1.
Athalaric
β
Athalaric was the King of the Ostrogoths in Italy between 526 and 534. He was a son of Eutharic and Amalasuntha and his maternal grandfather was Theoderic the Great. He succeeded his grandfather as king in 526, as Athalaric was only ten years old, the regency was assumed by his mother, Amalasuntha. His mother attempted to provide for him an education in the Roman tradition, as a result, Athalaric drank heavily and indulged in vicious excesses, which ruined his constitution. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Athalaric
β
Golden coin of Theodatus and Athalaric, depicting emperor
Justinian I
Athalaric
β
Non-dynastic
Athalaric
Athalaric
2.
Witiges
β
Vitiges or Witiges was king of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540. Vitiges was the husband of Amalasunthas only surviving child, Matasuntha, soon after he was made king, Vitiges had his predecessor Theodahad murdered. Theodahad had enraged the Goths because he failed to send any assistance to Naples when it was besieged by the Byzantines, justinians general Belisarius took both Vitiges and Matasuntha as captives to Constantinople, and Vitiges died there, without any children. After his death, Matasuntha married the patrician Germanus Justinus, a nephew of Justinian I by his sister Vigilantia
Witiges
β
Non-dynastic
Witiges
β
Campaign map of the first phase of the Gothic war, 535β540
Witiges
Witiges
3.
Rome
β
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
4.
Moustache
β
A moustache is facial hair grown on the upper lip. Moustaches can be groomed by trimming and styling with a type of pomade called moustache wax, shaving with stone razors was technologically possible from Neolithic times, but the oldest portrait showing a shaved man with a moustache is an ancient Iranian horseman from 300 BC. Various cultures have developed different associations with moustaches, for example, in many 20th-century Arab countries, moustaches are associated with power, beards with Islamic traditionalism, and lack of facial hair with more liberal, secular tendencies. In Islam, trimming the moustache is considered to be a sunnah and mustahabb, that is, the moustache is also a religious symbol for the male followers of the Yarsan religion. The moustache forms its own stage in the development of hair in adolescent males. As with most human biological processes, this order may vary among some individuals depending on ones genetic heritage or environment. Moustaches can be tended through shaving the hair of the chin and cheeks, a variety of tools have been developed for the care of moustaches, including shaving razors, moustache wax, moustache nets, moustache brushes, moustache combs and moustache scissors. The longest moustache measures 4.29 m and belongs to Ram Singh Chauhan and it was measured on the set of the Italian TV show Lo Show dei Record in Rome, Italy, on 4 March 2010. The World Beard and Moustache Championships 2007 had six sub-categories for moustaches, DalΓ β narrow, long points bent or curved steeply upward, freestyle β All moustaches that do not match other classes. The hairs are allowed to start growing from up to a maximum of 1.5 cm beyond the end of the upper lip, hungarian β Big and bushy, beginning from the middle of the upper lip and pulled to the side. The hairs are allowed to start growing from up to a maximum of 1.5 cm beyond the end of the upper lip, imperial β whiskers growing from both the upper lip and cheeks, curled upward Natural β Moustache may be styled without aids. Other types of moustache include, Chevron β covering the area between the nose and the lip, out to the edges of the upper lip. Popular in 1970s and 1980s American culture, Fu Manchu β long, downward pointing ends, generally beyond the chin. Handlebar β bushy, with upward pointing ends. Worn by Hulk Hogan and Bill Kelliher, Pancho Villa β similar to the Fu Manchu but thicker, also known as a droopy moustache. A Pancho Villa is much longer and bushier than the moustache normally worn by the historical Pancho Villa. Pencil moustache β narrow, straight and thin as if drawn on by a pencil, closely clipped, outlining the upper lip, popular in the 1940s, and particularly associated with Clark Gable. More recently, it has been recognised as the moustache of choice for the fictional character Gomez Addams in the 1990s series of films based on The Addams Family, also known as a Mouth-brow, and worn by Vincent Price, John Waters, Sean Penn and Chris Cornell
Moustache
β
Panayot Hitov, Bulgarian revolutionary
Moustache
Moustache
β
c. 300 BCE
Pazyryk felt featuring a moustachioed horseman with partially shaved head
Moustache
β
A moustachioed
bodhisattva
5.
Latin language
β
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
β
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
β
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
β
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
β
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
6.
Gothic language
β
Gothic is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. It is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, a copy of a fourth-century Bible translation. As a Germanic language, Gothic is a part of the Indo-European language family and it is the earliest Germanic language that is attested in any sizable texts, but it lacks any modern descendants. The oldest documents in Gothic date back to the fourth century, the language was in decline by the mid-sixth century, partly because of the military defeat of the Goths at the hands of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation. Gothic-seeming terms found in manuscripts may or may not belong to the same language. The existence of such early attested texts makes it a language of considerable interest in comparative linguistics, only a few documents in Gothic survive, not enough for completely reconstructing the language. That is especially true considering that most Gothic corpora are translations or glosses of other languages and he commissioned a translation of the Greek Bible into the Gothic language, of which roughly three-quarters of the New Testament and some fragments of the Old Testament have survived. It contains a part of the four Gospels. Since it is a translation from Greek, the language of the Codex Argenteus is replete with borrowed Greek words, the syntax in particular is often copied directly from the Greek. Codex Ambrosianus and the Codex Taurinensis, Five parts, totaling 193 leaves It contains scattered passages from the New Testament, of the Old Testament, the text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. Codex Gissensis, One leaf, fragments of Luke 23β24 was found in Egypt in 1907 and was destroyed by damage in 1945. Several names in an Indian inscription were thought to be possibly Gothic by Krause, busbecqs material also contains many puzzles and enigmas and is difficult to interpret in the light of comparative Germanic linguistics. Reports of the discovery of parts of Ulfilas Bible have not been substantiated. Heinrich May in 1968 claimed to have found in England 12 leaves of a palimpsest containing parts of the Gospel of Matthew, only fragments of the Gothic translation of the Bible have been preserved. The translation was apparently done in the Balkans region by people in contact with Greek Christian culture. The Gothic Bible apparently was used by the Visigoths in Iberia until about 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans, in exterminating Arianism, many texts in Gothic were probably expunged and overwritten as palimpsests or collected and burned. Very few secondary sources make reference to the Gothic language after about 800, some writers even referred to Slavic-speaking people as Goths. However, it is clear from Ulfilas translation that despite some puzzles the language belongs with the Germanic language group, the relationship between the language of the Crimean Goths and Ulfilass Gothic is less clear
Gothic language
β
leaf of the Codex Ambrosianus B
Gothic language
β
Settlements before 750 BC
7.
Tauresium
β
Tauresium or known as GradiΕ‘te is an archaeological site in Macedonia, located approximately 20 kilometres southeast of the capital Skopje. Tauresium is the birthplace of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I and King Theodahad of the Ostrogoths, Tauresium is located in Zelenikovo Municipality, near the village Taor, some 20 kilometres southeast of Skopje. The site was discovered by British archaeologist Arthur Evans in the late 19th century, according to Justinians biographer Procopius, the Emperor was born in Tauresius in 483, more precisely in the castle of Baderiana, which is the modern village Bader. About the town, Procopius in his book De aedificiis states and he therefore built a wall of small compass about this place in the form of a square, placing a tower at each corner, and caused it to be called, as it actually is, Tetrapyrgia. And close by this place he built a notable city which he named Justiniana Prima. Tauresium and the castle Baderiana were destroyed in an earthquake in 518, as a gesture of gratitude to his birthplace, Justinian I rebuilt the city. Regarding Baderiana, Procopius states that it is settled castle with oddments from IV-VI century, Baderiana or the modern Bader is located 6 km east of Tauresium and Taor. tauresium. info - web page dedicated to Tauresium
Tauresium
β
Remains of building walls in Tauresium
8.
Ostrogoth
β
The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the later Goths. They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic, the Ostrogoths were probably literate in the 3rd century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their annexation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after the collapse of the Hun empire after the Battle of Nedao, Ostrogoths migrated westwards towards Illyria and the borders of Italy, while some remained in the Crimea. During the late 5th and 6th centuries, under Theodoric the Great most of the Ostrogoths moved first to Moesia, in 493, Theodoric the Great established a kingdom in Italy. A period of instability then ensued, tempting the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to declare war on the Ostrogoths in 535 in an effort to restore the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Initially, the Byzantines were successful, but under the leadership of Totila, the war lasted for almost 20 years and caused enormous damage and depopulation of Italy. The remaining Ostrogoths were absorbed into the Lombards who established a kingdom in Italy in 568, a division of the Goths is first attested in 291. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, the Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Greuthungi inhabit Phrygia, according to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Ostrogothi, Tervingi and that the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. This interpretation, however, though common among scholars today, is not universal. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other and this terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of Scythians north of the Danube who were called Greuthungi by the north of the Ister. Wolfram asserts that it was the Tervingi who remained behind after the Hunnic conquest and he further believes that the terms Vesi and Ostrogothi were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people, the nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire, the term Visigoth, however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, the western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex
Ostrogoth
β
Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of
San Apollinare Nuovo.
Ostrogoth
β
Ostrogothic bow-fibulae (c. 500) from
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Ostrogoth
β
The mausoleum of
Theodoric the Great in
Ravenna,
Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogoth
β
Coin of
Theodahad (534-536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
9.
Theodoric the Great
β
Theoderic the Great, often referred to as Theodoric, was king of the Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, regent of the Visigoths, and a patricius of the Roman Empire. His Gothic name Γiudareiks translates into people-king or ruler of the people, Theodoric was born in Pannonia, now northern Croatia in 454, after his people had defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao. His father was King Theodemir, a Germanic Amali nobleman, Theodoric grew up as a hostage in Constantinople, received a privileged education, and succeeded his father as leader of the Pannonian Ostrogoths in 473. Settling his people in lower Moesia, Theoderic came into conflict with Thracian Ostrogoths led by Theodoric Strabo, Emperor Zeno subsequently gave him the title of Patrician, Vir gloriosus, and the office of Magister militum, and even appointed him as Roman Consul. Seeking further gains, Theoderic frequently ravaged the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, while he promoted separation between the Arian Ostrogoths and the Roman population, Theoderic stressed the importance of racial harmony, though intermarriage was outlawed. Seeking to restore the glory of Ancient Rome, he ruled Italy in its most peaceful and prosperous period since Valentinian, memories of his reign made him a hero of German legend as Dietrich von Bern. The man who would rule under the name of Theoderic was born in 454 AD. This was just a year after the Ostrogoths had thrown off nearly a century of domination by the Huns, treated with favor by the Emperors Leo I and Zeno, he became magister militum in 483, and one year later he became consul. Afterwards, he returned to live among the Ostrogoths when he was 31 years old, at the time, the Ostrogoths were settled in Byzantine territory as foederati of the Romans, but were becoming restless and increasingly difficult for Zeno to manage. Not long after Theoderic became king, the two men worked out an arrangement beneficial to both sides, the Ostrogoths needed a place to live, and Zeno was having serious problems with Odoacer, the King of Italy who had come to power in 476. Ostensibly a viceroy for Zeno, Odoacer was menacing Byzantine territory, at Zenos encouragement, Theoderic invaded Odoacers kingdom. Theoderic came with his army to Italy in 488, where he won the battles of Isonzo and Verona in 489, on February 2,493, Theoderic and Odoacer signed a treaty that assured both parties would rule over Italy. A banquet was organised in order to celebrate this treaty and it was at this banquet that Theoderic, after making a toast, killed Odoacer, Theoderic drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. Like Odoacer, Theoderic was ostensibly only a viceroy for the emperor in Constantinople, in reality, he was able to avoid imperial supervision, and dealings between the emperor and Theoderic were as equals. Unlike Odoacer, however, Theoderic respected the agreement he had made and allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law, the Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theoderic the Great sought alliances with, or hegemony over, the other Germanic kingdoms in the west. He allied with the Franks by his marriage to Audofleda, sister of Clovis I, the Franks were able to wrest control of Aquitaine from the Visigoths, but otherwise Theoderic was able to defeat their incursions. Theoderics achievements began to even before his death
Theodoric the Great
β
Quarter Siliqua featuring Theoderic, c. AD 491β501
Theodoric the Great
β
The Ostrogothic Kingdom (in yellow) at the death of Theoderic the Great (526AD)
Theodoric the Great
β
Bronze weight, inlaid with silver, with the name of Theoderic, issued by prefect Catulinus in Rome, 493β526.
Theodoric the Great
β
The
Mausoleum of Theoderic in Ravenna.
10.
Italy
β
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan VΓteliΓΊ, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy β according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
β
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 β 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
β
Flag
Italy
β
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
β
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
11.
Amalaswintha
β
Amalasuntha was a regent of the Ostrogoths from 526 to 534. She was the youngest daughter of Theoderic the Great, and firmly believed in the upholding of Roman virtues and values and she is most well known for her diplomatic relationship with Justinian I, who would invade Italy in response to her assassination. It was important to Amalasunthas father, Theoderic the Great, that she marry into a royal family. She was very much an intellectual, and was known for her extensive knowledge. In addition, she was a student of philosophy, said to bear the wisdom of Solomon and her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, Athalaric and Matasuntha, wife c.550 of Germanus. On the death of her father in 526, her son succeeded him at the age of ten and her tremendous influence in her position as regent can be seen in a diptych she appears in alongside her son, Athalaric, in 530. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that sons education a more refined and her sons death in 534 made little change in the posture of affairs. After Athalarics death, Amalasuntha became queen, ruling independently only for a short while making her cousin Theodahad partner of her throne. Theodahad was a prominent leader of the Gothic military aristocracy, the group that so opposed her pro-Roman stances. Amalasuntha believed this pairing would help to make out of her harshest critics. The death of Amalasuntha would give Justinian a reason to go to war with the Ostrogoths, according to the Byzantine historian Procopius, it is believed that Amalasuntha and Justinian I had a very close diplomatic relationship. More specifically, Procopius believed that Amalasuntha was thinking about handing over Italy to Justinian around the time of her death, shortly after Amalasunthas murder, Theodahad would be replaced by Witigis, Amalasunthas son-in-law. With the peoples support, Witigis would have Theodahad put to death, the letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. Cassiodorus was a part of a greater pro-Roman party that desired to Romanize the traditional Ostrogothic kingship, the life of Amalasunta was made the subject of a tragedy, the first play written by the young Carlo Goldoni and presented at Milan in. Asteroid 650 Amalasuntha is named in her honour and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Amalasuntha
Amalaswintha
β
Amalasiuntha regina - woodcut from the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
12.
Lake Bolsena
β
Lake Bolsena is a crater lake of central Italy, of volcanic origin, which began to collect 370,000 years ago following the formation of a caldera in the Vulsini volcanic complex. Roman historic records indicate activity of the Vulsini volcano occurred as recently as 104 BC, the two islands in the southern part of the lake were formed by underwater eruptions following the collapse that created the caldera. The lake is supplied entirely from the aquifer, rainfall and runoff, a sewage treatment plant filters most of the raw sewage from the surrounding communities. Constructed in 1996, it features pipelines transporting the sewage from every major community around the lake to the treatment plant on the Marta River, fertilizers are a second source of contamination. However, the content of the lake is monitored at several stations around it. Lying within the part of the province of Viterbo that is called Alto Lazio or Tuscia. The lake is bordered on one side by updated forms of the Roman consular road Via Cassia, in addition to the historic sites of all periods, Lake Bolsena is currently surrounded by numerous tourist establishments, largely for camping, agrotourism and bed and breakfasts. One third of the lake was donated to the Catholic church by the noble family Alberici of Orvieto, in recognition of the donation the Alberici family was honored with a ceremony three times a year performed by the Bishop of Orvieto. The lake has a shape typical of crater lakes. The long axis of the ellipse is aligned in a north-south direction, the bottom is roughly conical reaching a maximum depth at a point in the middle. The entire lake is surrounded by hills on the flanks and summits of which are the comuni, the watershed was home to 22,000 permanent residents in 2004, and 35,000 in the summer season. Elevations on the north of the lake are the highest, with a maximum of 702 m, as the lake is at 305 m, no hill is more than 397 m higher than it. On the northern rim of the caldera is San Lorenzo Nuovo, the northern shore of the lake once featured marshes, breeding grounds for the mosquitos that carry the disease. At the site of old San Lorenzo are Etruscan antiquities, to the north of San Lorenzo Nuovo and the caldera rim is Acquapendente. The hills to the east are 600 m to 650 m, Bolsena extends upward on the northeast shore, with Orvieto 14 km further to the northeast, at the edge of the volcanic region. On the southeast of the lake is Montefiascone at an elevation of 633 m, to the south of the lake is Marta, on the right bank of the Marta River, sole effluent of the lake. The shore there is straight and developed, elevations are within 100 m of the lake. Next to Marta are Valentano and Capodimonte, the latter being built on and around nearly the only headland on the lake, about 15 km to the south are Tuscania and Viterbo, the latter being the regional capital
Lake Bolsena
β
Wideangle view
Lake Bolsena
β
The southernmost end of the lake viewed from the ridge of Montefiascone caldera. Martana is on the left and Bisentino on the right. The straight shore to the far left is Marta. To the left of Martana is the headland of Capodimonte.
Lake Bolsena
β
The western and northern shores viewed from the eastern shore. The large settlement to the right is
Bolsena, at the foot of the northern hills.
Lake Bolsena
β
The eastern shore viewed from highway SS312 Castrense between
Valentano and
Latera on the western shore. Center is Bisentina, with Martana to the right and the headland of
Capodimonte to the right of it. The city on the left of the far shore is
Bolsena
13.
Belisarius
β
Flavius Belisarius was a general of the Byzantine Empire. He was instrumental to Emperor Justinians ambitious project of reconquering much of the Mediterranean territory of the former Western Roman Empire, one of the defining features of Belisarius career was his success despite varying levels of support from Justinian. His name is given as one of the so-called Last of the Romans. Born into an Illyrian or Thracian family of possible Gothic ancestry, he spoke Latin as a tongue and became a Roman soldier as a young man. He came to the attention of Justin and his nephew, Justinian, as a promising and he was given permission by the emperor to form a bodyguard regiment, of heavy cavalry, which he later expanded into a personal household regiment,1,500 strong. Belisarius bucellarii were the nucleus around which all the armies he would later command were organized, armed with a lance, composite bow, and broadsword, they were fully armoured to the standard of heavy cavalry of the day. A multi-purpose unit, they were capable of skirmishing at a distance with bow, like the Huns, or could act as shock cavalry, charging an enemy with lance. In essence, they combined the best and most dangerous aspects of both of Romes greatest enemies, the Huns and the Goths. Following Justins death in 527, the new emperor, Justinian I and he quickly proved himself an able and effective commander, defeating the larger Sassanid army through superior generalship. This led to the negotiation of an Eternal Peace with the Persians and this freed resources for redeployment elsewhere. In 532, he was the military officer in the Imperial capital of Constantinople when the Nika riots broke out in the city. For his efforts, Belisarius was rewarded by Justinian with the command of a land and sea expedition against the Vandal Kingdom, the Romans had political, religious, and strategic reasons for such a campaign. The pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic had been deposed and murdered by the usurper Gelimer, furthermore, the Arian Vandals had periodically persecuted the Nicene Christians within their kingdom, many of whom made their way to Constantinople seeking redress. The Vandals had launched many pirate raids on Roman trade interests, in the late summer of 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa and landed near Caput Vada. He ordered his fleet not to lose sight of the army, ten miles from Carthage, the forces of Gelimer and Belisarius finally met at the Battle of Ad Decimum on September 13,533. It nearly turned into a defeat for the Romans, Gelimer had chosen his position well and had some success along the main road. The Romans, however, seemed dominant on both sides of the road to Carthage. At the height of the battle, Gelimer became distraught upon learning of the death of his brother in battle and this gave Belisarius a chance to regroup, and he went on to win the battle and capture Carthage
Belisarius
β
Belisarius may be this bearded figure on the right of Emperor
Justinian I in the mosaic in the
Church of San Vitale,
Ravenna, which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by the
Byzantine army. Compare Lillington-Martin (2009) page 16
Belisarius
β
BΓ©lisaire, by
François-André Vincent (1776). Belisarius, blinded, a beggar, is recognised by one of his former soldiers
Belisarius
β
Belisarius Begging for Alms, as depicted in popular legend, in the painting by
Jacques-Louis David (1781)
Belisarius
β
The outcast Belisarius receiving hospitality from a Peasant by
Jean-François Pierre Peyron (1779)
14.
Sicily
β
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
β
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
β
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
β
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
β
Location of the
Salso
15.
Justinian I
β
Justinian I, traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church, was a Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empires greatness, because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the last Roman in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, the prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empires annual revenue by over a million solidi, during his reign Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendour. Justinian was born in Tauresium around 482, a native speaker of Latin, he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origins. The cognomen Iustinianus, which he later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace and his mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the guard before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. Chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, tells of his appearance that he was short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced, another contemporary chronicler, Procopius, compares Justinians appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander. When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, during Justins reign, Justinian was the emperors close confidant. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler, Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east. Upon Justins death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign, as a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as the emperor who never sleeps on account of his work habits, nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople and she was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years his junior
Justinian I
β
Detail of a contemporary portrait mosaic in the
Basilica of San Vitale,
Ravenna.
Justinian I
Justinian I
β
The ancient town of
Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's
Republic of Macedonia.
Justinian I
β
The
Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or
Anastasius I
16.
Neoplatonism
β
Neoplatonists were heavily influenced by Plato, but also by the Platonic tradition that thrived during the six centuries which separated the first of the Neoplatonists from Plato. In defining the term Neoplatonism, it is difficult to reduce the school of thought to a set of ideas that all Neoplatonic philosophers shared in common. The work of Neoplatonic philosophy involved describing the derivation of the whole of reality from a single principle, instead, the most concise definition of Neoplatonism casts it as a historical term. Thinkers of this period include Syrianus, Olympiodorus the Younger. Neoplatonism has been influential throughout history. In the Middle Ages, Neoplatonic ideas were integrated into the philosophical and theological works of many of the most important medieval Islamic, Christian, yeats and T. S. Eliot, among many more. The term Neoplatonism has a function as a historical category. On the one hand, it differentiates the philosophical doctrines of Plotinus, on the other, the term makes an assumption about the novelty of Plotinus interpretation of Plato. The term Neoplatonism implies that Plotinus interpretation of Plato was so distinct from those of his predecessors that it should be thought to introduce a new period in the history of Platonism. Some contemporary scholars, however, have taken issue with this assumption and have doubted that Neoplatonism constitutes a useful label and they claim that merely marginal differences separate Plotinus teachings from those of his immediate predecessors. Whether Neoplatonism is a meaningful or useful historical category is itself a central question concerning the history of the interpretation of Plato, for much of the history of Platonism, it was commonly accepted that the doctrines of the Neoplatonists were essentially the same as those of Plato. The Renaissance Platonist Marsilio Ficino, for instance, thought that the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plato was an authentic, contemporary scholars often identify the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher as an early thinker who took Platos philosophy to be separate from that of his Neoplatonic interpreters. However, others have argued that the differentiation of Plato from Neoplatonism was the result of a historical development that preceded Schleiermachers scholarly work on Plato. The most important forerunners of Neoplatonism are the Middle Platonists, such as Plutarch, Neoplatonism is generally a metaphysical and epistemological philosophy. Neoplatonism is a form of idealistic monism combined with elements of polytheism, although the founder of Neoplatonism is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas, the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary and classical document of Neoplatonism. One of the features of Plotinus system, which was also taken up by subsequent Neoplatonists, is the doctrine of the One beyond being. For Plotinus, the first principle of reality is a simple, ineffable, unknowable subsistence which is both the creative source and the teleological end of all existing things. Although, properly speaking, there is no name appropriate for the first principle, the One is so simple that it cannot even be said to exist or to be a being
Neoplatonism
17.
Lest Darkness Fall
β
Lest Darkness Fall is an alternate history science fiction novel written in 1939 by author L. Sprague de Camp. The book is considered one of the best examples of the alternate history genre. Prominent alternate history author Harry Turtledove has said it sparked his interest in the genre as well as his desire to study Byzantine history, a shorter version was first published as a short story in Unknown #10, December 1939. It was published as a novel by Henry Holt and Company in 1941. The first British edition was published in hardcover by Heinemann in 1955, the first paperback edition was published by Pyramid Books in February 1963 and reprinted in August 1969. The importance of the work was recognized by its inclusion in The Easton Presss The Masterpieces of Science Fiction series in 1989, Sprague de Camp, and with works by other authors in Lest Darkness Fall and Related Stories. An E-book edition was published by Gollanczs SF Gateway imprint on September 29,2011 as part of a release of de Camps works in electronic form. Galaxys Edge magazine reprinted Lest Darkness Fall over four issues starting in August 2014, repeating a typographical error that appears in Lest Darkness Fall, Lest Darkness Fall is similar in concept to Mark Twains A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. American archaeologist Martin Padway is visiting the Pantheon in Rome in 1938, a thunderstorm arrives, lightning cracks, and he finds himself transported to Rome in the year 535 AD. At this time, the region of Italy is under the rule of the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the novel depicts their rule as a benevolent despotism, allowing freedom of religion and maintaining the urban Roman society they had conquered. In the real timeline, the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire temporarily expanded westwards, the great cities of Rome were abandoned, the Byzantines never fully consolidated their rule over Italy, which faced further invasions by the Lombards, and Italy fell into a long period of decline. Some historians consider this the beginning of the Dark Ages in Italy. Padway initially wonders if he is dreaming or delusional, but he accepts his fate. His first idea is to make a still and sell brandy for a living. He convinces a banker, Thomasus the Syrian, to lend him seed money to start his endeavor and he teaches his clerks Arabic numerals and double entry bookkeeping. Padway eventually develops a printing press, issues newspapers, and builds a crude semaphore telegraph system utilizing small telescopes, however, his attempts to reproduce mechanical clocks, gunpowder, and cannons are failures. He becomes increasingly involved in the politics of the state as Italy is invaded by the Imperials and also threatened from the south, Padway rescues the recently deposed Thiudahad and becomes his quaestor. He uses the kings support to gather forces to defeat the formidable Imperial general Belisarius, Padway manages to surprise Belisarius with tactics never used in the ancient world
Lest Darkness Fall
β
Dust cover of 1st edition
18.
L. Sprague de Camp
β
Lyon Sprague de Camp, better known as L. Sprague de Camp, was an American writer of science fiction, fantasy, non-fiction and biography. In a career spanning 60 years, he wrote over 100 books, including novels and works of non-fiction and he was a major figure in science fiction during the genres heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. De Camp was born in New York City, one of three sons of Lyon de Camp, a businessman in real estate and lumber, and Emma Beatrice Sprague and his maternal grandfather was the accountant, banker, pioneering VolapΓΌkist and Civil War veteran Charles Ezra Sprague. De Camp once noted that he rarely used pen-names, partly because my own true name sounds more like a pseudonym than most pseudonyms do. De Camp began his education at the Trinity School in New York, then spent ten years attending the Snyder School in North Carolina, a military-style institution. His stay at the Snyder School was an attempt by his parents and he was awkward and thin, an ineffective fighter, and suffered from bullying by his classmates. He would later recall these challenging childhood experiences in the semi-autobiographical story and he earned his Master of Science degree in Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology in 1933. De Camp was also a surveyor and an expert in patents and his first job was with the Inventors Foundation, Inc. in Hoboken, N. J. which was taken over by The International Correspondence Schools. De Camp transferred to the Scranton, PA division and he was Principal of the School of Inventing and Patenting when he resigned in 1937. His first book Inventions and Their Management resulted and was published in July 1937, on August 12,1939, de Camp married Catherine Crook, with whom he collaborated on science fiction and nonfiction beginning in the 1960s. During World War II, de Camp served as a researcher at the Philadelphia Naval Yard along with his fellow writers Isaac Asimov, de Camp eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant commander in the U. S. Navy as a reserve officer. De Camp was a member of the literary and dining club the Trap Door Spiders in New York City. De Camp himself was the model for the character named Geoffrey Avalon and his ashes were inurned, together with hers, in the Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. De Camps personal library of about 1,200 books was acquired for auction by Half Price Books in 2005, the collection included books inscribed by fellow writers, such as Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan, as well as de Camp himself. De Camp was a materialist who wrote works examining society, history, technology and he published numerous short stories, novels, non-fiction works and poems during his long career. De Camp had the mind of an educator, and a theme in many of his works is a corrective impulse regarding similar previous works by other authors. A highly rational and logical thinker, he was disturbed by what he regarded as logical lapses and absurdities in others writings. Some, like Asimov, felt de Camps conscientiousness about facts limited the scope of his stories, when he was not debunking literary conventions he was often explaining them
L. Sprague de Camp
β
De Camp (center) with
Robert A. Heinlein and
Isaac Asimov in 1944.
L. Sprague de Camp
β
L. Sprague and
Catherine Crook de Camp at
Nolacon II in 1988
L. Sprague de Camp
β
A de Camp-Pratt "Gavagan's Bar" story was cover-featured on the January 1959 issue of
Fantastic Universe
L. Sprague de Camp
β
In 1952,
Richard M. Powers provided a
Galaxy Science Fiction cover highlighting essays by de Camp and by
Robert A. Heinlein
19.
International Standard Book Number
β
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
β
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
20.
Jordanes
β
Jordanes, also written Jordanis or, uncommonly, Jornandes, was a 6th-century Roman bureaucrat, who turned his hand to history later in life. While he also wrote Romana about the history of Rome, his work is his Getica. It is the extant ancient work dealing with the early history of the Goths. Jordanes was asked by a friend to write this book as a summary of a history of the Goths by the statesman Cassiodorus. He was selected for his known interest in history, his ability to write succinctly and he had been a high-level notarius, or secretary, of a small client state on the Roman frontier in Scythia Minor, modern south-eastern Romania and north-eastern Bulgaria. Other writers, e. g. Procopius, wrote works which are extant on the history of the Goths. As the only surviving work on Gothic origins, the Getica has been the object of critical review. Jordanes wrote in Late Latin rather than the classical Ciceronian Latin, according to his own introduction, he had only three days to review what Cassiodorus had written, meaning that he must also have relied on his own knowledge. Some of his statements are laconic, Jordanes writes about himself almost in passing, The Sciri, moreover, and the Sadagarii and certain of the Alani with their leader, Candac by name, received Scythia Minor and Lower Moesia. Paria, the father of my father Alanoviiamuth, was secretary to this Candac as long as he lived. Already in the Mommsen text edition of 1882 it was suggested that the long name of Jordanes father should be split into two parts, Alanovii Amuthis, both genitive forms. Jordanes fathers name would then be Amuth, the preceding word should then belong to Candac, signifying that he was an Alan. Mommsen, however, dismissed suggestions to emend a corrupt text, Jordanes writes that he was secretary to Candac, dux Alanorum, an otherwise unknown leader of the Alans. Jordanes was notarius, or secretary to Gunthigis Baza, a magister militum, nephew of Candac, the nature and details of the conversion remain obscure. The Goths had been converted with the assistance of Ulfilas, made bishop on that account, however, the Goths had adopted Arianism. Jordanes conversion may have been a conversion to the trinitarian Nicene creed, in the letter to Vigilius he mentions that he was awakened vestris interrogationibus - by your questioning. Alternatively, Jordanes conversio may mean that he had become a monk, or a religiosus, some manuscripts say that he was a bishop, some even say bishop of Ravenna, but the name Jordanes is not known in the lists of bishops of Ravenna. Jordanes wrote his Romana at the behest of a certain Vigilius, although some scholars have identified this person with pope Vigilius, there is nothing else to support the identification besides the name
Jordanes
β
The deeds of Dacians and Getae (here from Trajan's column) were wrongly attributted to Goths by Jordanes
21.
King of Italy
β
King of Italy was the title given to the ruler of the Kingdom of Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The first to take the title was Odoacer, a military leader, in the late 5th century. With the Frankish conquest of Italy in the 8th century, the Carolingians assumed the title, the last Emperor to claim the title was Charles V in the 16th century. During this period, the holders of the title were crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, although Napoleon I used the title from 1805 to 1814, it was not until the Unification of Italy in the 1860s that a Kingdom of Italy was restored. From 1861 the House of Savoy held the title as monarchs of the peninsula until the last King of Italy, Umberto II. After the deposition of the last Western Emperor in 476, Heruli leader Odoacer was appointed Dux Italiae by the reigning Byzantine Emperor Zeno. Later, the Germanic foederati, the Scirians and the Heruli, as well as a segment of the Italic Roman army. In 493, the Ostrogothic king Theoderic the Great killed Odoacer, Ostrogothic rule ended when Italy was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in 552. In the 8th century, estrangement between the Italians and the Byzantines allowed the Lombards to capture the remaining Roman enclaves in northern Italy. However, in 774, they were defeated by the Franks under Charlemagne, after the death of Charles III the Fat in 887, Italy fell into instability and a number of kings attempted to establish themselves as independent Italian monarchs. During this period, known as the Feudal Anarchy, the title Rex Italicorum was introduced, after the breakup of the Frankish empire, Otto I added Italy to the Holy Roman Empire and continued the use of the title Rex Italicorum. The last to use this title was Henry II, subsequent emperors used the title king of Italy until Charles V. At first they were crowned in Pavia, later Milan, in 1805, Napoleon I was crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at the Milan Cathedral. The next year, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated his imperial title, from the deposition of Napoleon I until the Italian Unification, there was no Italian monarch claiming the overarching title. The Risorgimento successfully established a dynasty, the House of Savoy, over the peninsula, uniting the kingdoms of Sardinia. The monarchy was superseded by the Italian Republic, after a referendum was held on 2 June 1946 after the World War II. The Italian monarchy formally ended on 12 June of that year, Guy of Spoleto opponent of Berengar, ruled most of Italy but was deposed by Arnulf. Lambert of Spoleto subking of his father Guy before 894, reduced to Spoleto 894β895, Arnulf of Carinthia Ratold In 896, Arnulf and Ratold lost control of Italy, which was divided between Berengar and Lambert, Berengar I seized Lamberts portion upon the latters death in 898
King of Italy
β
Iron Crown of Lombardy
King of Italy
β
Otto I
King of Italy
β
Otto II
King of Italy
β
Otto III
22.
Odoacer
β
Flavius Odoacer, also known as Flavius Odovacer, was a soldier who in 476 became the first King of Italy. His reign is seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Though the real power in Italy was in his hands, he represented himself as the client of Julius Nepos and, after Nepos death in 480, Odoacer introduced few important changes into the administrative system of Italy. He had the support of the Roman Senate and was able to land to his followers without much opposition. Unrest among his warriors led to violence in 477β478, but no such disturbances occurred during the period of his reign. Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, he intervened in the affairs of the orthodox. Probably of Scirian descent, Odoacer was a leader in Italy who led the revolt of Herulian, Rugian. With the backing of the Roman Senate, Odoacer thenceforth ruled Italy autonomously, paying lip service to the authority of Julius Nepos, the last Western emperor, and Zeno, upon Nepos murder in 480 Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, to punish the murderers. He did so, executing the conspirators, but within two years also conquered the region and incorporated it into his domain. When Illus, master of soldiers of the Eastern Empire, asked for Odoacerβs help in 484 in his struggle to depose Zeno, the emperor responded first by inciting the Rugi of present-day Austria to attack Italy. During the winter of 487β488 Odoacer crossed the Danube and defeated the Rugi in their own territory, Zeno also appointed the Ostrogoth Theoderic the Great who was menacing the borders of the Eastern Empire, to be king of Italy, turning one troublesome, nominal vassal against another. Theoderic invaded Italy in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, the city surrendered on 5 March 493, Theoderic invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation and there killed him. Odoacer is the earliest ruler of Italy for whom an autograph of any of his legal acts has survived to the current day. The larger portion of a record of Odoacer granting properties in Sicily, except for the fact that he was not considered Roman, Odoacers ethnic origins are not completely known. Both the Anonymus Valesianus and John of Antioch state his fathers name was Edeko, since Sebastian Tillemont in the 17th century, all three have been considered to be the same person. In his Getica, Jordanes describes Odoacer as king of the Turcilingi, however, in his Romana, the same author defines him as a member of the Rugii. The Consularia Italica calls him king of the Heruli, while Theophanes appears to be guessing when he calls him a Goth, marcellinus Comes calls him the king of the Goths. One of these is that his name, Odoacer, for which an etymology in Germanic languages had not been found, could be a form of the Turkish Ot-toghar
Odoacer
β
Coin of Odoacer, Ravenna, 477, with Odoacer in profile, depicted with a "barbarian"
moustache.
Odoacer
β
Romulus Augustus resigns the Crown (from a 19th-century illustration).
Odoacer
β
Odoacer
solidus struck in the name of Emperor
Zeno, testifying to the formal submission of Odoacer to Zeno.
Odoacer
β
The Kingdom of Italy (Odoacer) in 480 AD.
23.
Ostrogoths
β
The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the later Goths. They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic, the Ostrogoths were probably literate in the 3rd century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their annexation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after the collapse of the Hun empire after the Battle of Nedao, Ostrogoths migrated westwards towards Illyria and the borders of Italy, while some remained in the Crimea. During the late 5th and 6th centuries, under Theodoric the Great most of the Ostrogoths moved first to Moesia, in 493, Theodoric the Great established a kingdom in Italy. A period of instability then ensued, tempting the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to declare war on the Ostrogoths in 535 in an effort to restore the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Initially, the Byzantines were successful, but under the leadership of Totila, the war lasted for almost 20 years and caused enormous damage and depopulation of Italy. The remaining Ostrogoths were absorbed into the Lombards who established a kingdom in Italy in 568, a division of the Goths is first attested in 291. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, the Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Greuthungi inhabit Phrygia, according to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Ostrogothi, Tervingi and that the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. This interpretation, however, though common among scholars today, is not universal. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other and this terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of Scythians north of the Danube who were called Greuthungi by the north of the Ister. Wolfram asserts that it was the Tervingi who remained behind after the Hunnic conquest and he further believes that the terms Vesi and Ostrogothi were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people, the nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire, the term Visigoth, however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, the western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex
Ostrogoths
β
Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of
San Apollinare Nuovo.
Ostrogoths
β
Ostrogothic bow-fibulae (c. 500) from
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Ostrogoths
β
The mausoleum of
Theodoric the Great in
Ravenna,
Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogoths
β
Coin of
Theodahad (534-536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
24.
Theoderic the Great
β
Theoderic the Great, often referred to as Theodoric, was king of the Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, regent of the Visigoths, and a patricius of the Roman Empire. His Gothic name Γiudareiks translates into people-king or ruler of the people, Theodoric was born in Pannonia, now northern Croatia in 454, after his people had defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao. His father was King Theodemir, a Germanic Amali nobleman, Theodoric grew up as a hostage in Constantinople, received a privileged education, and succeeded his father as leader of the Pannonian Ostrogoths in 473. Settling his people in lower Moesia, Theoderic came into conflict with Thracian Ostrogoths led by Theodoric Strabo, Emperor Zeno subsequently gave him the title of Patrician, Vir gloriosus, and the office of Magister militum, and even appointed him as Roman Consul. Seeking further gains, Theoderic frequently ravaged the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, while he promoted separation between the Arian Ostrogoths and the Roman population, Theoderic stressed the importance of racial harmony, though intermarriage was outlawed. Seeking to restore the glory of Ancient Rome, he ruled Italy in its most peaceful and prosperous period since Valentinian, memories of his reign made him a hero of German legend as Dietrich von Bern. The man who would rule under the name of Theoderic was born in 454 AD. This was just a year after the Ostrogoths had thrown off nearly a century of domination by the Huns, treated with favor by the Emperors Leo I and Zeno, he became magister militum in 483, and one year later he became consul. Afterwards, he returned to live among the Ostrogoths when he was 31 years old, at the time, the Ostrogoths were settled in Byzantine territory as foederati of the Romans, but were becoming restless and increasingly difficult for Zeno to manage. Not long after Theoderic became king, the two men worked out an arrangement beneficial to both sides, the Ostrogoths needed a place to live, and Zeno was having serious problems with Odoacer, the King of Italy who had come to power in 476. Ostensibly a viceroy for Zeno, Odoacer was menacing Byzantine territory, at Zenos encouragement, Theoderic invaded Odoacers kingdom. Theoderic came with his army to Italy in 488, where he won the battles of Isonzo and Verona in 489, on February 2,493, Theoderic and Odoacer signed a treaty that assured both parties would rule over Italy. A banquet was organised in order to celebrate this treaty and it was at this banquet that Theoderic, after making a toast, killed Odoacer, Theoderic drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. Like Odoacer, Theoderic was ostensibly only a viceroy for the emperor in Constantinople, in reality, he was able to avoid imperial supervision, and dealings between the emperor and Theoderic were as equals. Unlike Odoacer, however, Theoderic respected the agreement he had made and allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law, the Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theoderic the Great sought alliances with, or hegemony over, the other Germanic kingdoms in the west. He allied with the Franks by his marriage to Audofleda, sister of Clovis I, the Franks were able to wrest control of Aquitaine from the Visigoths, but otherwise Theoderic was able to defeat their incursions. Theoderics achievements began to even before his death
Theoderic the Great
β
Quarter Siliqua featuring Theoderic, c. AD 491β501
Theoderic the Great
β
The Ostrogothic Kingdom (in yellow) at the death of Theoderic the Great (526AD)
Theoderic the Great
β
Bronze weight, inlaid with silver, with the name of Theoderic, issued by prefect Catulinus in Rome, 493β526.
Theoderic the Great
β
The
Mausoleum of Theoderic in Ravenna.
25.
Vitiges
β
Vitiges or Witiges was king of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540. Vitiges was the husband of Amalasunthas only surviving child, Matasuntha, soon after he was made king, Vitiges had his predecessor Theodahad murdered. Theodahad had enraged the Goths because he failed to send any assistance to Naples when it was besieged by the Byzantines, justinians general Belisarius took both Vitiges and Matasuntha as captives to Constantinople, and Vitiges died there, without any children. After his death, Matasuntha married the patrician Germanus Justinus, a nephew of Justinian I by his sister Vigilantia
Vitiges
β
Non-dynastic
Vitiges
β
Campaign map of the first phase of the Gothic war, 535β540
Vitiges
Vitiges
26.
Ildibad
β
Ildibad was a king of the Ostrogoths in Italy in 540-541. Ildibad was a nephew of Theudis, one of the Visigothic kings in Spain and this relationship led Peter Heather to suggest that both belonged to a powerful, non-royal clan. In the 540, the Ostrogothic king Witiges was taken prisoner by Belisarius in Ravenna, Ildibads children were also taken prisoner. Ildibad was one of the Goths north of the Po river who still refused to surrender to Roman authority, following Witiges capture however, Ildibad had attempted to negotiate terms of surrender with Belisarius, perhaps because of the fate of his children. After Witigess capture, the candidate for the Ostrogothic throne became Uraias, who was Witiges nephew. Uraias however declined because his family lacked royal fortune, and instead suggested Ildibad and these were the only cities still held by the Ostrogoths at this time. After being elected king in 540, Ildibad moved his capital to Pavia, Ildibad again attempted to negotiate a surrender, but after Belisarius sailed to Constantinople along with Witiges and Ildibads family, the war resumed. The Gothic territory at this time constisted only of a strip of land between Pavia and Verona, while the army consisted of barely 1,000 men, although this number was growing. The lack of coordination between the remaining Byzantine commanders enabled Ildibad to extend his authority throughout Liguria and Venetia, in 541 AD he was engaged outside the heavily defended city of Treviso by its military commander Vitalius and a sizable body of Heruli. The battle was a victory for the Goths, with Vitalius barely escaping while the Heruli leader was killed. His nephew Totila then became commander of Treviso. Ildibad was subsequently able to extend his authority across the entire Po Valley, the victory gave him increased support among the Goths, while the ruinous Roman taxation of the provinces and lack of coordination between generals enabled him to acquire many Roman deserters. In 541, Ildibad had Uraias murdered, according to Procopius, Uraiass murder had been instigated by Ildibads wife, who felt insulted by the lavish lifestyle of Uraias wife. In any case, Ildibad was in May 541 murdered at a banquet by his Gepid bodyguard. The lack of a suitable Gothic successor enabled the Rugians to make their chief Eraric king of the Goths, Eraric however betrayed the Goths and secretly offered to surrender the Gothic kingdom to the Byzantines in return for money. As a result, the Goths at Pavia offered Ildibads nephew Totila the throne, Totila was at that point himself negotiating with the imperial commander at Ravenna, and demanded the killing of Eraric if he was to accept the throne. After Eraric was killed in October 541, Totila became king of the Ostrogoths, history of the Later Roman Empire, Vol.2, From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian
Ildibad
β
Non-dynastic
Ildibad
Ildibad
27.
Eraric
β
Eraric was briefly King of the Ostrogoths, elected as the most distinguished among the Rugians in the confederation of the Ostrogoths. He summoned a council directed to convincing the confederation to make peace with the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian, the Ostrogoths opposed the ceasefire under the negotiations, and they instead elected Ildibads nephew Totila. Soon afterwards Eraric was killed by Totilas followers, history of the later Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius I. Volume 2 by John Bagnell Bury
Eraric
β
Non-dynastic
Eraric
Eraric
28.
Totila
β
Totila, original name Baduila was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. Totila proved himself both as a military and political leader, winning the support of the classes by liberating slaves. After a successful defence at Verona, Totila pursued and defeated a superior army at the Battle of Faventia in 542 AD. Building on his victories, Totila followed these victories by defeating the Romans outside Florence, by 543, fighting on land and sea, he had reconqured the bulk of the lost territory. Rome held out, and Totila appealed unsuccessfully to the Senate in a letter reminding them of the loyalty of the Romans to his predecessor Theodoric the Great, when Totila left to fight the Byzantines in Lucania, south of Naples, Belisarius retook Rome and rebuilt its fortifications. After Belisarius retreated to Constantinople in 549, Totila recaptured Rome, by the end of 550, Totila had recaptured all but Ravenna and four coastal towns. The following year Justinian sent his general Narses with a force of 35,000 Lombards, Gepids and Heruli to Italy in a march around the Adriatic to approach Ravenna from the north. In the Battle of Taginae, an engagement during the summer of 552, in the Apennines near present-day Fabriano, the Gothic army was defeated. Totila was succeeded by his relative, Teia, who died at the Battle of Mons Lactarius. Pockets of resistance, reinforced by Franks and Alemanni who had invaded Italy in 553, continued until 562, Totila was the nom de guerre of a man whose real name was Baduila, as can be seen from the coinage he issued. According to Henry Bradley, Totila and Baduila are diminutives of Totabadws, born in Treviso, Totila was a relative of Theudis, king of the Visigoths. Elected king of the Ostrogoths in 541 after the death of his uncle Ildibad, having engineered the assassination of Ildibads short-lived successor, Totilas strategy was to move fast and take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantine forces in control of well-defended cities, and especially the ports. When Belisarius eventually returned to Italy, Procopius relates that during a space of five years he did not succeed once in setting foot on any part of the land, except where some fortress was, but during this whole period he kept sailing about visiting one port after another. Totila circumvented those cities where a siege would have been required, razing the walls of cities that capitulated to him. Totilas conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says none were deceived, either friends or enemies, after a successful siege of a resisting city, such as at Perugia, however, Totila could be merciless, as Procopius recounts. And he himself, sitting upon a large horse, began to dance under arms skillfully between the two armies. And as he rode he hurled his javelin into the air and caught it again as it quivered above him, then passed it rapidly from hand to hand, shifting it with consummate skill. Procopiuss picture is given a setting, for Totila generally avoided formal battles with opposing armies drawn up in battle array
Totila
β
Totila by
Francesco Salviati
Totila
β
Totila razes the walls of
Florence: illumination from the Chigi ms of
Villani's Cronica
Totila
β
Totila in the 14th century Nuova Cronica
Totila
β
Totila in the
Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
29.
Lombards
β
The Lombards or Longobards were a Germanic people who ruled large parts of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, the Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, his successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, by late 569 they had conquered all north of Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central Italy and they established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum Italicum, which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne, however, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. In this period, the part of Italy still under Longobardic domination was known by the name LangbarΓ°aland in the Norse runestones. Their legacy is apparent in the regional name Lombardy. The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon, pauls chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a tribe called the Winnili dwelling in southern Scandinavia. The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation, the departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, the Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute. The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan, who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea, at sunrise, Frea turned her husbands bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, Who are these long-beards. and Frea replied, My lord, thou hast given them the name, from that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards. When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian and he thought the pagan stories of his people silly and laughable. Paul explained that the name Langobard came from the length of their beards, a modern theory suggests that the name Langobard comes from LangbarΓ°r, a name of Odin. Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to Lombards, they changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin
Lombards
β
The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento
Lombards
β
Wodan (Godan) and
Frigg (Frea) looking out of a window in the heavens...
Lombards
β
...and spot the Lombard women with their long hair tied as to appear as beards
Lombards
β
Lombard grave goods (6th-7th century) -
Milan,
Lombardy
30.
Alboin
β
Alboin was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572. During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy, the period of Alboins reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father, Audoin, was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbors, the Gepids. The Gepids initially gained the hand, but in 567, thanks to his alliance with the Avars, Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies. After gathering a large coalition of peoples, Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568 and he rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria. In 569, unopposed, he took northern Italys main city, pavia offered stiff resistance however, and was taken only after a siege lasting three years. During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany, but signs of factionalism among his supporters, Alboin was assassinated on June 28,572, in a coup dΓ©tat instigated by the Byzantines. It was organized by the foster brother, Helmichis, with the support of Alboins wife, Rosamund. The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards, for many centuries following his death Alboins heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry. Wachos death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne, seven years later Walthari died, giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings. Alboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia, the son of Audoin and his wife and she may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian. Like his father, Alboin was raised a pagan, although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian, Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind, daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar. The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks known hostility to the Byzantine empire, Alboin first distinguished himself on the battlefield in a clash with the Gepids. For this initiation, he went to the court of Thurisind, Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition, and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical topos of an epic poem. Alboin came to the throne after the death of his father, as was customary among the Lombards, Alboin took the crown after an election by the tribes freemen, who traditionally selected the king from the dead sovereigns clan. Shortly afterwards, in 565, a new war erupted with the Gepids, now led by Cunimund, the tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart, who observes that it conflicts with the Origo Gentis Langobardorum, where she was captured only after the death of her father. The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to him the region of Sirmium. The Lombards played on the hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines, claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids. Moreover, Justin II was moving away from the policy of Justinian
Alboin
β
Woodcut vignette of Alboin in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Alboin
β
The Vipava Valley in Slovenia, through which Alboin led the Lombards into Italy
Alboin
β
A modern rendering of Alboin's entrance into Ticinum
Alboin
β
The fatal banquet as painted by
Peter Paul Rubens in 1615
31.
Cleph
β
Cleph was king of the Lombards from 572 to 574. He succeeded Alboin, to whom he was not related by blood and he was a violent and terrifying figure to the Romans and Byzantines struggling to maintain control of the peninsula. He extended Lombard dominion over all of northern Italy, finishing the conquest of Tuscany and he was assassinated after an 18-month reign by a young guard, a slave whom he had mistreated. His death was followed by a 10-year interregnum, known as the Rule of the Dukes because the dukes were supreme. His son, Authari, eventually took the throne in 585
Cleph
β
Non-dynastic
Cleph
Cleph
32.
Rule of the Dukes
β
The Rule of the Dukes was an interregnum in the Lombard Kingdom of Italy during which Italy was ruled by the Lombard dukes of the old Roman provinces and urban centres. But there were thirty other dukes besides these in their own cities, the Origo gives a shorter version of the same events, The rest of the Langobards set over themselves a king named, Cleph, of the stock of Beleos, and Cleph reigned two years and died. And the dukes of the Langobards administered justice for twelve years, and Autari took as his wife Theudelenda, a daughter of Garipald and of Walderada from Bavaria. The Lombards had entered the Italian peninsula in 568 under Alboin, under Alboins successor, Cleph, they continued to expand at the expense of the Byzantines. Clephs reign was short and his rule hard, upon his death, the Lombards did not elect another leader-king, leaving the territorial dukes the highest authorities in Lombard territories. According to Fredegar, they were forced to pay tribute to the Franks, the dukes were unable to organise themselves under a single leader capable of continuing their successes against the Byzantines. Finally, tired of disunion, fearing a pincer action from a ByzantineβFrankish alliance, and lacking the necessary to withstand combined military forces. They ceded to him the old capital of Pavia and half of their ducal demesnes, with the election of a king and the payment of tribute, the last Frankish troops still in Italy left. Paul the Deacon, Foulke, William Dudley, ed. Historia Langobardorum
Rule of the Dukes
β
Non-dynastic
Rule of the Dukes
Rule of the Dukes
33.
Authari
β
Authari also known as Agilolf, was king of the Lombards from 584 to his death. Authari was the son of Cleph, King of the Lombards, when the latter died in 574, the Lombard nobility refused to appoint a successor, resulting in ten years interregnum known as the Rule of the Dukes. In 574 and 575 the Lombards invaded Provence, then part of the kingdom of Burgundy of the Merovingian Guntram, the latter, in alliance with his nephew, the king of Austrasia Childebert II, replied by invading northern Italy. The Austrasian army descended the valley of the Adige and took Trent, the Byzantine emperor, Tiberius II, began to negotiate an alliance with the Franks and the Lombards, fearful of a pincer movement, elected another king. In 584, they elected Duke Authari and ceded him the capital of Pavia as well as half of their domains as a demesne. He spent his reign in wars with the Franks, the Byzantines. His first major test was the quashing of the rebel duke Droctulf of Brescello, having expelled him, he spent most of the rest of his six years on the throne fighting the exarch of Ravenna, Smaragdus, or the Merovingian kings. Guntram and Childebert were still not satisfied with their successes in Italy and they many times threatened invasion, following through on their threats twice. In 588, Authari defeated them handily, but in 590, the uncle and nephew led to armies across the Alps, respectively over Mont Cenis and the Brenner to Milan and Verona. Though Authari shut himself up in Pavia, the Franks accomplished little as the army did not meet them. Pestilence turned them around and they left the Lombards much chastened, Authari, when not controlled by foreign armies, expanded the Lombard dominion at the expense of Byzantium. He took the fortress of Comacchio and cut off communication between Padua and Ravenna, faroald, duke of Spoleto, captured the Ravennan seaport of Classis and utterly devastated it. Authari swept through the all the way to Reggio, vowing to take Calabria β a vow never to be kept by any Lombard. On 15 May 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of the Bavarian duke Garibald I, a Catholic, she had great influence among the Lombards for her virtue. When Authari died in Pavia in 590, possibly by poison, he was succeeded as king by Agilulf, duke of Turin, on the advice, sought by the dukes, of Theodelinda, who married the new king
Authari
β
Woodcut vignette of Authari in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Authari
β
Non-dynastic
Authari
Authari
34.
Agilulf
β
Agilulf called the Thuringian, was a duke of Turin and king of the Lombards from 591 until his death. A relative of his predecessor Authari, Agilulf was selected king on the advice of the Christian queen and widow of Authari, Theodelinda, whom he then married. Although he assumed the dignity at the beginning of November 590. He was baptized to appease his wife and his nation followed suit, though they adopted the Arian denomination, in 603, under the influence of his wife, he abandoned Arianism for Catholicism, and had his son Adaloald baptised. His long reign was marked by the cessation of war with Francia, whose chief peacemaker Guntram, without him, the Franks descended into civil war which prevented a united assault on Lombardy throughout Agilulfs rule. A truce with the Papacy negotiated in 598 temporarily ended thirty years of Lombard terror in the Ducatus Romanus and he fought the Avars and Slavs, and entered a truce with the Byzantine emperor Maurice in 598 with the aid of Pope Gregory the Great. The following year, Exarch Callinicus broke the truce by kidnapping the daughter of the Lombard king. War erupted and, in 602, the Byzantine emperor Phocas lost Padua, the loss of Padua in turn cut off Mantua and, before the year was out, that city too fell to Agilulf. In 607, Witteric, king of the Visigoths, initiated an alliance against Theuderic II of Burgundy involving Theudebert II of Austrasia, Clotaire II of Neustria. Theuderics grandmother and sister had murdered Theuderics wife, the daughter of Witteric, the alliance does not seem to have had success. Nothing of any combat is known except that it took place. In 605, he was recognized by the emperor Phocas, who paid a tribute, the Persian Wars drew Byzantine attention to the Orient and gave respite to Agilulfs final decade on the throne. He had to put down some insurrections and the Avars did not desist from invading Friuli, otherwise, his reign ended peacefully and he died in 616, after reigning for more than a quarter of a century. He was succeeded by Adaloald, his son by Theodelinda, who was still an adolescent and he had a daughter Gundeberga who married Arioald who later became king
Agilulf
β
Woodcut vignette of Agilulf in the 1493
Nuremberg Chronicle
Agilulf
β
King Agilulf represented on a 7th-century helmet plate from
Valdinievole Bargello National Museum; Florence
Agilulf
Agilulf
β
Non-dynastic
35.
Adaloald
β
Adaloald was the Lombard king of Italy from 616 to 626. He was son and heir of King Agilulf and his Catholic queen Theodelinda and he was baptised shortly after his birth in 602, the abbot Secundus of Non was his godfather. He was a king, raised on the shield by the warriors at his fathers request. Upon becoming sole king as a teen, he reigned under his mother as regent, adaloald went insane and lost the support of the nobles. He was deposed in 626 by Arioald, a Lombard noble from Turin and husband of the kings sister Gundeberga, adaloald died mysteriously in Ravenna shortly after
Adaloald
β
Non-dynastic
Adaloald
Adaloald
36.
Arioald
β
Arioald was the Lombard king of Italy from 626 to 636. Duke of Turin, he married the princess Gundeberga, daughter of King Agilulf and he was, unlike his father-in-law, an Arian who did not accept Catholicism. Arioald deposed Agilulfs heir Adaloald with the support of the nobility, upon becoming king, he had his wife locked up in a monastery, accusing her of plotting against him with Tasson, duke of Friuli. He also reestablished Arianism in the Lombard kingdom and his only recorded wars were against the Avars, whom he succeeded in repelling during an attempted invasion of northeast Italy
Arioald
β
Non-dynastic
Arioald
Arioald
37.
Rothari
β
Rothari, of the house of Arodus, was king of the Lombards from 636 to 652, previously he had been duke of Brescia. He succeeded Arioald, who was an Arian like himself, and was one of the most energetic of Lombard kings, fredegar relates that at the beginning of his reign he put to death many insubordinate nobles, and that in his efforts for peace he maintained very strict discipline. Rothari conquered Genoa in 641 and the rest of Byzantine Liguria in 643 and he conquered all remaining Byzantine territories in the lower valley of the Po, including Oderzo in 641. According to Paul the Deacon, Rothari then captured all the cities of the Romans which were situated upon the shore of the sea from the city of Luna in Tuscany up to the boundaries of the Franks. With these quick conquests, he left the Byzantines with only the Ravennan marshes in northern Italy. The exarch of Ravenna, Plato, tried to regain some territory, however, he recaptured Oderzo at same year. Oderzo finally was razed again by Grimoald in 667, rotharis most lasting act was drawing up the eponymous Edictum Rothari which was the first written codification of Lombard law. He convened a gairethinx to affirm this new and improved collection of old tradition in 642 or 643, the edict only covered his Lombard men and subjects, Romans continued to live under Roman law in Lombard jurisdictions. He was succeeded by his son Rodoald, a baptistery in Monte SantAngelo is traditionally known as the Tomb of Rothari. Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum IV. xlii and xlv
Rothari
β
Non-dynastic
Rothari
β
Italy at the time of Rothari.
Rothari
Rothari
38.
Rodoald
β
Rodoald, was a Lombard king of Italy, who succeeded his father Rothari on the throne in 652. He was said to be lecherous and he was assassinated after a reign of just six months in 653 by the husband of one of his lovers. Paul the Deacon writes that Rodoald had reigned five years and seven days, aripert, a rival claimant was elected with the support of the Catholic Church, which opposed the Arian monarchy. Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards, Book 4, see chapter XLVIII for Rodoaldβs reign
Rodoald
β
Non-dynastic
Rodoald
Rodoald
39.
Aripert I
β
Aripert I was king of the Lombards in Italy. He was the son of Gundoald, Duke of Asti, who had crossed the Alps from Bavaria with his sister Theodelinda, as a relative of the Bavarian ducal house, his was called the Bavarian Dynasty. He was the first Chalcedonian Christian king of the Lombards, elected after the assassination of the Arian Rodoald, not a warrior, he is mostly renowned for his church foundings. He spread Catholicism over the whole Lombard realm and built the Church of the Saviour in Pavia and he left the kingdom in a state of peace, asking the nobles to elect jointly his two sons, Perctarit and Godepert, which they did
Aripert I
β
Non-dynastic
Aripert I
Aripert I
40.
Perctarit
β
Perctarit was king of the Lombards from 661 to 662 the first time and later from 671 to 688. He was the son and successor of Aripert I and he shared power with his brother Godepert. He was a Catholic, whereas Godepert was an Arian and he ruled from Milan, Godepert from Pavia. Godepert called for the aid of Duke Grimoald I of Benevento in a war with Perctarit, Perctarit first arrived at the court of the Avar khagan Kakar. Meanwhile, his wife, Rodelinde, and their son Cunincpert were captured by Grimoald, Perctarit returned soon thereafter to conspire against Grimoald, but fled again to Francia. When Grimoald concluded a treaty with the Franks, Perctarit prepared to flee to Britain, in 671, Perctarit returned from exile and reclaimed his realm, which was being ruled on behalf of Grimoalds son Garibald. He made Catholicism the official religion, but did not recognise papal authority and he made peace with the Byzantines and associated Cunincpert with the throne in 678. He sought to put down the rebellion of Alagis, duke of Trent and it was to be his only campaign, he captured the duke, then pardoned and released him. Perctarit was assassinated in 688 by a conspiracy and his daughter Wigilinda married Duke Grimoald II of Benevento, son of Romuald I of Benevento. Perctarits reign is not noted for its accomplishments, but for his religious endowments. He built the churches of Saint Agatha and the Virgin at Pavia and he was succeeded by his more warlike son, who was to fight to no avail against the man his father had caught and let go. Brown, T. S. Byzantine Italy c.680 - c.876, the New Cambridge Medieval History, II
Perctarit
β
Non-dynastic
Perctarit
β
Perctarit's
monogram, found on silver
denarii he minted after 672
Perctarit
Perctarit
41.
Grimoald of the Lombards
β
Grimoald I was duke of Benevento and king of the Lombards. Grimoald was probably born before 610 to Duke Gisulf II of Friuli and he succeeded his brother Radoald in 646/7 as duke of Benevento. In 641β42 CE, he and Radoald had served as regents for their mentally incapable adoptive brother, grimoald married the princess Theodota, daughter of King Aripert I. He sent Perctarits wife and son to Benevento and took over the kingship of the Lombards and it was then that he promptly married Godeperts sister in order to relate himself to the Bavarian Dynasty of Theodelinda. His martial prowess and skill in the field of battle secured his victory in many border wars, romuald then took Taranto and Brindisi, much limiting the Byzantine influence in the region during the rebellion of Mezezius in Sicily, which had distracted the Byzantines after Constans death. Grimoald himself took ForlΓ¬, in the north, from the Greeks and razed Oderzo and his capture of ForlΓ¬ was shameful, however, for he took it on Easter Day, slaughtering worshippers during the festivities. While he was combatting the Byzantines in the Mezzogiorno, he left Duke Lupus of Friuli as regent in the north, Lupus usurped all authority and rebelled, though he was crushed and, with the help of the Avars, his duchy despoiled and devastated. Grimoald tracked down Lupus aspiring son Arnefrit, and his Slav allies, grimoald placed Wechthari, a stalwart enemy of the Slavs, in Friuli. Grimoald defeated the Franks, who invaded during the infancy of Chlothar III, grimoald had allied with Perctarit at Asti and the Avars, of whom he had been a hostage in his youth. In his religion he remained Arian despite his marriage to a Catholic, however, he perceived Saint Michael β whose cult was spreading strongly from Monte Garganoβ as the warrior-protector of the Lombard nation. He died in 671 after concluding a treaty with the Franks and was succeeded by Perctarit and he was a popular ruler, known as much for the kingly virtues of generosity and mercy as for his ferocity and ruthlessness in war. Gwatkin, H. M. Whitney, J. P, the Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IIβThe Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire
Grimoald of the Lombards
β
Non-dynastic
Grimoald of the Lombards
Grimoald of the Lombards
42.
Garibald
β
Garibald was the young son of Grimoald I of Benevento, king of the Lombards, and Theodota, daughter of Aripert I. He was the last Arian king in Europe
Garibald
β
Non-dynastic
Garibald
Garibald
43.
Cunipert
β
Cunincpert was king of the Lombards from 688 to 700. He succeeded his father Perctarit, though he was associated with the throne from 680, soon after his assumption of the sole kingship, Cunincpert was ousted by Alahis, duke of Brescia. Alahis had also rebelled during the reign of Perctarit but it was Cunincpert who, Perctarit is reported to have warned his son of the consequences. It was thus soon after Perctarits death that Alahis forced Cunincpert to flee to Isola Comacina, the only extant record of the rule of Alahis is contained in Book V of the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon. His rule is portrayed as burdensome and tyrannical and particularly antagonistic to the Catholic Church, having lost the support of the Church and crucially of the people Cunincpert was able to return to Pavia and resume control. Alahis, however was able to acquire sufficient support to bring the matter to battle, Cunincpert with the men of Piedmont defeated Alahis and the men of Venetia at the Battle of Coronate, on the Horn of the Adda, near Lodi in 689. Cunincpert suppressed other insurrections during his reign, including that of the usurper Duke Ansfrid of Friuli and he also successfully settled the schism in the Italian church between Aquileia and Grado. He died in 700 and was succeeded by his young son Liutpert, the regent Ansprand, many wars took place during his reign. He is notably the first Lombard monarch to strike coins in his image
Cunipert
β
Tremissis of Cunincpert's, minted in
Milan.
Cunipert
β
Non-dynastic
Cunipert
Cunipert
44.
Alahis
β
Alahis was the Arian duke of Trent and Brescia before becoming king of the Lombards after his successful rebellion in 688. He did not rule long, however and his first rebellion against King Perctarit failed, but the king captured, pardoned, and released him. He rebelled again in 688 when Perctarits son Cunipert succeeded and he forced Cunipert to a castle on an island in the middle of Lake Como, but his rule was burdensome and tyrannical, and so he lost the support of the people. Finally, in 689, Cunipert issued forth with the men of Piedmont and defeated Alahis, Alahis was defeated and slain in battle. Gwatkin, H. M. Whitney, J. P. edd, the Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IIβThe Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire
Alahis
β
Non-dynastic
Alahis
Alahis
45.
Raginpert
β
Raginpert was the Duke of Turin and then King of the Lombards briefly in 701. He was the son of Godepert and grandson of Aripert I and he usurped the throne in 701 and removed Liutpert, his grandnephew, putting his son Aripert in line for the succession. He and his Neustrians went out to meet the regent, Ansprand, in battle and defeated him at Novara and his son Aripert did not succeed in taking the throne right away
Raginpert
β
Non-dynastic
Raginpert
Raginpert
46.
Aripert II
β
Aripert II was the king of the Lombards from 701 to 712. Duke of Turin and son of King Raginpert, and thus a scion of the Bavarian Dynasty and he was removed by Liutpert, who reigned from 700 to 702, with the exception of the year 701, when Raginpert seized the throne. After his fathers death, he tried to take the throne and he defeated Liutpert and the regent Ansprands men at Pavia and captured the king, whom he later had strangled in his bath. He seized the capital and forced Ansprand over the Alps and he was firmly in power by 703. He thence reigned uninterrupted until his death and his reign was a troubled one. In 703, Faroald, duke of Spoleto, attacked the Exarchate of Ravenna and he tried nevertheless to assert his authority over Spoleto and Benevento in the Mezzogiorno. He nursed friendship with Pope John VI by donating vast tracts of land in the Cottian Alps to the Holy See and this friendship helped him little, for he had many rebellions to deal with and many Slovene raids into Venetia. In 711, Ansprand, whom he had exiled, returned with an army from the duke of Bavaria. Many Austrians joined the returning regent and battle was joined by Pavia, Aripert fled to his capital when the tide went against him, but he hoarded the treasures and tried to cross over into Gaul by night. He drowned in the River Ticino and Ansprand was acclaimed sovereign and he was the last Bavarian to wear the Iron Crown
Aripert II
β
Non-dynastic
Aripert II
Aripert II
47.
Ansprand
β
Ansprand was king of the Lombards briefly in 712. Before that he was the duke of Asti and regent during the minority of Liutpert and he was defeated at Novara by Raginpert and exiled during the subsequent war over the succession, fleeing to the court of Theudebert, duke of Bavaria, in 702. In 711, he returned with an army from the duke. Many Austrians joined the returning regent and battle ensued near Pavia, the king fled to his capital when the tide went against him, but he hoarded the treasures and tried to cross over into Gaul by night. He drowned in the Ticino River and Ansprand was acclaimed sovereign and he ascended the throne in March and died in June, leaving his only surviving son, Liutprand, the kingdom
Ansprand
β
Non-dynastic
Ansprand
Ansprand
48.
Liutprand, King of the Lombards
β
He is often regarded as the most successful Lombard monarch, notable for the Donation of Sutri, which was the first accolade of sovereign territory to the Papacy. His father was driven to exile among the Bavarians, his older brother Sigipert was blinded by Aripert II, king of the Lombards and his mother Theodarada, Liutprand was spared only because his youth made him appear harmless. He was released from Aripert IIs custody and allowed to join his father, Liutprands reign endured for thirty-one years. Within the Lombard kingdom he was considered a lawgiver of irreproachable Catholicity, at the opening of his reign, Liutprands chief ally among neighboring rulers was the Agilolfing Theodo I, the Frankish duke of Bavaria. Theodo Is intervention on Ansprands behalf helped him gain the throne, Theodo died in 717 or 718, under his successor the Lombard ties with the Agilolfing weakened. Until distracted by Byzantine politics in 726, Liutprands chief warmaking energies were concentrated on taking Bavarian castles on the River Adige, in his early reign, Liutprand did not attack the Exarchate of Ravenna or the Papacy. But in 726, the Emperor Leo III made his first of many edicts outlawing images or icons. The pope, Gregory II, ordered the people to resist, Liutprand chose this time of division to strike the Byzantine possessions in Emilia. In 727, he crossed the Po and took Bologna, Osimo, Rimini and Ancona, along with the cities of Emilia. He took Classis, the seaport of Ravenna, but could not take Ravenna itself from the exarch Paul, Paul was soon killed in a riot, however. Eventually, Ravenna would capitulate to Liutprand with barely a fight, the first Moorish raids on Corsica began around 713β719 from the Balearic Islands to the west. Acting as the protector of the Catholic Church and its faithful, Liutprand subjected the island to Lombard government, Corsica remained with the Lombard kingdom even after the Frankish conquest, by which time Lombard landholders and churches had established a significant presence on the island. When the Saracens invaded Sardinia, Liutprand redeemed the body of Augustine about the year 720 and he brought it with great ceremony to Pavia, and enshrined it in the Church of Saint Peter in Ciel doro, which was then the cathedral of Pavia. He rescued the relics stationed on the island with great haste as well as with great expense, according to Paul the Deacon. There the two reached an agreement, by which Sutri and some towns in Latium were given to the Papacy, as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter. They were the first extension of Papal territory beyond the confines of the Duchy of Rome and this was the beginning of the Papal States. In the meantime, Leo sent Eutychius, as Exarch of Ravenna, the dukes, Thrasimund II and Godescalc, surrendered β though control of the duchies from Pavia was not to endure for long β and the new exarch marched on Rome. In 733 Liutprand promulgated the Notitia de actoribus regis, a series of six laws and they sought to curb the usurpation by local administrators of public lands
Liutprand, King of the Lombards
β
A
tremissis of Liutprand's, showing the kings' effigy
Liutprand, King of the Lombards
β
A low-quality
tremissis of Liutprand's.
Liutprand, King of the Lombards
β
So-called "Pilatus' basin", in the middle of the so-called "Pilatus' Courtyard" of
Santo Stefano in
Bologna. This eighth-century Lombard sculpture bears the names of kings Liutprand and
Ilprand, as well as of the bishop Barbatus.
Liutprand, King of the Lombards
β
Plaque marking the casket containing Liutprand's bones in
San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia.
