing juice, smoothies, jelly, and nata. The fermented pulp, until recently discarded in Ecuador, the Dominican Republic, each seed contains a significant amount of fat as cocoa butter. Their most noted active constituent is theobromine, a similar to caffeine. Small amounts of cocoa flavanol, a natural nutrient found in cocoa, has found to increase oxygen flow to the cerebral. Compounds found in Theobroma cacao have also found to have other substances that are beneficial for health such as proanthocyanidins. Proanthocyanidin is a compound made by the plant that is not needed directly for growth, but it has been found to promote antiviral, antibacterial. Pectin is a field of study that many land plants grow including Theobroma cacao. Pectin from Theobroma cacao has antimicrobial effects and has the potential to be used in the pharmaceutical, nutritional, pectin can be extracted from Theobroma cacao with a variety ways but two ways involve using aqueous nitric acid or boiling water. Cacao belongs to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Sterculioidea of the mallow family Malvaceae, Cacao is one of 22 species of Theobroma. The generic name is derived from the Greek for food of the gods, from θεός, meaning god, the specific name cacao is derived from the native name of the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages. The cacao was known as kakaw in Tzeltal, K’iche’ and Classic Maya, kagaw in Sayula Popoluca, cupuaçu, Theobroma grandiflorum, is a closely related species found in Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. Like cacao, it is also the source for a kind of known as cupulate or cupuaçu chocolate
Theobroma cacao
–
Theobroma cacao
Theobroma cacao
–
Cacao flowers.
Theobroma cacao
–
Toasted cacao beans grown at the
La Chonita Hacienda in
Tabasco,
Mexico
Theobroma cacao
–
Immigrant workers from India relaxing on a cacao estate in
Trinidad, 1903.
17.
The Stranger (newspaper)
–
The Stranger is an alternative weekly newspaper in Seattle, Washington, U. S. It runs a blog known as Slog, the Stranger was founded by Tim Keck, who had previously co-founded the satirical newspaper The Onion, and cartoonist James Sturm. Its first issue came out on September 23,1991, the paper is distributed to local businesses, newsstands, and newspaper boxes free of charge every Wednesday. It calls itself Seattles Only Newspaper, an expression of its disdain for Seattles two dailies and The Strangers main rival, the Seattle Weekly, the paper regularly covers Seattle City Council politics. In its early days, The Stranger had a print run of 20,000, the paper was a single sheet wrapped around a wad of coupons for local businesses. On April 16,2012, The Stranger won its first Pulitzer Prize, the feature appeared in the June 15,2011 edition. Its principal competitor is The Seattle Weekly, a newspaper in Seattle, owned by Sound Publishing. In September 2007, Savage became the editorial director and was replaced as editor-in-chief by then-27-year-old Christopher Frizzelle, formerly the Books Editor. The newspapers managing editor is Kathleen Richards, the previous managing editor was Bethany Jean Clement, who was formerly the managing editor of Seattle Weekly. Clements essays in the restaurant section of the newspaper have been anthologized in Best Food Writing 2008, associate Editor Charles Mudede is the author of the weekly column Police Beat, which has been adapted to an indie film of the same title. Mudede also co-wrote the controversial movie Zoo, a documentary about the life and death of Kenneth Pinyan who died in a bestiality incident in Enumclaw, writers for the paper in the early 1990s include Inga Muscio, Catholic Activist Thomas E. Byers and Clark Humphrey. News Editors include Sydney Brownstone, Heidi Groover, and Ansel Herz, previously, the position was held by Dominic Holden. Prior to Dominic Holden was Erica C, barnett, who in 2007 was named reporter of the year by Seattles venerable Municipal League. Barnett left the paper in 2009 to work for news web site Publicola. net, the papers Visual Arts Editor is Jen Graves. The papers Film Editor is Charles Mudede, the food writer is Angela Garbes. Other staff writers include Dave Segal and Rich Smith, Stranger ombudsman A. Birch Steen wrote acerbic criticism of the paper within every issue, usually assailing the contents for their extreme liberal bias. He was billed as a member of the OSHA Board of Governors. The name is an anagram of Steinbacher, last name of Bradley Steinbacher, steens harsh critiques, originally appeared on the inside of the back page, and later above the table of contents and as the apparent author of the papers Twitter feed
The Stranger (newspaper)
18.
Psilocybin mushroom
–
Psilocybin mushrooms, also known as psychedelic mushrooms, are mushrooms that contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin. Common colloquial terms include magic mushrooms and shrooms, biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Copelandia, Galerina, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Mycena, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. Over 100 species are classified in the genus Psilocybe, Psilocybin mushrooms may have been used since prehistoric times. They are possibly depicted in Stone Age rock art in Europe and Africa, many cultures have used these mushrooms in their religious rites and ceremonies. Archaeological evidence suggests that psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been used by humans since prehistoric times, mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Guatemala. A statuette dating from ca.200 AD and depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft, a Psilocybe species was known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl and were reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, bernardino de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés. The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with devils, in converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in remote areas the use of teonanácatl has remained. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, in 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known Caucasians to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957, inspired by the Wassons Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin, after Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture. The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, authors Terence McKenna and Robert Anton Wilson, by the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also published, the availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the psychedelic drugs. At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina, Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in about 200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms. Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review, many of these are found in Mexico, with the remainder distributed in the US and Canada, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia and associated islands. In general, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods of the subtropics and tropics, usually in rich in humus
Psilocybin mushroom
–
Psilocybe semilanceata
Psilocybin mushroom
–
Psilocybe subaeruginascens
Psilocybin mushroom
–
Non- Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include
Pluteus salicinus (left),
Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center), and
Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus subbalteatus (right).
Psilocybin mushroom
19.
Milling (grinding)
–
A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes, there are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand, working animal, wind or water, today they are usually powered by electricity. The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces, after the grinding the state of the solid is changed, the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape. Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce dry fills prior to transport or structural filling. To calculate the needed grinding work against the grain size changing three half-empirical models are used and these can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, a reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that 80% of the matter has a smaller grain size. The Bonds grinding coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature, to evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material and of the ground material is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition, pretended grinding degree Z a = d 1 a The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in this formula. In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition, see also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. A typical type of grinder is the ball mill. Ball mills normally operate with a ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their diameter and longer length. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other, ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing, one example being the Sepro tyre drive Grinding Mill. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m in diameter with a 22 MW motor, however, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance. A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles, but note that the term rod mill is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals, the rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter
Milling (grinding)
–
A tabletop hammer mill
Milling (grinding)
–
Principle of SAG Mill operation
20.
Conche
–
A conche is a surface scraping mixer and agitator that evenly distributes cocoa butter within chocolate, and may act as a polisher of the particles. It also promotes flavor development through frictional heat, release of volatiles and acids, there are numerous designs of conches. Food scientists are still studying precisely what happens during conching and why, the name arises from the shape of the vessels initially used which resembled conch shells. When ingredients are mixed in this way, sometimes for up to 78 hours, chocolate can be produced with a mild, lower quality chocolate is conched for as little as six hours. Since the process is so important to the texture and flavor of chocolate. Rodolphe Lindt invented the conche in Berne, Switzerland in 1879 and it produced chocolate with superior aroma and melting characteristics compared to other processes used at that time. Legend has it that Lindt mistakenly left a mixer containing chocolate running overnight, though he was initially distraught at the waste of energy and machine wear and tear, he quickly realized he had made a major breakthrough. Before conching was invented, solid chocolate was gritty and not very popular, lindts invention rapidly changed chocolate from being mainly a drink to being made into bars and other confections. Lindts original conche consisted of a roller and granite trough, such a configuration is now called a long conche. The ends of the trough were shaped to allow the chocolate to be back over the roller at the end of each stroke. A modern rotary conche can process 3 to 10 tonnes of chocolate in less than 12 hours, modern conches have cooled jacketed vessels containing long mixer shafts with radial arms that press the chocolate against vessel sides. A single machine can carry out all the steps of grinding, mixing, Conching redistributes the substances from the dry cocoa that create flavor into the fat phase. Air flowing through the conche removes some unwanted acetic, propionic, a small amount of moisture greatly increases viscosity of the finished chocolate so machinery is cleaned with cocoa butter instead of water. Some of the substances produced in roasting of cocoa beans are oxidized in the conche, the temperature of the conche is controlled and varies for different types of chocolate. Generally higher temperature leads to a shorter required processing time, temperature varies from around 49 °C for milk chocolate to up to 82 °C for dark chocolate. The elevated temperature leads to a partially caramelized flavor and in milk chocolate promotes the Maillard reaction, the chocolate passes through three phases during conching. In the dry phase the material is in form. Air movement through the conche removes some moisture and volatile substances, moisture balance affects the flavor and texture of the finished product because, after the particles are coated with fat, moisture and volatile chemicals are less likely to escape
Conche
–
Granite roller and granite base of a conche
Conche
Conche
–
Hershey Conche in the early 1900s, on display as part of
the Hershey Story Collection.
Conche
–
Overview
21.
WebMD
–
WebMD is an American corporation known primarily as an online publisher of news and information pertaining to human health and well-being. It was founded in 1996 by James H. Clark and Pavan Nigam as Healthscape, later Healtheon, the name was later shortened to WebMD. In the fourth quarter of 2016, WebMD recorded an average of 179.5 million unique users per month, and 3.63 billion page views per quarter. In 2013, the Chicago Tribune reported that WebMD, has struggled with a fall in advertising revenue with pharmaceutical companies slashing marketing budgets as several blockbuster drugs go off patent. In response, WebMD began investing in changes to its site the company hopes will entice users who use its site seeking specific information, WebMD is financed by advertising, third-party contributions, and sponsors. WebMD also offers services to physicians and private clients, for example, they publish WebMD the Magazine, a patient-directed publication distributed bimonthly to 85 percent of physician waiting rooms. Medscape is a portal for physicians with 30 medical specialty areas. WebMD Health Services provides private health management programs and benefit decision-support portals to employers and these sites provide similar services to those of WebMD, MedicineNet is an online media publishing company. Medscape offers up-to-date information for physicians and other healthcare professionals, RxList offers detailed information about pharmaceutical information on generic and name-brand drugs. EMedicineHealth is a site offering similar information to that of WebMD. It was first based on the site created for physicians and healthcare professionals called eMedicine. com, WebMD WebMD Health Medscape MedicineNet RxList eMedicineHealth Boots WebMD WebMD Health Services
WebMD
–
WebMD Health Corp.
22.
O, The Oprah Magazine
–
O, The Oprah Magazine, sometimes simply abbreviated to O, is a monthly magazine founded by Oprah Winfrey and Hearst Corporation, primarily marketed at women. It was first published on April 19,2000, as of June 2004, its average paid circulation was over 2.7 million copies, two thirds by subscription. A South African edition was first published in April 2002, according to the South African Advertising Research Foundation, the editor of the South African edition is Samantha Page. While most US magazine sales declined in 2009, O Magazine increased its sales by 5.8 percent to 662,304 copies during the second half of the year. The magazines newsstand sales fell 15. 8% during the first half of 2010, while its circulation increased. Since its inception, Oprah has appeared on the cover of each issue, the first shared cover is her April 2009 issue in which she appears with the First Lady Michelle Obama. The second shared cover is with fellow daytime host Ellen DeGeneres on the December 2009 issue, four separate covers were shot for this special holiday issue. The December issue of O hit newsstands on November 12,2009, O, the Oprah Magazine serves 63. 6% Caucasian,29. 8% African-American,8. 8% Hispanic,1. 8% Asian and 6. 6% other women. It is directed towards an age of 47.9, median home value of $214,281, median HHI of $68,911. The December 2010 issue of The Oprah Magazine was the first released digitally through the app for the iPad. Individual issues are available for download through the app. In May 2013, Lucy Kaylin was promoted to editor in chief, in July 2009, Susan Casey became the editor-in-chief of the magazine. Before joining, she was the development editor of Time Inc, Casey was editor-in-chief of Sports Illustrated Women, editor-at-large for Time Inc. and creative director of Outside. Casey wrote The New York Times bestseller The Devils Teeth, A True Story of Obsession and Survival Among Americas Great White Sharks, in September 2009, the magazine hired former Publishers Weekly editor–in–chief Sara Nelson as books editor at O
O, The Oprah Magazine
–
July 2012 cover of O
23.
Food Network
–
Food Network is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by Television Food Network, G. P. A joint venture between Scripps Networks Interactive and the Tribune Cable Ventures Inc, despite this ownership structure, the channel is managed as a division of Scripps Networks Interactive. The channel airs both specials and regular episodic programs about food and cooking, in addition to its headquarters in New York City, Food Network has offices in Atlanta, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit, Jersey City, Cincinnati, and Knoxville, Tennessee. As of February 2015, Food Network is available to approximately 96,931,000 pay television households in the United States. Food Network was founded on April 19,1993 as TV Food Network and was launched on November 22 of that year, its name remains Television Food Network. Within a few years, the network had shortened its brand name by removing the TV from its name. It was developed by Reese Schonfeld, under the direction of Providence Journal president Trygve Myrhen, the network was initially launched as a preview in September 1993 with two initial shows featuring David Rosengarten, Donna Hanover, and Robin Leach. Schonfeld, who was also a partner in the company, was appointed as managing director of TV Food Network and maintained a spot on its management board along with two Providence Journal employees. The original lineup for the network included Emeril Lagasse, Debbi Fields, Donna Hanover, David Rosengarten, Curtis Aikens, Dr. Louis Arrone, Jacques Pépin, the following year, the network acquired the rights to the Julia Child library from WGBH. In 1995, Schonfeld resigned as managing director of the network, but remained on its board until 1998, in fact, in 1997, it was the second fastest growing cable network. Greg Willis and Cathy Rasenberger were the two of the members of the start-up team who led the affiliate sales and marketing of the company from 1995 to 1998. Greg Willis served as vice president of worldwide distribution until he left to join Liberty Media in 1998. The A. H. Belo Corporation acquired Food Network when it purchased The Providence Journal Company in 1996, Myrhen left the Journal Company the following year. Belo sold the network to the E. W. Scripps Company in 1997, in a deal that resulted in Belo acquiring the television-radio station combination of KENS-AM/TV in San Antonio. In March 2009, the Food Network launched a repurposed Food. com as a site that allows users to aggregate. The 1080i high definition simulcast feed of Food Network launched on March 31,2008, Food Network was first launched outside of North America in the United Kingdom on November 9,2009, and in Asia on July 5,2010. Since the UK launch on November 9,2009 on Sky, Food Network programming is divided into a daytime block known as Food Network in the Kitchen and a primetime lineup branded as Food Network Nighttime. Promos identify Food Network Nighttime programming but not In the Kitchen daytime programming, Food Network airs infomercials on Sundays from 4,00 to 9,30 a. m
Food Network
–
Food Network
24.
Cengage
–
Cengage Learning, Inc. is an educational content, technology, and services company for the higher education, K-12, professional, and library markets worldwide. Cengage Learning has operations in more than 20 countries around the world, the company is headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, and has approximately 5,500 employees worldwide across 20 countries. It was headquartered at its Stamford, Connecticut, office until April 2014, Gale is Cengage Learnings library reference arm and specializes in e-research and educational publishing for libraries, schools and businesses. The company creates and maintains databases that are published online, in print, as e-books, Cengage Learning, formerly Thomson Learning, which owned the Wadsworth Publishing imprint, was created out of a restructuring of International Thomson Publishing. It was announced on October 25,2006, that Thomson Learning would be offered for sale by the Thomson Corporation, with an estimated value of up to US$5 billion. The company was bought by a private equity consortium consisting of Apax Partners and OMERS Capital Partners for US$7.75 billion, the global brand combined the former Cengage Learning ELT and National Geographic School Publishing imprints and sub-brands, under one unified identity. The company had acquired a large amount of debt through the course of its initial buyout and subsequent acquisitions, Cengage Learning filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 11 on July 2,2013. Cengage Learning emerged from bankruptcy on April 1,2014, eliminating approximately $4 billion of its funded debt, post bankruptcy, the company decided to focus on developing digital study guides and other educational supplements, as well as hard-copy text books. In January 2015 they announced expansion of their LearnLaunch Accelerator program, in November 2016, Cengage Learning rebranded as simply Cengage and rolled out a new branding scheme that highlights its student-centered approach. In addition to growth, Cengage Learning has expanded through acquisitions within the publishing industry. Notable acquisitions include, The companys product lines include, 4LTR Press, Aplia, Cengage Learning PTR, Chilton, Education To Go, Gale, Milady, MindTap, and National Geographic Learning. In 2016, based on its 2015 revenues, Publishers Weekly ranked the company at number 14 out of 57 publishers worldwide, the list includes both trade and educational publishers
Cengage
–
Cengage Learning
25.
Vertical integration
–
In microeconomics and management, vertical integration is an arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or service, and it is contrasted with horizontal integration, wherein a company produces several items which are related to one another. Vertical integration has also described management styles that bring large portions of the chain not only under a common ownership. Vertical integration is one method of avoiding the hold-up problem, a monopoly produced through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly. Nineteenth-century steel tycoon Andrew Carnegies example in the use of vertical integration led others to use the system to promote financial growth, Vertical integration can be an important strategy, but it is notoriously difficult to implement successfully and—when it turns out to be the wrong strategy—costly to fix. Vertical integration is the degree to which a firm owns its upstream suppliers, there are three varieties, backward vertical integration, forward vertical integration, and balanced vertical integration. A company exhibits backward vertical integration when it controls subsidiaries that produce some of the used in the production of its products. For example, a company may own a tire company, a glass company. Control of these three subsidiaries is intended to create a supply of inputs and ensure a consistent quality in their final product. A company tends toward forward vertical integration when it controls distribution centers and retailers where its products are sold, disintermediation is a form of vertical integration when purchasing departments take over the former role of wholesalers to source products. During a hunting trip, an American explorer and scientist, Clarence Birdseye, for example, fish caught a few days previously that were kept in ice remained in perfect condition. In 1924, Clarence Birdseye patented the “Birdseye Plate Froster” and set up the General Seafood Corporation, in 1929, Birdseye’s company and the patent were bought by Postum Company and the Goldman-Sachs trading Corporation. It later came to be known as General Foods and they kept the same Birdseye name, but it was split into two words for use as a trademark. Birdseye was paid $20 million for the patents and $2 million for the assets, Birdseye was one of the pioneers in the frozen food industry. Birdseye Company used vertical integration to manage their business, because of the fact that during these times, there was not a well developed infrastructure to produce and sell, Birdseye developed its own system by using vertical integration. As many members of the supply chain such as farmers and small retailers, couldnt afford high costs to buy equipment. The already-developed infrastructure did not allow Birdseye to quickly react to market changes, in order to increase profits and gain more market share, Alibaba, a Chinese-based company, full use of vertical integration makes it more than an e-commerce stage. Alibaba has built its leadership in the market by gradually acquiring complementary companies in a variety of industries including delivery, one of the earliest, largest and most famous examples of vertical integration was the Carnegie Steel company
Vertical integration
–
A diagram illustrating vertical integration and contrasting it with horizontal integration [
further explanation needed] [
citation needed]
