1.
Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau
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The Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings are annual, scientific conferences held in Lindau, Bavaria, Germany since 1951. Their aim is to bring together Nobel laureates and young scientists to foster scientific exchange between different generations and cultures, every Lindau Meeting consists of a multitude of scientific sessions like plenary lectures and panel discussions as well as a variety of networking and social events. The meetings assume a position amongst international scientific conferences, With 30-40 Nobel laureates attending they are the largest congregation of Nobel laureates in the world. The meetings are not centered on the presentation of results, but instead, their main goals are the exchange of ideas. The Nobel laureates do not receive any kind of payment for their participation and are free to choose the topics of their presentations, more than 300 are members of the meetings’ Founders Assembly. The opportunity for participants to form networks of scientists is also regarded as a prime objective by the organisers. The meetings’ leitmotif is ‘Educate, Inspire, Connect. ’ After World War II, during this time, hardly any scientific conferences of high value took place in Germany. The first meeting, subsequently held in 1951, was dedicated to the fields of medicine and physiology and was attended by seven Nobel laureates, among them Adolf Butenandt and Hans von Euler-Chelpin. After the success of the meeting, the scientific scope was broadened to include the other two natural science Nobel Prize disciplines chemistry and physics. Thus, a mode of annually alternating disciplines for the meetings was established, in 1954, the Council for the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings was founded and henceforth established as the organising committee of the meetings. Count Lennart was appointed as first president of the Council, also in 1954, the concept of inviting students and young scientists to the meetings was introduced. This step was seen as a measure to add value for society to the meetings. Among the young scientists participating that year were also students from Eastern Germany, while originally conceived by Hein and Parade as a European meeting of scientists, the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings slowly but steadily became more international. In the beginnings, only students from Lake Constance’s bordering countries Germany, Switzerland, since 2000, each Lindau Meeting is attended by young scientists from between 80 and 90 countries. In 1987, Count Bernadotte resigned from his position as president of the Council due to health reasons and his wife, Countess Sonja Bernadotte af Wisborg, shortly before the turn of the millennium, the future of the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings was endangered due to financial uncertainties. Two main goals of Countess Sonja Bernadotte’s aegis were the further internationalisation of the meetings and to improve its public image, on the occasion of the 50th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting in the year 2000, the establishment of the Foundation Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings was officially announced. Its main goal since then has been to secure the funding of the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, upon its creation, over 40 Nobel Laureates joined the Founders Assembly of the foundation and support the continuance of the conference both morally and financially. The 50th Lindau Meeting in 2000 was also the first interdisciplinary meeting that united Nobel laureates, when Countess Sonja Bernadotte died in October 2008, her daughter, Countess Bettina Bernadotte, was elected President of the Council
Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau
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Singaporean president
Tony Tan opening the "International Evening" at the 2012 Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting
Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau
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Masterclass by
George Smoot at the 2012 Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting
Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau
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Panel discussion on the
Higgs particle results from
CERN at the 2012 Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. Seated from left to right:
David Gross,
Martinus Veltman,
Carlo Rubbia, and
George Smoot.
2.
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg is a college town situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. At the 2015 census, its population was 156,257, located about 78 km south of Frankfurt, Heidelberg is the fifth-largest city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Heidelberg is part of the densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germanys oldest and one of Europes most reputable universities. A scientific hub in Germany, the city of Heidelberg is home to internationally renowned research facilities adjacent to its university. Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl and the Gaisberg mountains, the Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters, the Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, Heidelberg is on European walking route E1. Alongside the Philosophenweg on the side of the Old Town. There is a population of African rose-ringed parakeets, and a wild population of Siberian swan geese. Heidelberg is an authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. The Rhein-Neckar Triangle became a European metropolitan area in 2005, Heidelberg consists of 15 districts distributed in six sectors of the town. The new district will have approximately 5, 000–6,000 residents, Heidelberg has an oceanic climate, defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the nearby Upper Rhine Plain, Heidelbergs position in the leads to more frequent easterly winds than average. The hillsides of the Odenwald favour clouding and precipitation, the warmest month is July, the coldest is January. Temperatures often rise beyond 30 °C in midsummer, according to the German Meteorological Service, Heidelberg was the warmest place in Germany in 2009
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg, with
Heidelberg Castle on the hill and the Old Bridge over river
Neckar
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg with suburbs
Heidelberg
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The Altstadt from the Castle
Heidelberg
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The River Neckar at night
3.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
Nazi Germany
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Hitler became Germany's head of state, with the title of
Führer und Reichskanzler, in 1934.
Nazi Germany
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Flag
Nazi Germany
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Joseph Goebbels,
Reich Minister of Propaganda
Nazi Germany
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Ethnic Germans in
Saaz, Czechoslovakia, greet German soldiers with the
Nazi salute, 1938
4.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
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The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
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Flag
Germany
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
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Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
5.
University of Heidelberg
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation
University of Heidelberg
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Rupert I founded Heidelberg University in 1386
University of Heidelberg
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Seal of the Ruperto Carola Heidelbergensis
University of Heidelberg
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A
solemn holy Mass was offered in the
Heiliggeistkirche in 1386 to mark and bless the establishment of the University (photo ca. 1900).
University of Heidelberg
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The Old University from 1735 is today the seat of the Rector and the University Senate
6.
Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
Laser
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United States Air Force laser experiment
Laser
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Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm) and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
Laser
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Laser beams in fog, reflected on a car windshield
Laser
7.
Spectroscopy
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Spectroscopy /spɛkˈtrɒskəpi/ is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, later the concept was expanded greatly to include any interaction with radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopic data is represented by an emission spectrum, a plot of the response of interest as a function of wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopy and spectrography are terms used to refer to the measurement of radiation intensity as a function of wavelength and are used to describe experimental spectroscopic methods. Spectral measurement devices are referred to as spectrometers, spectrophotometers, spectrographs or spectral analyzers, daily observations of color can be related to spectroscopy. Neon lighting is an application of atomic spectroscopy. Neon and other noble gases have characteristic emission frequencies, neon lamps use collision of electrons with the gas to excite these emissions. Inks, dyes and paints include chemical compounds selected for their characteristics in order to generate specific colors. A commonly encountered molecular spectrum is that of nitrogen dioxide, gaseous nitrogen dioxide has a characteristic red absorption feature, and this gives air polluted with nitrogen dioxide a reddish-brown color. Rayleigh scattering is a spectroscopic scattering phenomenon that accounts for the color of the sky, Spectroscopy is used in physical and analytical chemistry because atoms and molecules have unique spectra. As a result, these spectra can be used to detect, identify and quantify information about the atoms, Spectroscopy is also used in astronomy and remote sensing on earth. The measured spectra are used to determine the composition and physical properties of astronomical objects. One of the concepts in spectroscopy is a resonance and its corresponding resonant frequency. Resonances were first characterized in mechanical systems such as pendulums, mechanical systems that vibrate or oscillate will experience large amplitude oscillations when they are driven at their resonant frequency. A plot of amplitude vs. excitation frequency will have a peak centered at the resonance frequency and this plot is one type of spectrum, with the peak often referred to as a spectral line, and most spectral lines have a similar appearance. In quantum mechanical systems, the resonance is a coupling of two quantum mechanical stationary states of one system, such as an atom, via an oscillatory source of energy such as a photon. The coupling of the two states is strongest when the energy of the matches the energy difference between the two states. The energy of a photon is related to its frequency by E = h ν where h is Plancks constant, spectra of atoms and molecules often consist of a series of spectral lines, each one representing a resonance between two different quantum states
Spectroscopy
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Analysis of white light by
dispersing it with a prism is an example of spectroscopy.
Spectroscopy
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A huge diffraction grating at the heart of the ultra-precise
ESPRESSO spectrograph.
Spectroscopy
–
UVES is a high-resolution spectrograph on the
Very Large Telescope.
8.
Bambi Award
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First held in 1948, they are the oldest media awards in Germany. The award is named after Felix Saltens book Bambi, A Life in the Woods and they were originally made of porcelain, until 1958 when the organizers switched to using gold, with the casting done by the art casting workshop of Ernst Strassacker in Süßen. Frequent awardees include Heinz Rühmann, Peter Alexander and O. W. Fischer, Sophia Loren, rock Hudson, Franz Beckenbauer, Pierre Brice and Céline Dion. The first prize winners were the actors Jean Marais and Marika Rökk and his movie Ehe im Schatten was chosen for the best German movie. The award trophy was at first a fawn made of white porcelain, since 1958 the golden-bronze deer has been produced in the art foundry Ernst Strassacker in the Swabian village of Süßen. The Bambi awards were presented in Karlsruhe between 1948 and 1964, afterwards in other cities, such as Berlin and Offenburg, in 2002 Michael Jackson won the Pop Artist of the Millennium Award and Anastacia won the Best Newcomer Award. In 2003 and 2004, the ceremony took place in the Theater am Hafen in Hamburg. 2006 the Bambi was awarded in the Museum of the Mercedes-Benz-Weltin in Stuttgart, moderated by entertainer Harald Schmidt, in 2007, the ceremony was held in the Congress Center in Düsseldorf, and in 2008 in Offenburg. Both events were presented by Harald Schmidt, shakira performed her single Did It Again before accepting her award. The awards in 2009 and 2010 were performed in the Metropolis-Hall in Potsdam-Babelsberg. In 2014, the Crown Princess Mary of Denmark received a Bambi in the charity category for her work for womens rights. Bambi awards are judged by Hubert Burda and the editors-in-chief at Hubert Burda Media
Bambi Award
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Statue of Bambi in Berlin, 2013
Bambi Award
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Franz Beckenbauer, Leipzig, 27 November 1990
9.
I. I. Rabi Award
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Rabi Award, founded in 1983, is awarded annually by IEEE. The Rabi Award is to recognize outstanding contributions related to the fields of atomic and molecular frequency standards, the award is named after Isidor Isaac Rabi, Nobel Prize winner in 1944. He was the first recipient of the award, for his experimental and theoretical work on atomic beam resonance spectroscopy, vessot 1994 - Jacques Vanier 1995 - Fred L
I. I. Rabi Award
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Photo of I. I. Rabi Award given in 1984 to
David W. Allan, the second to receive it after
Rabi.
10.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
Nobel Prize in Physics
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Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923), the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Physics
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Three Nobel Laureates in Physics. Front row from left:
Albert A. Michelson (1907),
Albert Einstein (1921) and
Robert A. Millikan (1923).
11.
Einstein Prize for Laser Science
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The Einstein Prize for Laser Science was a recognition awarded by the former Society for Optical and Quantum Electronics and sponsored by the Eastman Kodak Company. The prize, awarded in the 1988–1999 period, consisted in a 3-inch brass medal including Einsteins image, recipients of the prize include, Serge Haroche,1988 Herbert Walther,1988 H. Two recipients of the Einstein Prize for Laser Science were already Nobel laureates in physics, presentation of the prize was done at the Lasers88 to Lasers99 conferences. Note, the name of these conferences was The International Conference on Lasers and Applications. Group photograph at Lasers92 including, right to left, Marlan Scully, Willis Lamb, John L. Hall, group photograph at Lasers93 including Norman F. Ramsey, Marlan Scully, and F. J. Duarte. Group photograph at Lasers95 including Marlan Scully, Theodor W. Hänsch, Carl E. Wieman, and F. J. Duarte
Einstein Prize for Laser Science
–
1992 recipient
Willis E. Lamb
Einstein Prize for Laser Science
–
1996 recipient
David J. Wineland
12.
King Faisal International Prize
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King Faisal International Prize is an annual award sponsored by King Faisal Foundation presented to dedicated men and women whose contributions make a positive difference. The foundation awards prizes in five categories, Service to Islam, Islamic studies, Arabic Language and Literature, Science, the first King Faisal International Prize was awarded to Sayyid Abul Aala Maududi in the year 1979 for his service to Islam. In 1981, King Khalid received the same award, in 1984, King Fahd was the recipient of the award. In 1986, this prize was co-awarded to Ahmed Deedat and French Roger Garaudy, each year, the selection committees designate subjects in Islamic Studies, Arabic Literature, and Medicine. Selected topics in Islamic Studies category are aimed at highlighting areas of importance in Muslim societies, Arabic Literature topics relate to specialized areas within the discipline. Topics in Medicine are supposed to reflect current areas of international concern, the Science category covers a broad range of subcategories e. g. physics, mathematics, chemistry and biology. Islamic institutions, universities and previous winners of the King Faisal International Prize can nominate a person for the award, nominations from ordinary individuals or political parties are not accepted. The nominee or nominated institution must be known for their leading practical or intellectual role in the service of Islam, nominated works must be published, benefit mankind and enrich human knowledge. Winners of the Prize for category Service to Islam are chosen directly by the selection committee. For other Prize categories, pre-selection by peer reviewers is carried out, autonomous, international, specialist selection committees are then convened at the headquarters of King Faisal Foundation in Riyadh each January to make their final decisions. The prize in each of the five categories consists of, A hand written Diwani calligraphy certificate, a commemorative 24 carat,200 gram gold medal, uniquely cast for each prize. A cash endowment of SR750,000, co-winners in any category share the monetary grant. The Prizes are awarded during a ceremony in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the five countries with most award-winners as of 2012 were, Sydney Brenner was considered to be the first Jew to win the King Faisal Award, in 1992. Ronald Levy was reported to be a Jewish recipient in 2009
King Faisal International Prize
–
King Faisal International Prize
13.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
14.
Ludwig-Maximilians University
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Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich is a public research university located in Munich, Germany. The University of Munich is among Germanys oldest universities, in 1802, the university was officially named Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität by King Maximilian I of Bavaria in his as well as the universitys original founders honour. Among these were Wilhelm Röntgen, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Otto Hahn, pope Benedict XVI was also a student and professor at the university. The LMU has recently been conferred the title of university under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. LMU is currently the second-largest university in Germany in terms of student population, in the semester of 2015/2016. Of these,8,671 were freshmen while international students totalled 7,812 or almost 15% of the student population, the university was founded with papal approval in 1472 as the University of Ingolstadt, with faculties of philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and theology. Its first rector was Christopher Mendel of Steinfels, who became bishop of Chiemsee. In the period of German humanism, the universitys academics included names such as Conrad Celtes, the theologian Johann Eck also taught at the university. From 1549 to 1773, the university was influenced by the Jesuits, the Jesuit Petrus Canisius served as rector of the university. At the end of the 18th century, the university was influenced by the Enlightenment, in 1800, the Prince-Elector Maximilianv IV Joseph moved the university to Landshut, due to French aggression that threatened Ingolstadt during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1802, the university was renamed the Ludwig Maximilian University in honour of its two founders, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. The Minister of Education, Maximilian von Montgelas, initiated a number of reforms sought to modernize the rather conservative. In 1826, it was moved to Munich, the capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria, the university was situated in the Old Academy until a new building in the Ludwigstraße was completed. The locals were critical of the amount of Protestant professors Maximilian. They were dubbed the Nordlichter and especially physician Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis was quite angry about them, in the second half of the 19th century, the university rose to great prominence in the European scientific community, attracting many of the worlds leading scientists. It was also a period of great expansion, from 1903, women were allowed to study at Bavarian universities, and by 1918, the female proportion of students at LMU had reached 18%. In 1918, Adele Hartmann became the first woman in Germany to earn the Habilitation, during the Third Reich, academic freedom was severely curtailed. In 1943 the White Rose group of anti-Nazi students conducted their campaign of opposition to the National Socialists at this university, the university has continued to be one of the leading universities of West Germany during the Cold War and in the post-reunification era
Ludwig-Maximilians University
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University buildings in
Ingolstadt
Ludwig-Maximilians University
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Seal of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Ludwig-Maximilians University
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Portrait of
Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, after whom the University of Munich was renamed in 1802
Ludwig-Maximilians University
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Adolf von Baeyer,
Emil Fischer, and other chemists at LMU in 1877
15.
Max Planck Institute
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The society is funded by the federal and state governments of Germany as well as other sources. According to its goal, the Max Planck Society supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences. The society has a staff of approximately 17,000 permanent employees, including 5,470 scientists. Society budget for 2015 was about €1.7 billion, the Max Planck Institutes focus on excellence in research. In 2013, the Nature Publishing Index placed the Max Planck institutes fifth worldwide in terms of published in Nature journals. In terms of total volume, the Max Planck Society is only outranked by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The Max Planck Society and its predecessor Kaiser Wilhelm Society hosted several renowned scientists in their fields, including such as Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg. The organization was established in 1911 as the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, or Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, the KWG was one of the worlds leading research organisations, its board of directors included scientists like Walther Bothe, Peter Debye, Albert Einstein, and Fritz Haber. In 1946, Otto Hahn assumed the position of President of KWG, and in 1948, the society was renamed the Max Planck Society after its former President Max Planck, the Max Planck Society has a world-leading reputation as a science and technology research organization. The domain mpg. de attracted at least 1.7 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete. com study. Since 2004, the Max Planck Research Award is conferred annually to two internationally renowned scientists, one of works in Germany and one in another country. Calls for nominations for the award are invited on a rotating basis in specific sub-areas of the natural sciences and engineering, the life sciences. Adolf von Harnack Max Planck Carl Bosch Albert Vögler Max Planck Otto Hahn Adolf Butenandt Reimar Lüst Heinz Staab Hans F, the society has its registered seat in Berlin, while the administrative headquarters are located in Munich. In 2002 the cell biologist Peter Gruss became the MPG president, funding is provided predominantly from federal and state sources, but also from research and licence fees and donations. One of the donations was the castle Schloss Ringberg near Kreuth in Bavaria. It passed to the Society after the duke died in 1973, the Max Planck Society consists of over 80 research institutes. In addition, the society funds a number of Max Planck Research Groups, the purpose of establishing independent research groups at various universities is to strengthen the required networking between universities and institutes of the Max Planck Society. The research units are located across Europe, in 2007 the Society established its first non-European centre, with an institute on the Jupiter campus of Florida Atlantic University focusing on neuroscience
Max Planck Institute
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Entrance of the administrative headquarters of the Max Planck Society in
Munich.
Max Planck Institute
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Society's logo
16.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
Stanford University
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Leland Stanford, the university's founder, as painted by
Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier in 1881 and now on display at the
Cantor Center
Stanford University
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Seal of Stanford University
Stanford University
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Statue of the Stanford family, by
Larkin G. Mead (1899)
Stanford University
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The ruins of the unfinished Stanford Library after the
1906 San Francisco earthquake
17.
Carl E. Wieman
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Carl Edwin Wieman is an American physicist and educationist at Stanford University. Wieman was born in Corvallis, Oregon to N. Orr Wieman and Alison Marjorie Fry in the United States and his paternal grandfather Henry Nelson Wieman was a religious philosopher of German descent and his mother had white Anglo-Saxon Protestant family background. Wieman earned his B. S. in 1973 from MIT and his Ph. D. from Stanford University in 1977, he was awarded a Doctor of Science. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1998, in 2001, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics, along with Eric Allin Cornell and Wolfgang Ketterle, for fundamental studies of the Bose-Einstein condensate. In 2004, he was named United States Professor of the Year among all doctoral, on 1 September 2013, Wieman joined Stanford University with a joint appointment in the physics department and the Graduate School of Education. In the past several years, Wieman has been involved with efforts at improving science education and has conducted educational research on science instruction. Wieman served as Chair of the Board on Science Education of the National Academy of Sciences from 2005 to 2009, if a large proportion of the class chooses a wrong answer, students discuss among themselves and reply again. In 2007, Wieman was awarded the Oersted Medal, which recognizes contributions to the teaching of physics. Link Wieman is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festivals Advisory Board, Wieman was nominated to be The White Houses Office of Science and Technology Policy Associate Director of Science on March 24,2010. His hearing in front of the Commerce committee occurred on May 20,2010, on September 16,2010 Dr. Wieman was confirmed by unanimous consent. He left that post in June 2012 to battle multiple myeloma, neil R. Claussen, Simon L. Cornish, Jacob L. Roberts, Eric A. Cornell, Carl E. Wieman. Dynamics of Collapsing and Exploding Bose−Einstein Condensates, haljan, D. S. Hall, C. E. Wieman, E. A. Walker, Thad, David Sesko, Carl Wieman, collective Behavior of Optically Trapped Neutral Atoms. Precision Measurement of the Hyperfine Structure of the 133Cs 6P3/2 State
Carl E. Wieman
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Carl Edwin Wieman
18.
Frequency comb
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A frequency comb is a spectrum consisting of a series of discrete, equally spaced elements. Frequency combs can be generated by a number of mechanisms, including modulation of a continuous wave laser or stabilization of the pulse train generated by a mode locked laser. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch in 2005, combs spanning an octave in frequency can be used to directly measure f 0. Thus, octave spanning combs can be used to steer a piezoelectric mirror within a carrier envelope phase correcting feedback loop, the most popular and famous way of generating a frequency comb is with a mode-locked laser. Such lasers produce a series of optical pulses separated in time by the time of the laser cavity. The spectrum of such a pulse train approximates a series of Dirac delta functions separated by the rate of the laser. This series of spectral lines is called a frequency comb or a frequency Dirac comb. Four-wave mixing is a process where intense light at three frequencies f 1, f 2, f 3 interact to produce light at a frequency f 4 = f 1 + f 2 − f 3. If the three frequencies are part of a perfectly spaced frequency comb, then the frequency is mathematically required to be part of the same comb as well. Starting with intense light at two or more equally spaced frequencies, this process can generate light at more and more different equally spaced frequencies. For example, if there are a lot of photons at two frequencies f 1, f 2, four-wave mixing could generate light at the new frequency 2 f 1 − f 2. This new frequency would get more intense, and light can subsequently cascade to more and more new frequencies on the same comb. This creates a frequency comb by four-wave mixing as described above, an alternative method is to shine light into a microresonator. This kind of structure naturally has a series of resonant modes with approximately-equally-spaced frequencies, unfortunately the resonant modes are not exactly equally spaced due to dispersion. Nevertheless, the mixing effect above can create and stabilize a perfect frequency comb in such a structure. Basically, the system generates a perfect comb that overlaps the resonant modes as much as possible, in fact, nonlinear optics effects can shift the resonant modes to improve the overlap with the perfect comb even more. In the time domain, the coming out of these structures does not necessarily look like a series of pulses. Nevertheless, it is a frequency comb
Frequency comb
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Spectrum of the light from the two laser frequency combs installed on the
High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher.
Frequency comb
–
An
ultrashort pulse of light in the time domain. The electric field is a sinusoid with a Gaussian envelope. The pulse length is on the order of a few 100 fs
19.
John L. Hall
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John Lewis Jan Hall is an American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics. He shared one fourth of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics with Theodor W. Hänsch and Roy Glauber for his work in precision spectroscopy. Born in Denver, Colorado, Hall holds three degrees from Carnegie Institute of Technology, a B. S. in 1956, an M. S. in 1958, and he has lectured at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1967. Hall is currently a NIST Senior Fellow, Emeritus and remains a Fellow at JILA, formerly the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, JILA is a research institute managed jointly by CU-Boulder and NIST. Hall shared half of the Nobel prize with Theodor W. Hänsch for their work on laser-based precision spectroscopy. The other half of the prize was awarded to Roy J. Glauber, national Carbon Company Fellow in Physics, 1957–1961 Department of Commerce Gold Medal,1969 Samuel W. U. Condon Award,1979 Charles Hard Townes Award of the Optical Society of America,1984, jointly with V. P. Shawlow Prize of the American Physical Society,1993 Allen V. S
John L. Hall
–
Hall at the 2012
Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting
John L. Hall
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President George W. Bush meets with the 2005 Nobel Prize recipients. From left to right are Dr. John Hall, 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics; Dr. Thomas C. Schelling, 2005 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences; Dr. Roy J. Glauber, 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics; Dr. Richard R. Schrock and Dr. Robert H. Grubbs, 2005 Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry.
20.
Roy J. Glauber
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Roy Jay Glauber is an American theoretical physicist. He is the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics at Harvard University and Adjunct Professor of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona. In this work, published in 1963, he created a model for photodetection and explained the fundamental characteristics of different types of light and his theories are widely used in the field of quantum optics. He currently serves on the National Advisory Board of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, Glauber was born in 1925 in New York City. He was a member of the 1941 graduating class of the Bronx High School of Science, after his sophomore year he was recruited to work on the Manhattan Project, where he was one of the youngest scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory. His work involved calculating the mass for the atom bomb. After two years at Los Alamos, he returned to Harvard, receiving his bachelors degree in 1946, glaubers recent research has dealt with problems in a number of areas of quantum optics, a field which, broadly speaking, studies the quantum electrodynamical interactions of light and matter. Glauber has received honors for his research, including the Albert A. This Nobel Prize is considered controversial within the community since only Glauber was awarded the Prize. On 22 April 2008, Professor Glauber was awarded the Medalla de Oro del CSIC in a ceremony held in Madrid and he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1997. He missed the 2005 event, though, as he was being awarded his real Nobel Prize at the time, Glauber currently lives in Arlington, Massachusetts. Glauber has a son and a daughter, and five grandchildren
Roy J. Glauber
–
Roy Glauber
21.
Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics
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The Max-Planck-Institute of Quantum Optics is a part of the Max Planck Society which operates 87 research facilities in Germany. The institute is located in Garching, Germany, which in turn is located 10 km north-east of Munich, five research groups work in the fields of attosecond physics, laser physics, quantum information theory, laser spectroscopy, quantum dynamics and quantum many body systems. The institute conducts investigations in quantum physics, there was a group at MPQ that conducted experiments on gravitational waves. The Max-Planck-Institute of Quantum Optics was founded on January 1,1981 and it was a successor of a project group for laser research of the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics. The use of lasers for fusion research, quantum optics and spectroscopy were the goals of the project group, in 1981 the staff numbers had risen to 82 and the institute was comprising the divisions of Laser Physics, Laser Chemistry and Laser Plasma. The institute was accommodated for a time on the premises of the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics, the institute moved to the new building in July,1986 and officially separated from the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics. With the appointment of Theodor Hänsch as new director, the institute grew significantly, Hänsch established the Laser Spectroscopy Division and was also given a chair at the Ludwig Maximilians Universität Munich which ensured close links between MPQ and the university complex in Munich. After the retirement of Siegbert Witkowski in 1993, the research on the high energy laser was stopped, in 1999 Professor Gerhard Rempe was appointed as director at the MPQ, and the Quantum Dynamics Division was set up. In 2001 the Research Group on Gravitational Waves moved to Hanover where the first test measurements were carried out in the experiment, since then that group has been a part of the MPI for Gravitational Physics that was founded in 1995. In the same year Professor Ignacio Cirac accepted a call as director at the MPQ, at the beginning of 2003 Professor Herbert Walther acquired emeritus status, but continued his research work as head of the Laser Physics Emeritus Group until his death in July 2006. His successor as director at the MPQ and professor at the LMU is Professor Ferenc Krausz, Professor Krausz has led the Attosecond Physics Division since 2003. With the retirement of Professor Karl-Ludwig Kompa in 2006, all the fathers of the institute were thus now in retirement. Andrius Baltuska took up a professorship at the Technical University of Vienna in 2006, the same year also the Quantum Simulations with Trapped Ions Group was founded, led by Dr. Tobias Schätz. In 2005 Dr. Tobias Kippenberg set up his Laboratory of Photonics at the MPQ, in 2006 Dr. Reinhard Kienberger received funding to set up the research group Attosecond Dynamics. In 2007 a further group was founded, on Attosecond Imaging. In January 2008 Dr. Masaki Hori established his group on Antimatter Spectroscopy, since December 2010 Dr. Elefterios Goulielmakis is setting up his research group on Attoelectronics, financed by a grant of the European Research Council. Also financed with an ERC grant Dr. Randolf Pohl started to establish his research group Muonic Atoms at the end of 2011, the frequency comb the Nobel Prize is referring to has been developed in his Laser Spectroscopy Division in the late 1990s. On 1 August 2008 a fifth division Quantum Many Body Systems was established by Prof. Immanuel Bloch, Prof. Bloch is successor of Prof. Theodor W. Hänsch, who would have normally retired in 2009, as director at MPQ
Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics
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Max-Planck-Institute of Quantum Optics
22.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
Professor
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A science professor lecturing to university students.
Professor
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The Ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.
23.
Laser spectroscopy
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Spectroscopy /spɛkˈtrɒskəpi/ is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, later the concept was expanded greatly to include any interaction with radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopic data is represented by an emission spectrum, a plot of the response of interest as a function of wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopy and spectrography are terms used to refer to the measurement of radiation intensity as a function of wavelength and are used to describe experimental spectroscopic methods. Spectral measurement devices are referred to as spectrometers, spectrophotometers, spectrographs or spectral analyzers, daily observations of color can be related to spectroscopy. Neon lighting is an application of atomic spectroscopy. Neon and other noble gases have characteristic emission frequencies, neon lamps use collision of electrons with the gas to excite these emissions. Inks, dyes and paints include chemical compounds selected for their characteristics in order to generate specific colors. A commonly encountered molecular spectrum is that of nitrogen dioxide, gaseous nitrogen dioxide has a characteristic red absorption feature, and this gives air polluted with nitrogen dioxide a reddish-brown color. Rayleigh scattering is a spectroscopic scattering phenomenon that accounts for the color of the sky, Spectroscopy is used in physical and analytical chemistry because atoms and molecules have unique spectra. As a result, these spectra can be used to detect, identify and quantify information about the atoms, Spectroscopy is also used in astronomy and remote sensing on earth. The measured spectra are used to determine the composition and physical properties of astronomical objects. One of the concepts in spectroscopy is a resonance and its corresponding resonant frequency. Resonances were first characterized in mechanical systems such as pendulums, mechanical systems that vibrate or oscillate will experience large amplitude oscillations when they are driven at their resonant frequency. A plot of amplitude vs. excitation frequency will have a peak centered at the resonance frequency and this plot is one type of spectrum, with the peak often referred to as a spectral line, and most spectral lines have a similar appearance. In quantum mechanical systems, the resonance is a coupling of two quantum mechanical stationary states of one system, such as an atom, via an oscillatory source of energy such as a photon. The coupling of the two states is strongest when the energy of the matches the energy difference between the two states. The energy of a photon is related to its frequency by E = h ν where h is Plancks constant, spectra of atoms and molecules often consist of a series of spectral lines, each one representing a resonance between two different quantum states
Laser spectroscopy
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Analysis of white light by
dispersing it with a prism is an example of spectroscopy.
Laser spectroscopy
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A huge diffraction grating at the heart of the ultra-precise
ESPRESSO spectrograph.
Laser spectroscopy
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UVES is a high-resolution spectrograph on the
Very Large Telescope.
24.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
Munich
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From left to right: The
Munich Frauenkirche, the
Nymphenburg Palace, the
BMW Headquarters, the
New Town Hall, the
Munich Hofgarten and the
Allianz Arena.
Munich
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Munich city
coat of arms
Munich
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Banners with the colours of Munich (left) and Bavaria (right) with the
Frauenkirche in the background
Munich
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Bombing damage to the Altstadt. Note the roofless and pockmarked Altes Rathaus looking up the Tal. The roofless Heilig-Geist-Kirche is on the right of the photo. Its spire, without the copper top, is behind the church. The Talbruck gate tower is missing completely.
25.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
Bavaria
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Prehistoric Heunischenburg, in the vicinity of
Kronach
Bavaria
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Flag
Bavaria
–
Kingdom of Bavaria 900
Bavaria
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Bavarian stamps during the German empire period
26.
Doctoral degree
–
There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
Doctoral degree
–
Academic doctors gather before the commencement exercises at
Brigham Young University (April 2008).
Doctoral degree
–
The cover of the
thesis presented by
Claude Bernard to obtain his
Doctorate of Medicine (1843).
Doctoral degree
–
The ancient ceremony of bestowing
Complutense 's Doctoral
biretta.
Doctoral degree
–
In 1861,
Yale University awarded the first
Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the United States.
27.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
–
A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
–
Flag
California
–
Mount Shasta
California
–
Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
28.
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
National Academy of Sciences
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The Keck Center of the National Academies in
Washington, D.C., one of several facilities where the National Academy of Sciences maintains offices.
United States National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academies' Beckman Conference Center,
Irvine, California
29.
Albert A. Michelson Medal
–
The Franklin Institute is a science museum and the center of science education and research in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US. It is named after the American scientist and statesman, Benjamin Franklin, founded in 1824, the Franklin Institute is one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States. On February 5,1824, Samuel Vaughan Merrick and William H. Keating founded the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, in the late twentieth century the Institutes research roles gave way to educating the general public through its museum. The Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, founded in 1924 to conduct research in the sciences, is now part of the University of Delaware. The Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development operated from the Second World War into the 1980s, many scientists have demonstrated groundbreaking new technology at the Franklin Institute. From September 2 to October 11,1884, it hosted the International Electrical Exhibition of 1884, the worlds first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system was later given by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on August 25,1934. The first female member, Elizabeth Skinner, was elected to membership in 1833, the Franklin Institute was integrated in 1870, when Philadelphia teacher and activist Octavius Catto was admitted as a member. The Institutes original building at 15 South 7th Street, now the home of the Atwater Kent Museum, eventually proved too small for the Institutes research, educational programs, and library. The Institute moved into its current home on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, near the intersection with 20th Street, in 1934. Funds to build the new Institute and Franklin Memorial came from the Poor Richard Club, the City Board of Trust, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc. and the Franklin Institute. John T. Windrims original design was a square building surrounding the Benjamin Franklin Statue. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, only two of the four wings envisioned by Windrim were built, these face the Parkway and share design elements with other cultural and civic structures around Logan Circle. On March 31,1940, press agent William Castellini issued a release stating that the world would end the next day. The story was picked up by KYW, which reported, Your worst fears that the world will end are confirmed by astronomers of Franklin Institute, scientists predict that the world will end at 3 p. m. Eastern Standard Time tomorrow. This is no April Fool joke, confirmation can be obtained from Wagner Schlesinger, director of the Fels Planetarium of this city. This caused a panic in the city which only subsided when the Franklin Institute assured people it had no such prediction. James Ronaldson Samuel V. Merrick John C, cresson William Sellers John Vaughan Merrick Coleman Sellers Robert Empie Rogers William Penn Tatham Joseph Miller Wilson Dr. Walton Clark Dr. W. Laurence LePage Dr. Athelstan F. Spilhaus Dr. Bowen C. Dees Dr. Joel N. Bloom Dr. James L. Powell Dr. Dennis M. Wint Larry Dubinski In 2006, in 2011, the Franklin Institute received a $10 million gift from Athena and Nicholas Karabots towards the Inspire Science
Albert A. Michelson Medal
Albert A. Michelson Medal
–
The Franklin Institute
Albert A. Michelson Medal
–
The Franklin Institute's original building. Now the
Philadelphia History Museum.
Albert A. Michelson Medal
–
Front steps, as seen from the
Moore College of Art.
30.
Franklin Institute
–
The Franklin Institute is a science museum and the center of science education and research in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US. It is named after the American scientist and statesman, Benjamin Franklin, founded in 1824, the Franklin Institute is one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States. On February 5,1824, Samuel Vaughan Merrick and William H. Keating founded the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, in the late twentieth century the Institutes research roles gave way to educating the general public through its museum. The Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, founded in 1924 to conduct research in the sciences, is now part of the University of Delaware. The Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development operated from the Second World War into the 1980s, many scientists have demonstrated groundbreaking new technology at the Franklin Institute. From September 2 to October 11,1884, it hosted the International Electrical Exhibition of 1884, the worlds first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system was later given by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on August 25,1934. The first female member, Elizabeth Skinner, was elected to membership in 1833, the Franklin Institute was integrated in 1870, when Philadelphia teacher and activist Octavius Catto was admitted as a member. The Institutes original building at 15 South 7th Street, now the home of the Atwater Kent Museum, eventually proved too small for the Institutes research, educational programs, and library. The Institute moved into its current home on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, near the intersection with 20th Street, in 1934. Funds to build the new Institute and Franklin Memorial came from the Poor Richard Club, the City Board of Trust, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc. and the Franklin Institute. John T. Windrims original design was a square building surrounding the Benjamin Franklin Statue. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, only two of the four wings envisioned by Windrim were built, these face the Parkway and share design elements with other cultural and civic structures around Logan Circle. On March 31,1940, press agent William Castellini issued a release stating that the world would end the next day. The story was picked up by KYW, which reported, Your worst fears that the world will end are confirmed by astronomers of Franklin Institute, scientists predict that the world will end at 3 p. m. Eastern Standard Time tomorrow. This is no April Fool joke, confirmation can be obtained from Wagner Schlesinger, director of the Fels Planetarium of this city. This caused a panic in the city which only subsided when the Franklin Institute assured people it had no such prediction. James Ronaldson Samuel V. Merrick John C, cresson William Sellers John Vaughan Merrick Coleman Sellers Robert Empie Rogers William Penn Tatham Joseph Miller Wilson Dr. Walton Clark Dr. W. Laurence LePage Dr. Athelstan F. Spilhaus Dr. Bowen C. Dees Dr. Joel N. Bloom Dr. James L. Powell Dr. Dennis M. Wint Larry Dubinski In 2006, in 2011, the Franklin Institute received a $10 million gift from Athena and Nicholas Karabots towards the Inspire Science
Franklin Institute
Franklin Institute
–
The Franklin Institute's original building. Now the
Philadelphia History Museum.
Franklin Institute
–
Front steps, as seen from the
Moore College of Art.
31.
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
–
The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a German research funding organization and the largest such organization in Europe. The DFG supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of grant programmes, prizes, the self-governed organization is based in Bonn and financed by the German states and the federal government. As of 2017, the organization consists of approx,100 research universities and other research institutions. The DFG endows various research prizes, including the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize, in 1937, the Notgemeinschaft der Wissenschaft was renamed the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung, for short known as the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. By the end of World War II in Germany, in 1945, in 1949, after formation of the Federal Republic, it was re-founded as the NG and again from 1951 as the DFG. On 9 June 2012, DFG launced a centre in Hyderabad, the German-based research foundation and Indias Department of Science and Technology are together working on 40 bilateral research projects in science and engineering. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a member of Science Europe, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2008, ISBN 978-3-527-32064-6. Die DFG und die menschliche Vererbungswissenschaft, 1920–1970, franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-515-09099-5. Notker Hammerstein, Die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in der Weimarer Republik und im Dritten Reich, wissenschaftspolitik in Republik und Diktatur 1920 –1945. Thomas Nipperdey, Ludwig Schmugge,50 jahre forschungsförderung in deutschland, bad Godesberg, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft 1970 Official website DFG Science TV YouTube channel
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
–
Site of DFG in
Bonn, Germany
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
–
Logo
32.
Frankfurt am Main
–
The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
Frankfurt am Main
–
Collage of Frankfurt, clockwise from top of left to right: Facade of the
Römer and
Frankfurt Cathedral, statue of
Charlemagne in
Frankfurt Historical Museum, view of Frankfurt skyline and
Main River
Frankfurt am Main
–
The legend of the Frankenfurt (ford of the Franks)
Frankfurt am Main
–
Frankfurt in 1612
Frankfurt am Main
–
Frankfurt in 1872
33.
Optical Society of America
–
The organization has members in more than 100 countries. As of 2017, OSA had 20,000 individual members, OSA was founded in 1916, under the leadership of Perley G. Nutting, with 30 optical scientists and instrument makers based in Rochester, New York. OSA soon began publication of its first journal of research results and it was founded as the Optical Society of America and has evolved into a global enterprise with a worldwide constituency. In recognition of this, the society was renamed in 2008 as The Optical Society, the mission of the Optical Society is to promote the generation, dissemination, application, and archiving of knowledge in optics and photonics. The purposes of the Society are scientific, technical, and educational, scientific publishing is a core activity of the society, consisting of 17 flagship, partnered and co-published peer-reviewed journals and 1 magazine. With more than 280,000 articles, including papers from over 470 conferences, advances in Optics and Photonics, 2009–present, publishing long review articles and tutorials. Applied Optics, 1962–present, covering optical applications-centered research, biomedical Optics Express, 2010–present, an open access journal covering optics, photonics and imaging in the life sciences. Journal of the Optical Society of America B, 1984–present, covering research on optical physics Optica, 2014–present, Optical Materials Express, 2011–present, an open access journal covering advances in novel optical materials, their properties, modeling, synthesis and fabrication techniques. Optics Express, 1997–present, an open access journal covering all areas of optics, Optics Letters, 1977–present, providing rapid publication of short papers in all fields of optical science and technology. Published by the Society for Applied Spectroscopy, Journal of Optical Communications and Networking, 2009–present. Jointly published by OSA and IEEE, published from 2002-2009 as Journal of Optical Networking. Jointly published by OSA and IEEE, jointly published by OSA and IEEE. English translation of Opticheskii Zhurnal published by the S. I, Journal of Optical Society of Korea, 2007–present. Published by the Optical Society of Korea, jointly published by OSA and Chinese Laser Press. The Optical Society presents awards and honors, including OSA Fellow, Honorary Membership, land Medal Sang Soo Lee Award Emmett N. Leith Medal Ellis R. Lippincott Award Adolph Lomb Medal C. E. K. Large conferences often include education courses and workshops addressing the state of emerging technology. The OSA Executive Speaker Series presents luminaries from industry in a studio setting to discuss their career paths. Past executives include Coherent CEO John Ambroso and American Elements CEO Michael Silver, OSA local sections and student chapters are encouraged and supported by the umbrella organization but operate independently
Optical Society of America
–
The Optical Society
34.
Electromagnetic spectrum
–
The electromagnetic spectrum is the collective term for all known frequencies and their linked wavelengths of the known photons. The electromagnetic spectrum of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Visible light lies toward the end, with wavelengths from 400 to 700 nanometres. The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, until the middle of the 20th century it was believed by most physicists that this spectrum was infinite and continuous. Nearly all types of radiation can be used for spectroscopy, to study. Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic radiation, for most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, the study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle. The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800 and he was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red and he theorized that this temperature change was due to calorific rays that were a type of light ray that could not be seen. The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the end of the spectrum. These behaved similarly to visible light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation, during the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility of, and behavior of, analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave, maxwells equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the electromagnetic spectrum. Maxwells predicted waves included waves at very low compared to infrared. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer that they traveled at the speed of light, Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin, in a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves
Electromagnetic spectrum
–
The electromagnetic spectrum
35.
Balmer line
–
The Balmer series or Balmer lines in atomic physics, is the designation of one of a set of six named series describing the spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom. The Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885, there are several prominent ultraviolet Balmer lines with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm. The number of lines is an infinite continuum as it approaches a limit of 364.6 nm in the ultraviolet. The Balmer series is characterized by the electron transitioning from n ≥3 to n =2, where n refers to the radial quantum number or principal quantum number of the electron. The transitions are named sequentially by Greek letter, n =3 to n =2 is called H-α,4 to 2 is H-β,5 to 2 is H-γ, and 6 to 2 is H-δ. Although physicists were aware of atomic emissions before 1885, they lacked a tool to predict where the spectral lines should appear. The Balmer equation predicts the four visible lines of hydrogen with high accuracy. The familiar red H-alpha spectral line of gas, which is the transition from the shell n =3 to the Balmer series shell n =2, is one of the conspicuous colours of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of emission or ionisation nebula, like the Orion Nebula, in true-colour pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink colour from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits. Later, it was discovered that when the lines of the hydrogen spectrum are examined at very high resolution. This splitting is called fine structure and it was also found that excited electrons could jump to the Balmer series n =2 from orbitals where n was greater than 6, emitting shades of violet when doing so. Balmer noticed that a number had a relation to every line in the hydrogen spectrum that was in the visible light region. When any integer higher than 2 was squared and then divided by itself squared minus 4 and his number also proved to be the limit of the series. The Balmer equation could be used to find the wavelength of the lines and was originally presented as follows. B is a constant with the value of 3. 6450682×10−7 m or 364.50682 nm, M is equal to 2 n is an integer such that n > m. In 1888 the physicist Johannes Rydberg generalized the Balmer equation for all transitions of hydrogen, where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed/emitted light and RH is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The Rydberg constant is seen to be equal to 4/B in Balmers formula, other characteristics of a star that can be determined by close analysis of its spectrum include surface gravity and composition. Because the Balmer lines are seen in the spectra of various objects
Balmer line
–
The visible
hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the Balmer series. H-alpha is the red line at the right. The two leftmost lines are considered to be
ultraviolet as they have wavelengths less than 400 nm.
36.
Hydrogen
–
Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
Hydrogen
–
Purple glow in its plasma state
Hydrogen
–
The
Space Shuttle Main Engine burnt hydrogen with oxygen, producing a nearly invisible flame at full thrust.
Hydrogen
–
Spectral lines of hydrogen
Hydrogen
–
First tracks observed in
liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at the
Bevatron
37.
Lyman series
–
The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of spectral series, with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to the electron making transitions between two levels in the atom. The classification of the series by the Rydberg formula was important in the development of quantum mechanics, the spectral series are important in astronomical spectroscopy for detecting the presence of hydrogen and calculating red shifts. A hydrogen atom consists of an electron orbiting its nucleus, the electromagnetic force between the electron and the nuclear proton leads to a set of quantum states for the electron, each with its own energy. These states were visualized by the Bohr model of the atom as being distinct orbits around the nucleus. Each energy state, or orbit, is designated by an integer, Spectral emission occurs when an electron transitions, or jumps, from a higher energy state to a lower energy state. To distinguish the two states, the energy state is commonly designated as n′, and the higher energy state is designated as n. The energy of a photon corresponds to the energy difference between the two states. Because the energy of state is fixed, the energy difference between them is fixed, and the transition will always produce a photon with the same energy. The spectral lines are grouped into series according to n′, lines are named sequentially starting from the longest wavelength/lowest frequency of the series, using Greek letters within each series. For example, the 2 →1 line is called Lyman-alpha, there are emission lines from hydrogen that fall outside of these series, such as the 21 cm line. These emission lines correspond to much rarer atomic events such as hyperfine transitions, the fine structure also results in single spectral lines appearing as two or more closely grouped thinner lines, due to relativistic corrections. Meaningful values are returned only when n is greater than n′, note that this equation is valid for all hydrogen-like species, i. e. atoms having only a single electron, and the particular case of hydrogen spectral lines are given by Z=1. The series is named after its discoverer, Theodore Lyman, who discovered the lines from 1906–1914. All the wavelengths in the Lyman series are in the ultraviolet band, named after Johann Balmer, who discovered the Balmer formula, an empirical equation to predict the Balmer series, in 1885. Balmer lines are referred to as H-alpha, H-beta, H-gamma and so on. Four of the Balmer lines are in the visible part of the spectrum, with wavelengths longer than 400 nm. Parts of the Balmer series can be seen in the solar spectrum, H-alpha is an important line used in astronomy to detect the presence of hydrogen
Lyman series
–
energy level diagram of electrons in hydrogen atom
Lyman series
38.
Wavelength
–
In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave—the distance over which the waves shape repeats, and thus the inverse of the spatial frequency. Wavelength is commonly designated by the Greek letter lambda, the concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength is also applied to modulated waves. Wavelength depends on the medium that a wave travels through, examples of wave-like phenomena are sound waves, light, water waves and periodic electrical signals in a conductor. A sound wave is a variation in air pressure, while in light and other electromagnetic radiation the strength of the electric, water waves are variations in the height of a body of water. In a crystal lattice vibration, atomic positions vary, wavelength is a measure of the distance between repetitions of a shape feature such as peaks, valleys, or zero-crossings, not a measure of how far any given particle moves. For example, in waves over deep water a particle near the waters surface moves in a circle of the same diameter as the wave height. The range of wavelengths or frequencies for wave phenomena is called a spectrum, the name originated with the visible light spectrum but now can be applied to the entire electromagnetic spectrum as well as to a sound spectrum or vibration spectrum. In linear media, any pattern can be described in terms of the independent propagation of sinusoidal components. The wavelength λ of a sinusoidal waveform traveling at constant speed v is given by λ = v f, in a dispersive medium, the phase speed itself depends upon the frequency of the wave, making the relationship between wavelength and frequency nonlinear. In the case of electromagnetic radiation—such as light—in free space, the speed is the speed of light. Thus the wavelength of a 100 MHz electromagnetic wave is about, the wavelength of visible light ranges from deep red, roughly 700 nm, to violet, roughly 400 nm. For sound waves in air, the speed of sound is 343 m/s, the wavelengths of sound frequencies audible to the human ear are thus between approximately 17 m and 17 mm, respectively. Note that the wavelengths in audible sound are much longer than those in visible light, a standing wave is an undulatory motion that stays in one place. A sinusoidal standing wave includes stationary points of no motion, called nodes, the upper figure shows three standing waves in a box. The walls of the box are considered to require the wave to have nodes at the walls of the box determining which wavelengths are allowed, the stationary wave can be viewed as the sum of two traveling sinusoidal waves of oppositely directed velocities. Consequently, wavelength, period, and wave velocity are related just as for a traveling wave, for example, the speed of light can be determined from observation of standing waves in a metal box containing an ideal vacuum. In that case, the k, the magnitude of k, is still in the same relationship with wavelength as shown above
Wavelength
–
Wavelength is decreased in a medium with slower propagation.
Wavelength
–
Wavelength of a
sine wave, λ, can be measured between any two points with the same
phase, such as between crests, or troughs, or corresponding
zero crossings as shown.
Wavelength
–
Various local wavelengths on a crest-to-crest basis in an ocean wave approaching shore
Wavelength
–
A wave on a line of atoms can be interpreted according to a variety of wavelengths.
39.
Altria Group
–
Altria Group, Inc. is an American corporation and one of the worlds largest producers and marketers of tobacco, cigarettes and related products. It operates worldwide and is headquartered in Henrico County, Virginia, Altria is the parent company of Philip Morris USA, John Middleton, Inc. Philip Morris Capital Corporation, and Chateau Ste, Philip Morris International was spun off in 2008. Altria maintains a 28. 7% stake in the UK-based brewer SABMiller plc and it is a component of the S&P500 and was a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average until February 19,2008. On January 6,2009, Altria acquired UST Inc. a smokeless tobacco manufacturer, which also owned wine producer Ste Michelle Wine Estates, the onset of rebranding of Philip Morris Companies to Altria took place in 2003. Philip Morris executives thought a change would insulate the larger corporation. The rebranding took place amidst social, legal and financially troubled circumstances, in 2003 Altria was ranked Fortune number 11, and has steadily declined since. In 2010 Altria Group ranked at Fortune number 137, whereas its former asset, in 2006, a United States court found that Philip Morris publicly. Disputed scientific findings linking smoking and disease knowing their assertions were false, on March 30,2007, Altrias 88. 1% stake in Kraft Foods Inc was spun off, through a distribution of the remaining stake of shares to Altria shareholders. That same year, Altria began selling all its shares of Philip Morris International to Altria stockholders, again in 2007 the company began the acquisition of cigar manufacturer John Middleton Co. from Bradford Holdings, Inc. which was complete in 2008. In 2008, Altria officially moved its headquarters from New York City to Richmond, with a few exceptions, all manufacturing, commercial, and executive employees had long been based in and around Richmond. The layoffs beginning in 2007 affected thousands of Altria, Altria Client Services, Philip Morris USA, in 2009, Altria finalized its purchase of UST Inc. whose products included smokeless tobacco and wine. This ended an era of competition between the new Marlboro smokeless tobacco products such as snus, and those produced by UST Inc. Altria Group, Inc. owns 100 percent of Philip Morris USA, John Middleton, Inc. and it also owns 28. 7% SABMiller PLC, one of the worlds largest brewing companies, where it has 3 seats on the 11-person board of directors. Before the recent restructuring, the net revenue of Altria Group, Inc. came predominantly from its tobacco business, Altrias share of SABMillers revenue and profits is not included in the table below because its holding are too small to be consolidated in the group accounts. Coca-Cola, General Motors and Grand Metropolitan W. Leo Kiely III, retired CEO, MillerCoors LLC, Golden, CO, formerly with Frito-Lay Kathryn B. Sakkab, retired SVP, corporate research and development, Procter & Gamble, Cincinnati, OH Prior to being based in Virginia, Philip Morris had its headquarters in Midtown Manhattan, in 2003, Philip Morris announced that it would move its headquarters to Virginia. The company said that it planned to keep around 750 employees in its former headquarters, brendan McCormick, a spokesperson for Philip Morris, said that the company estimated that the move would save the company over $60 million each year
Altria Group
–
Altria Group, Inc.
40.
F. J. Duarte
–
Francisco Javier Frank Duarte is a Chilean-born laser physicist and author/editor of several well-known books on tunable lasers and quantum optics. He introduced the generalized multiple-prism dispersion theory, has discovered various multiple-prism grating oscillator laser configurations, duartes research has mainly focused on physical and laser optics and has taken place at a number of institutions in the academic, industrial, and defense sectors. Duarte and Piper introduced the multiple-prism near-grazing-incidence grating cavities originally disclosed as copper-laser-pumped narrow-linewidth tunable laser oscillators and he then introduced multiple-prism grating configurations to high-power CO2 laser oscillators. Duarte also developed the theories for narrow-linewidth dispersive laser oscillators, and multiple-prism laser pulse compression, the tunable narrow-linewidth laser oscillator configurations, introduced by Duarte and Piper, were adopted by various research groups working on uranium atomic vapor laser isotope separation. This work was supported by the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, during the course of this research, Duarte writes that he did approach the then federal minister for energy, Sir John Carrick, to advocate for the introduction of an AVLIS facility in Australia. In 2002, he participated in research that led to the separation of lithium using narrow-linewidth tunable diode lasers. From the mid-1980s to early 1990s Duarte and scientists from the US Army Missile Command developed ruggedized narrow-linewidth laser oscillators tunable directly in the visible spectrum and this constituted the first disclosure, in the open literature, of a tunable narrow-linewidth laser tested on a rugged terrain. This research led to experimentation with polymer gain media and in 1994 Duarte reported on the first narrow-linewidth tunable solid state dye laser oscillators and these dispersive oscillator architectures were then refined to yield single-longitudinal-mode emission limited only by Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 2005, Duarte and colleagues were the first to demonstrate directional coherent emission from an electrically excited organic semiconductor and these experiments utilized a tandem OLED within an interferometric configuration. In the late 1980s, Duarte invented the N-slit laser interferometer and applied Dirac’s notation to describe quantum mechanically its interferometric, Duarte also derived the cavity linewidth equation, for dispersive laser oscillators, using quantum mechanical principles. More recently, Duarte and colleagues have developed very large N-slit laser interferometers to generate and propagate interferometric characters for secure free-space optical communications, interferometric characters is a term coined in 2002 to link interefometric signals to alphanumerical characters. Duarte provides a description of quantum optics, almost entirely via Diracs notation, in this book he derives the probability amplitude for quantum entanglement, | ψ ⟩ =12 which he calls the Pryce-Ward probability amplitude, from an N-slit interferometric perspective. Duarte also emphasizes a pragmatic approach to quantum mechanics. At Macquarie University, Duarte studied quantum physics under John Clive Ward and his PhD research was on laser physics and his supervisor was James A. Piper. In the area of university politics, he established and led the successful Macquarie science reform movement, macquaries science reform, was widely supported by local scientists including physicists R. E. Aitchison, R. E. B. Makinson, A. W. Pryor, and J. C. Ward, in 1980, Duarte was elected as one of the Macquarie representatives to the Australian Union of Students from where he was expelled, and then reinstated, for running over the tables. Following completion of his PhD work, Duarte did post doctoral research, with B. J. Orr at the University of New South Wales, in 1983, Duarte traveled to the United States to assume a physics professorship at the University of Alabama. In 1985 he joined the Imaging Research Laboratories, at the Eastman Kodak Company, while at Kodak he was chairman of Lasers 87 and subsequent conferences in this series
F. J. Duarte
–
F. J. Duarte at a meeting of the
Optical Society in 2006.
F. J. Duarte
–
Duarte and colleagues demonstrated the superposition of diffraction patterns over N -slit interferograms. This interferogram corresponds to the interferometric character b (N = 3 slits) and exhibits a diffraction pattern superimposed on the right outer wing (see text).
F. J. Duarte
–
Duarte's
polarization rotator
41.
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, as dictated by Nobels will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by a committee that consists of five members elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The award is presented in Stockholm at a ceremony on December 10. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary prize that has varied throughout the years. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 1901 to Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, of Germany, who received 150,782 SEK, john Bardeen is the only laureate to win the prize twice—in 1956 and 1972. Maria Skłodowska-Curie also won two Nobel Prizes, for physics in 1903 and chemistry in 1911, william Lawrence Bragg was, until October 2014, the youngest ever Nobel laureate, he won the prize in 1915 at the age of 25. Two women have won the prize, Curie and Maria Goeppert-Mayer, as of 2016, the prize has been awarded to 203 individuals. There have been six years in which the Nobel Prize in Physics was not awarded
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
–
Front side (obverse) of the Nobel Prize Medal for Physics presented to
Edward Victor Appleton in 1947
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
–
Pieter Zeeman
42.
Hendrik Lorentz
–
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the equations which formed the basis of the special relativity theory of Albert Einstein. For this he received honours and distinctions during his life. Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz, a well-off nurseryman, in 1862, after his mothers death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters, from 1866 to 1869 he attended the Hogere Burger School in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary, not only did he excel in the sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French. In 1870 he passed the exams in languages which were then required for admission to University. After earning a degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics. On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was appointed to the established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially offered to Johan van der Waals. On 25 January 1878 Lorentz delivered his lecture on De moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde. In 1881 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, during the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the theory of electromagnetism to explain the relationship of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity and his most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentzs, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, the experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, in 1892 and 1895 Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena in reference frames that move relative to the luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new variable which he called local time
Hendrik Lorentz
–
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
Hendrik Lorentz
–
Portrait by
Jan Veth
Hendrik Lorentz
–
Albert Einstein and Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, photographed by
Ehrenfest in front of his home in Leiden in 1921.
43.
Pieter Zeeman
–
Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect. Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, to Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He became interested in physics at an early age, in 1883 the Aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature. The editor praised the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire, after finishing high school in 1883 he went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J. W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, while in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser. After Zeeman passed the exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes. In 1890, even finishing his thesis, he became Lorentzs assistant. This allowed him to participate in a programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his thesis on the Kerr effect. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrauschs institute in Strasbourg, in 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret, they had three daughters and one son and he was fired for his efforts, but he was later vindicated, he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of what has now become known as the Zeeman effect. As an extension of his thesis research, he began investigating the effect of magnetic fields on a light source and he discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, the importance of Zeemans discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentzs prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field and this conclusion was reached well before Thomsons discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom, because of his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam in 1897. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam, a new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940
Pieter Zeeman
–
Pieter Zeeman
Pieter Zeeman
–
Einstein visiting Pieter Zeeman in Amsterdam, with his friend
Ehrenfest (circa 1920).
44.
Henri Becquerel
–
Antoine Henri Becquerel was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, the SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel, is named after him. Roentgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895, the press reported this on January 5,1896, shortly before Becquerel did his famous experiment. Thus radioactivity was discovered the year but within a year of the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which produced four generations of scientists, Becquerels grandfather, father. He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux. In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the chair at the Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges, Becquerels earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis, the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. Becquerels discovery of radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity. Becquerel had long interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a bodys exposure to light of another color. His first experiments appeared to show this, one places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. But further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis, since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity, however, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. In 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, by 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce a radiation that is invisible to our eyes. Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerels father, in 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière, ses causes et ses effets
Henri Becquerel
–
Henri Becquerel, French
physicist
Henri Becquerel
–
Becquerel in the lab
Henri Becquerel
–
Image of Becquerel's photographic plate which has been fogged by exposure to radiation from a uranium salt. The shadow of a metal
Maltese Cross placed between the plate and the uranium salt is clearly visible.
45.
Pierre Curie
–
Pierre Curie was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Born in Paris on 15 May 1859, Pierre was the son of Eugène Curie and he was educated by his father, a doctor, and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. When he was 16, he earned his math degree, by the age of 18 he had completed the equivalent of a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead he worked as a laboratory instructor, in 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed, i. e. piezoelectricity. To provide accurate measurements needed for their work, Pierre created a highly sensitive instrument called the Curie Scale and he used weights, microscopic meter readers, and pneumatic dampeners to create the scale. Also, to aid their work, they invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer, shortly afterwards, in 1881, they demonstrated the reverse effect, that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this in the form of crystal oscillators, Pierre Curie was introduced to Maria Skłodowska by their friend, physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski. Pierre took Maria into his laboratory as his student and his admiration for her grew when he realized that she would not inhibit his research. He began to regard her as his muse and she refused his initial proposal, but finally agreed to marry him on 26 July 1895. It would be a thing, a thing I dare not hope, if we could spend our life near each other hypnotized by our dreams, your patriotic dream, our humanitarian dream. Pierre Curie to Marie Skłodowska Prior to his famous studies on magnetism. Variations on this equipment were used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, the material constant in Curies law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition and this is now known as the Curie temperature. The Curie temperature is used to plate tectonics, treat hypothermia, measure caffeine. Pierre formulated what is now known as the Curie Dissymmetry Principle, for example, a random mixture of sand in zero gravity has no dissymmetry. Introduce a gravitational field, and there is a dissymmetry because of the direction of the field, then the sand grains can self-sort with the density increasing with depth. But this new arrangement, with the arrangement of sand grains
Pierre Curie
–
Pierre Curie
Pierre Curie
–
Propriétés magnétiques des corps à diverses temperatures (Curie's dissertation, 1895)
Pierre Curie
–
The crypt at the Panthéon in Paris
46.
Marie Curie
–
Marie Skłodowska Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris and she was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaws clandestine Floating University and began her scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity, techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the worlds first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms and she founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals, while a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland and she named the first chemical element that she discovered—polonium, which she isolated in 1898—after her native country. Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, the elder siblings of Maria were Zofia, Józef, Bronisława and Helena. On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Polands independence. This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her sisters and her brother. Marias paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, after Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use. Marias mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls and she died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Marias oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder, Marias father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Marias mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the school of J. Sikorska, next she attended a gymnasium for girls. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw
Marie Curie
–
Marie Skłodowska Curie, c. 1920
Marie Curie
–
Birthplace on ulica Freta in Warsaw's "
New Town " – now home to the
Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum
Marie Curie
–
Władysław Skłodowski with daughters (from left) Maria,
Bronisława, Helena, 1890
Marie Curie
–
At a Warsaw laboratory, in 1890–91, Maria Skłodowska did her first scientific work
47.
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
–
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM PC PRS was a physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the now called Rayleigh scattering, which can be used to explain why the sky is blue. Rayleighs textbook, The Theory of Sound, is referred to by acoustic engineers today. John William Strutt, of Terling Place Essex, suffered from frailty and he attended Harrow School, before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868 and he was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour and he had three sons with her. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh and he was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge, from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal Nature, from 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. Around the year 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed the theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference and interaural level difference. The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound, in 1919, Rayleigh served as President of the Society for Psychical Research. The rayl unit of acoustic impedance is named after him, as an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Lord Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude. Lord Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, from time to time Lord Rayleigh participated in the House of Lords, however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science. He died on 30 June 1919, in Witham, Essex and he was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints Church in Terling in Essex, though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. The Secretary to the Press suggested with many apologies that the reader might suppose that I was the Lord, still, he kept his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. What is more, I think that Christ and indeed other spiritually gifted men see further and truer than I do, Lord Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave an address the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave, the asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
–
The Lord Rayleigh
48.
Philipp Lenard
–
Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard was a German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. Notably, he had labeled Albert Einsteins contributions to science as constituting Jewish physics, Philipp Lenard was born in Pressburg, on 7 June 1862. The Lenard family had come from Tyrol in the 17th century. His father, Philipp von Lenardis, was a wine-merchant in Pressburg, the young Lenard studied at the Pozsonyi Királyi Katolikus Főgymnasium and as he writes it in his autobiography, this made a big impression on him. In 1880 he studied physics and chemistry in Vienna and in Budapest, in 1882 Lenard left Budapest and returned to Pressburg, but in 1883 moved to Heidelberg after his tender for an assistants position in the University of Budapest was refused. In Heidelberg he studied under the illustrious Robert Bunsen, interrupted by one semester in Berlin with Hermann von Helmholtz, in 1887 he worked again in Budapest under Loránd Eötvös as a demonstrator. After posts at Aachen, Bonn, Breslau, Heidelberg, and Kiel, in 1905 Lenard became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1907 of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His early work included studies of phosphorescence and luminescence and the conductivity of flames, as a physicist, Lenards major contributions were in the study of cathode rays, which he began in 1888. Prior to his work, cathode rays were produced in primitive, partially evacuated tubes that had metallic electrodes in them. Cathode rays were difficult to study using this arrangement, because they were inside sealed glass tubes, difficult to access, having made a window for the rays, he could pass them out into the laboratory, or, alternatively, into another chamber that was completely evacuated. These windows have come to be known as Lenard windows and he was able to conveniently detect the rays and measure their intensity by means of paper sheets coated with phosphorescent materials. Lenard observed that the absorption of the rays was, to first order and this appeared to contradict the idea that they were some sort of electromagnetic radiation. Thomsons work, which arrived at the understanding that cathode rays were streams of negatively charged energetic particles. He called them quanta of electricity or for short quanta, after Helmholtz, thomson proposed the name corpuscles, but eventually electrons became the everyday term. He proposed that every atom consists of empty space and electrically neutral corpuscules called dynamids, each consisting of an electron and an equal positive charge. As a result of his Crookes tube investigations, he showed that the produced by irradiating metals in a vacuum with ultraviolet light were similar in many respects to cathode rays. His most important observations were that the energy of the rays was independent of the light intensity and these latter observations were explained by Albert Einstein as a quantum effect. This theory predicted that the plot of the cathode ray energy versus the frequency would be a line with a slope equal to Plancks constant
Philipp Lenard
–
Philipp Lenard in 1900
